Isma'il ruled between 1672-1727 and was one of the longest reigning Moroccan sultans. Upon his death his sons fought over the succession and the country went to war until 1757. Isma'il had fathered hundreds of sons, most of whom were eligible for the throne. While the sons were fighting for control of the throne, the country was rebelling against the taxes that Isma'il had imposed. The 'Abid had also grown incredibly powerful during Isma'il's reign and were able to install, influence and depose of sultans. Three of Isma'il's sons ruled on and off between 1727-1733 during which time installations and depositions of sultans were controlled by the 'Abid and in the meantime, north Morocco became almost completely independant of central governement, being ruled by the son of a local governor. . Abu'l Abbas Ahmad was deposed in 1728, only to be reinstated shortly after, but then deposed again on the day of his death on 5 March 1729 - he was smothered to death by his wives in a palace conspiracy. (El Hamel 2014: 213) His half-brother Moulay Abdelmalik was proclaimed sultan before Ahmad was deposed but was murdered three days before his brother died. (El Hamel 2014: 213) His brother and successor, Moulay Abdallah, was made Sultan and deposed six times between 1729 and 1757 (1729–1734, 1736, 1740–1741, 1741–1742, 1743–1747 and 1748–1757). Upon Abdallah's death his sole surviving heir, Mohammed ben Abdallah, became sultan in 1757 and full order was restored across the country. §REF§(El Hamel 2014: 213) El Hamel, Chouki. 2014. Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T9JFH8AS§REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,3,Maghreb,From Morocco to Libya,"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
585,mo_alawi_dyn_2,1728,1912,Alawi Dynasty,mo_alawi_dyn_2,LEGACY,,,"JR: this seems to be missing from SeshatPolsVars. The polity dates were off, 10,000 BCE to 2000 CE, so have changed to 1728-1912 to follow on from mo_alawi_dyn_1. 1912 is when Morocco became a French Protectorate. Do we have any other data on this polity? If so, date range should be harmonized with it.
MB: It is only present as other_polity in this crisis case here: https://seshat-db.com/core/polity/578#crisis_case_var",,2024-04-15T14:47:23.856471Z,"{'id': 19, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,3,Maghreb,From Morocco to Libya,"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
659,ni_allada_k,1100,1724,Allada,ni_allada_k,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
225,MaAlmoh,1123,1248,Almohad Empire,ma_almohad_emp,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,3,Maghreb,From Morocco to Libya,"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
223,MaAlmor,1035,1150,Almoravids,ma_almoravid_dyn,LEGACY,,,,,2023-11-07T13:28:52.474216Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,3,Maghreb,From Morocco to Libya,"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
214,SdAlodia,600,1504,Alodia Kingdom,sd_alodia,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
479,IqBabAm,-2000,-1600,Amorite Babylonia,iq_babylonia_1,LEGACY,"The Amorites were a tribal group from the Levant area of Semitic descent. They migrated towards Mesopotamia and Amorite names can be seen in Mesopotamian literature throughout the 3rd millennium BCE. By the 2nd millennium BCE a number of Amorites had managed to gain control of Mesopotamian city-states in the power vacuum created by the collapse of the Ur III period. §REF§ Goddeeris, A. 2002. Economy and Society in Northern Babylonia in the Early Old Babylonian Period (ca.2000-1800 BC). Leuven: Peeters Publishers. p.8 §REF§ Very early descriptions suggest they were nomadic, eating raw meat and ""careless even of burying their dead"", but at least part of the population settled into a sedentary lifestyle and took up the western Semetic language of Akkadian. The city and kingdom of Mari was an Amorite establishment. §REF§ Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.55 §REF§
One problem encountered when considering the Amorites as a polity is that they are frequently identified by their Amorite name, but it cannot be certain whether this corresponds to an individual who is actually an Amorite or if Amorite names are in general use. For example, the Isin-Larsa period is considered a separate polity from the Old Babylonian, Amorite Dynasty, yet the kings of both cities used Amorite names and titles. §REF§ Goddeeris, A. 2002. Economy and Society in Northern Babylonia in the Early Old Babylonian Period (ca.2000-1800 BC). Leuven: Peeters Publishers. p.8-9 §REF§
The Babylonian king Sumu-la-el started to assert control over other towns in northern Babylonia and in the first few centuries of the 2nd Millennium Babylon became one of several city-states with a limited and fluctuating control over surrounding areas. This was the situation when Hammurabi came to the throne in 1792. By the end of his reign, he had conquered the whole of Babylon and briefly Assyria. He titled himself ""King of the Four Quarters of the World"" and ""King of Sumer and Akkad"" §REF§ Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.65-66 §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",8.0,Southern Mesopotamia,Levant-Mesopotamia,44.420000000000,32.470000000000,Babylon (Hillah),IQ,Iraq,Southwest Asia,62,Mesopotamia,"Iraq, Kuwait","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
465,UzKhw01,-1000,-521,Ancient Khwarazm,uz_khwarasm_1,LEGACY,"""The most interesting Early Iron Age culture of ancient Khorezm was that of Amirabad in the tenth to eighth centuries b.c.2 Dozens more settlements were found in the lower reaches of the former channels of Akcha Darya, the ancient delta of the Amu Darya. The most interesting was Yakka-Parsan II, alongside which were found ancient fields, and the remnants of an Amirabad-period irrigation system (Fig. 1). The old channel passed near by, its banks being reinforced with dykes.Two rows of semi-dugout houses - some twenty in all - were found in the Yakka-Parsan II settlement. Large numbers of storage pits were found around the houses, and the entire site is rich in animal bones, pottery, grain-querns and so on. The houses stood between two canals that merged to the south, all the doors giving on to the canals. Rectangular in ground-plan, the houses were 90 to 110 m2 in area and had two or three rooms. The interiors contained many storage pits and post-holes, each with a long fireplace in the centre. The major finds were pottery, hand-made with a darkish brown, red or greyish slip, the shoulders of the bowls being decorated with small crosses, lattice-work or 'fir-trees'. Accord ing to S. P. Tolstov, the Amirabad culture was genetically akin to the Kaundy complex and dates from the ninth to eighth centuries b.c. It should be observed that the pottery shows more obvious traces of Karasuk influence, the commonest shapes being similar to the ceramics ofthe latter; this entitles us to date its origins to a somewhat earlier period - the tenth century b.c. Other finds include bronze artefacts - a needle with an eye, a sickle with a shaped handle, a bronze arrow¬ head with a shaft - and stone moulds for casting shaft-hole arrowheads and sickles. A bronze sickle, large numbers of grain-querns and the advanced irrigation network and fields together show that agriculture was widely practised, while the bone finds further indicate that the population was engaged in stock- breeding.3"" §REF§ (Askarov 1992, 441-443) §REF§
""The Achaemenids found in Sogdiana an urban civilization. Along two divergent canals fed by the Zarafshan, the proto-Dargom and the Bulungur, two gigantic sites, Afrasiab-Samarkand and Kök Tepe - each covering more than two hundred hectares - were occupied from the 8th or 7th century before our era.2 The valley of the Zarafshan had already known an earlier urban phase at the site of Sarazm, a small distance upstream from Samarkand, but this phase had ended a millenium before.3 Kök Tepe declined rapidly, but Samarkand became for two millenia the greatest city of Sogdiana, and, with Merv and Bactra, one of the very great cities of western Central Asia. The Achaemenids brought writing to Sogdiana, and the written language long remained the Aramaic of the Achaemenid Empire."" §REF§ (De la Vaissière 2005, 17) §REF§
""The 6th and 5th cenuries BC are represented by only a few monuments, and the nature of Persian political and economic control over Chorasmia is,, therefore, still in question. Similarly unresolved is the question of the introduction of large-scale irrigation to the area - whether this was an indigenous development, gradually evolving as the cattle-breeding nomadic tribes became sedentised, or whether it was a new technology introduced by an hydraulic imperial state, the Achaemenid Empire under Darius I, in about 525 BC. Up until last year only three large-scale settlements of this period were properly documented - i.e. Kiuzeli-g'ir, Kakal'i-g'ir, and Chirik-rabat."" §REF§ (Helms 1998, 87-88) §REF§
Reference to check: A. I. Isakov, “Sarazm: An Agricultural Center of Ancient Sogdiana,” Bulletin of the Asia Institute 8, 1996, pp. 1-13.
'The process of urbanization began earlier and on a greater scale in Chorasmia and on the left bank of the middle Syr Darya, localities which were more advanced in economic and cultural terms. They were geographically closer to the ancient urban centres of south-western and southern Central Asia and were open to their influence through Margiana and Sogdiana. They were later incorporated as provinces of the Achaemenid Empire and came into its socio-economic orbit for a time. In the southern Aral region, the sedentary farmers and pastoralists of the Chorasmian oasis represent the Late Bronze Age Amirabad cultural pattern seen in the Dzhanbas and Yakka-Parsan settlements. At that time they had master craftsmen (the 'house of the caster') with settled houses and social gradations. [...] The oldest Chorasmian city, and the key monument of this period, was Kyuzeli-gir, dating from the fifth and fourth centuries B.C. It lay on the left bank of the Amu Darya in the Sarîkamîsh region of the delta. Standing on a natural elevation, roughly triangular in ground-plan, it occupied an area of 25 ha. The city was surrounded by a powerful defensive wall with oval bastions. Its residential district was densely packed with buildings of rectangular unbaked brick and pakhsa. It had an advanced pottery industry, based on the wheel, and art objects of a type common in Saka burial complexes of the period have been found. Another early city of the same date, Kalalî-gîr, was surrounded by triple walls with bastions and had four gates with entrance barbicans and a hill-top palace, but it was never completed.' §REF§ (Negmatov 1994, 446) §REF§
Throughout the periods Helms and Yagodin focus on in their 1997 article (from the end of the Bronze Age to the incursions of the Hephthalites, Turks and early 'Afrighids' in the mid-1st millennium CE), 'the region saw the infiltration of many nomadic groups (initially cattle-breeders, later also sheep-goat and camel) some of which formed settled communities, even states and empires. These are the Scythians (a generic term), Massagetae, Sacae, Sav[u]romats, Yueh-chih (later ""Kushans""), Sarmatians, and others of the Greek, Persian, and Chinese sources. Identifying evidence of their presence has never been easy: the bulk of data has had to come from burials (kurgans) whose contents have been loosely arranged in a relative chronology (see Itina 1979). Recent work by Yagodin has provided more precise information regarding tribal groupings in and about ancient Chorasmia, including the Ustiurt Plateau, as early as the ""Archaic"" period (Yagodin 1990) and, more generally, the major trade routes (i.e., the Silk Road) through northern Central Asia (Yagodin 1994)'. §REF§ (Helms and Yagodin 1997, 44) Svend Helms and Vadim N. Yagodin. 1997. 'Excavations at Kazakl'i-Yatkan in the Tash-Ki'rman Oasis of Ancient Chorasmia: A Preliminary Report'. Iran 35: 45-47. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",23.0,Sogdiana,Turkestan,66.938170000000,39.631284000000,Samarkand,UZ,Uzbekistan,Central Eurasia,13,Turkestan,"Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
463,KzAndro,-1800,-1200,Andronovo,kz_andronovo,LEGACY,"The Andronovo culture, named for the village where the first archaeological remains identified as belonging to the culture were discovered, is a blanket term for the groups of people who inhabited the Kazakh steppe between 1800 and 1200 BCE. §REF§ (Cunliffe 2015, 142) Cunliffe, Barry. 2015. By Steppe, Desert, and Ocean: The Birth of Eurasia. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/AF5PABXA. §REF§ Although these people were dispersed throughout the steppe, there is evidence that communities were in communication with each other. Similar subsistence strategies - sheep and cattle herding combined with small-scale arable farming - were employed and evidence of a shared pottery style has been found. There was also a tradition of metallurgy that included the mining and use of copper, tin and gold and the manufacture of bronze, which was exchanged within interregional trade networks. §REF§ (Masson 1992, 349-350) Masson, V. M. 1992. “The Decline of the Bronze Age Civilization and Movements of the Tribes.” In History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol I: The Dawn of Civilization: Earliest Times to 700 B.C., edited by A. H. Dani and V. M. Masson, 337-56. Paris: UNESCO. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IKGC9NGJ. §REF§ §REF§ (Cunliffe 2015, 142) Cunliffe, Barry. 2015. By Steppe, Desert, and Ocean: The Birth of Eurasia. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/AF5PABXA. §REF§
Population and political organization
Little is known about the social or political organization of Andronovo communities. Settlements were small in scale, comprising around 10 to 40 houses with between 50 and 250 inhabitants per settlement. §REF§ (Cunliffe 2015, 142) Cunliffe, Barry. 2015. By Steppe, Desert, and Ocean: The Birth of Eurasia. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/AF5PABXA. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",23.0,Sogdiana,Turkestan,66.938170000000,39.631284000000,Samarkand,UZ,Uzbekistan,Central Eurasia,13,Turkestan,"Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
574,gb_anglo_saxon,410,926,Anglo-Saxon England I,gb_anglo_saxon_1,LEGACY,"
Anglo-Saxon England existed between the fall of Roman Britain in 410 CE and the quickly subsequent mass migration into the region of the Germanic speaking Angle, Saxon, and Jute tribes from western Europe, until the Norman invasion and conquest of 1066.
“The most developed vision of a ‘big’ sub-Roman Britain, with control over its own political and military destiny for well over a century, is that of Kenneth Dark, who has argued that Britain should not be divided during the fifth, and even the bulk of the sixth, century into ‘British’ and ‘Anglo-Saxon’ cultural and/or political provinces, but should be thought of as a generally ‘British’ whole. His thesis, in brief, is to postulate not just survival but continuing cultural, political and military power for the sub-Roman elite, both in the far west (where this view is comparatively uncontroversial) but also in the east, where it has to be imagined alongside incoming settlements. He postulates the sub-Roman community to have been the dominant force in insular affairs right up to c.570. Then, over a sixty year period, but for no very obvious reason, Anglo-Saxon kingship begins to emerge, the English conversion began and, in this scenario, Anglo- Saxon leaders overthrew British power and set about establishing their own kingdoms.”§REF§(Higham 2004: 4) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K§REF§
Anglo-Saxon ‘England’ after the migration of the Germanic tribes from the European mainland was in fact formed of several kingdoms known as the Heptarchy: Wessex, Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia and the minor kingdoms of Essex, Sussex, and Kent all ruled by different monarchs or dynasties (in the case of the minor kingdoms), and who all at one time or another were allies or enemies, looking to claim more power from the others.
The three major kingdoms all looked at one point that they would become the dominant power and unite the kingdoms under one rule; Northumbria in the seventh century and Mercia in the eighth century. But it was the House of Wessex that rose to the greatest power under King Egbert at the beginning of the ninth century. During his reign 802-839 CE Wessex expanded rapidly across the south. It benefitted from its strategic position and its growing wealth enabled the purchase of the best warriors and military technology. It also led the wars against the incoming Viking invasions, whose first raid on the island had taken place in 793 CE. §REF§(Roberts et al 2014: 27) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3§REF§
Vikings, mainly from Denmark and Norway, raided and conquered territories in East Anglia, Essex and parts of Mercia and Northumbria between the 9th and 11th centuries. From 865 CE the Viking-settled region became known as Danelaw and was granted Danish self-rule in 884 CE under King Guthrum of Norway. Ongoing battles and attempts to expand territory on both sides resulted in the beginning of the breakup of Danelaw in 902 CE when the region of Essex submitted to the rule of King Æthelwald.§REF§(Roberts et al 2014: 27-28) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3§REF§
The region now known as England was not completely united as a country, the Kingdom of England, until 927 under King Æthelstan, after a drawn-out process of conflict and consolidation. Moreover, Northumbria, the northern most region of England and therefore the most susceptible to invasion by Scandinavian forces, continued to fall in and out of English and Danish rule until 954 when King Eadred brought it fully under English control, where it remained. At the same time, Lothian, the small area which bordered northern Northumbria, was ceded to Scotland as part of the deal.§REF§(Roberts et al 2014: 29-30) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3§REF§",,,,2024-11-18T10:50:32.224192Z,"{'id': 122, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
606,gb_england_k,927,1065,Anglo-Saxon England II,gb_anglo_saxon_2,LEGACY,"
The Kingdom of England was formed in 927 CE when the independent kingdoms of Wessex, Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Danelaw (the Danish occupied kingdom) and the minor kingdoms of Essex, Sussex, and Kent were finally unified as one country after under King Æthelstan, after a drawn-out process of conflict and consolidation in the preceding few centuries.
Northumbria, the northern most region of England and therefore the most susceptible to invasion by Scandinavian forces, continued to fall in and out of English and Danish rule until 954 CE when King Eadred brought it fully under English control, where it remained. At the same time, Lothian, the small area which bordered northern Northumbria, was ceded to Scotland as part of the deal.
In 1016 Cnut (Canute), the son of Swein of Denmark invaded and defeated the weak King Ethelred of England. He was invited to take up the throne of England and established a strong and united England. Despite being a Dane, he was Christian, and the English people and nobles wanted a strong ruler who would end the incessant raids from the north. He married Ethelred’s widow, Queen Emma of Normandy. Cnut was allied with the English and the Danes and brought peace to the kingdom. Cnut also became King of Denmark in 1019 and King of Norway in 1028, which along with England, formed the Great North Sea Empire under his rule. Though both of his sons succeeded his rule - Harald 1035-1040, and Harthacnut 1040-1042 - the death of the second resulted in Edward, the son of King Ethelred and Queen Emma, to be recalled from Normandy (France) to take the throne.
Anglo-Saxon monarchs then ruled a united Kingdom of England in peace until January 1066 with the death of King Edward, who had no children. A succession crisis occurred when Harold, Edward’s brother-in-law, and William, duke of Normandy, his cousin, both claimed that Edward had promised them the throne. Though Harold was crowned immediately after Edward’s death, William later invaded the south coast and defeated King Harold’s forces at the Battle of Hastings in October 1066. His succession to the English throne as William the Conqueror marked the beginning of Norman England – bringing with it new language, customs, and culture - and the end of the Anglo-Saxon period.",,,2023-07-10T15:44:50.145449Z,2024-05-16T13:37:00.545128Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
563,us_antebellum,1776,1865,Antebellum US,us_antebellum,LEGACY,"
This polity period spans from American Independence in 1776 following the American Revolution, until 1865 with the end of the American Civil War.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,22,East Coast,East Coast of US,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
908,gr_antigonid_emp,-311,-168,Antigonid Dynasty,gr_antigonid_emp,OTHER_TAG,,,,2024-10-16T10:07:56.530285Z,2024-10-16T10:07:56.530302Z,,,,,,,,,,,19,Southeastern Europe,"Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
633,sl_anuradhapura_1,-300,70,Anurādhapura I,sl_anuradhapura_1,POL_SA_SI,"“The city of Anuradhapura is located in the North-Central Province of Sri Lanka, a semi-arid zone situated in the island’s ‘Dry Zone’ characterized by low level plains, punctuated with low granitic outcrops. Human occupation in the region is almost entirely dependent upon large-scale irrigation works, first constructed in the third and fourth centuries BCE, and heavily restored in the early nineteenth century by colonial pioneers.” §REF§ (Coningham et al. 2016, 35) Coningham, Robin et al. 2016. “Reconstructing Networks of Trade and Exchange in the Indian Ocean during the Early Historic Period: Case Studies from Anuradhapura (Sri Lanka)” in Imperial Rome, Indian Ocean Regions and Muziris: New Perspectives on Maritime Trade. Edited by K.S. Mathew. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/REEBBEZZ/collection §REF§ “Anuradhapura (377 BCE–1017 CE) was the first Buddhist city in Sri Lanka, and the great architectural edifices in this city are invaluable sources to understand Buddhist sacred architecture and landscape. The city was nominated under the world heritage list in 1982. However, apart from the Buddhist architectural edifices, agriculture and irrigation landscape are significant, encircling the city and still functioning, since they emphasize the traditional land occupation. It is understood that agriculture and irrigation landscape play a vital role through- out the history in these sacred landscapes and settlements in Sri Lanka.” §REF§ (De Silva 2019, 163). De Silva, Wasana. 2019. ‘Urban agriculture and Buddhist concepts for wellbeing: Anuradhapura Sacred City, Sri Lanka’. International Journal of Design & Nature and Ecodynamics. Vol 14: 3. Pp 163-177. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/JIJEFKG3/collection §REF§",,,,2025-04-15T09:38:52.945098Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,63,Sri Lanka,Sri Lanka,"{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
635,sl_anuradhapura_2,70,428,Anurādhapura II,sl_anuradhapura_2,POL_SA_SI,"“The dynasty of Devānampiya Tissa became extinct in the first century AD. We do not know how this happened. One significant feature of the subsequent political history of Sri Lanka was that the right to the throne appeared to lie with one of two powerful clans, the Lambakannas and the Moriyas. By the beginning of the first century AD the Lambakannas were established in power, enjoying by far the most prestige of all the clans. Their claims to this position of primacy did not go unchallenged. The opposition came mainly from the Moriyas, who became in time their chief rivals for power. Their periodic struggles for the throne are a conspicuous feature of the history of this period. The Lambakannas were more successful than their rivals, as the following brief summary of the dynastic history of the period would show. The first Lambakanna dynasty (established by Vasabha AD 67-111) retained hold on the throne at Anurādhapura till the death of Mahānāma in AD 428, when the dynasty itself became extinct.” §REF§ (De Silva 1981, 18) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4R6DQVHZ/collection §REF§ “The Lambakanna dynasty ruled between the first and fourth centuries CE in comparative peace. For the next several centuries there were more invasions from southern India and Anuradhapura was ruled by both Tamils and Sinhalese.” (Bouma et al. 2010, 109) Bouma, Gary M., Rod Ling and Douglas Pratt. 2010. Religious Diversity in Southeast Asia and the Pacific: National Case Studies. London and New York: Springer. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/JR2SJMP2/collection §REF§",,,,2025-04-15T09:39:37.015180Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,63,Sri Lanka,Sri Lanka,"{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
631,sl_anuradhapura_3,428,614,Anurādhapura III,sl_anuradhapura_3,POL_SA_SI,"“In the fifth century, the Moriyas were able to ascend the throne after more than five centuries of Lambakanna dominance. Two hundred years of open conflict between the two clans followed, until the last Moriya king was overthrown in 614 and the dominance of the Lambakannas re-established. Later in that century, the reign of the Lambakannas stabilised thanks to a new law of succession to the throne which helped to monopolise the power of the Lambakannas.” §REF§ (Wenzlhuemer, R. 2008, 21) Wenzlhuemer, Roland. 2008. From Coffee to Tea Cultivation in Ceylon, 1880–1900An Economic and Social History. Leiden and Boston: Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/EMUGE5WD/collection §REF§",,,,2025-04-15T09:39:54.138796Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,63,Sri Lanka,Sri Lanka,"{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
629,sl_anuradhapura_4,614,1017,Anurādhapura IV,sl_anuradhapura_4,POL_SA_SI,"“Indeed Dhātusena (455–73) had hardly consolidated his position when he was murdered by his son Kassapa who usurped the throne at Anurādhapura at the expense of Moggallāna I, Kassapa’s brother, whom Dhātusena had been grooming as his legitimate successor. There was, for a brief period under Upatissa II (517–18) and his successors, a return of the Lambakaṇṇas to power, but Mahānāga (569–71) re-established Moriya control. His immediate successors Aggabodhi I (571–604) and Aggdobhi II (604–14) managed to maintain the Moriya grip on the Anurādhapura throne but not to consolidate their position, for the Lambakaṇṇas were in fact always a formidable threat, and under Moggallāna III (614–17) they overthrew Saṅghatissa II (614), who proved to be the last of the Moriya kings. It took nearly six decades of devastating civil war for the Lambakaṇṇas to re-establish their supremacy, but having done so they maintained their pre-eminence once again over a great length of time. Indeed the second Lambakaṇṇa dynasty established by Mānavamma gave the island two centuries of comparatively stable government. In the last phase of the dynasty’s spell of power the severest tests that confronted it came from South India invaders and not local rivals.” §REF§ (De Silva 1981, 18-19) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4R6DQVHZ/collection §REF§",,,,2025-04-15T09:40:11.090015Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,63,Sri Lanka,Sri Lanka,"{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
320,EsAragn,1035,1163,Aragon Kingdom,es_aragon_k,LEGACY,,,"Changing the date range to 1035-1163 (formerly 1035-1479) -- subsequent period to be covered by a new polity, Crown of Aragon",,2024-04-15T14:32:52.138025Z,"{'id': 11, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
6,MxArch*,-6000,-2001,Archaic Basin of Mexico,mx_basin_of_mexico_1,LEGACY,"The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Archaic or Pre-Ceramic period (c. 6000-2001 BCE). This period may be described as a long, gradual transition from a lifestyle centred on big-game hunting prevalent in the preceding ""Paleo-Indian"" period to a sedentary, agricultural lifestyle in the succeeding ""Formative"" period. Indeed, Archaic sites are defined by their lack of both large animal remains and ceramics. §REF§ (Kennett 2012: 141) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RTF3FP57. §REF§ No population estimates could be found in the consulted literature. Similarly, no information could be found on the political organisation of settlements at the time.
",,,,2024-08-13T11:26:42.083068Z,"{'id': 80, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",27.0,Basin of Mexico,Mexico,-99.130000000000,19.430000000000,Ciudad de Mexico,MX,Mexico,North America,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
67,GrCrArc,-710,-500,Archaic Crete,gr_crete_archaic,LEGACY,"Crete is a large island in the Eastern Mediterranean. The Archaic Crete (7th-6th centuries) is divided in the following periods: Orientalizing or Daedalic or Early Archaic (710-600 BCE) and Archaic Archaic (600-500).
There was no capital city as Crete was divided into territorial entities, each one centered upon a city that served as the main political and economic centre of its well-defined region. Political, military and religious control was exercised by the Kosmoi, a board of 3 to 10 annually elected nobles. §REF§ Lembesi, A. 1987. ""Η Κρητών Πολιτεία,"" in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός, Heraklion, 166-72. §REF§ §REF§ Lembesi, A. 1987. ""Η Κρητών Πολιτεία,"" in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός, Heraklion, 166-72. §REF§
No information could be found in the sources consulted regarding the polity's overall population, however the largest settlement, Knossos, is estimated to have housed about 4,000 people.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",4.0,Crete,Southeastern Europe,25.144200000000,35.338700000000,Heraklion,GR,Greece,Europe,19,Southeastern Europe,"Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
726,ar_argentina_rep_1,1816,1983,Argentine Republic I,ar_argentina_rep_1,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,33,Southern South America,"Parguay, Uruguay, Argentina","{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}"
351,AmArtax,-188,6,Armenian Kingdom,am_artaxiad_dyn,LEGACY,"
The founder of the dynasty was Artaxias I who ascended as King of Greater Armenia in 188 BCE.§REF§Hovannisian 2004: 47. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B4DBDFU§REF§
Although Armenia had a strong Iranian culture, particularly with religion, it was greatly influenced by Hellenistic Greek culture and religion, although it was one of the regions that had not been conquered by them. Some of the contemporary Armenian coins describe the kings as ‘Philhellenes’; lovers of Greek culture.§REF§“Artaxias I,”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7V7RMBLQ§REF§§REF§Hovannisian 2004: 50. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B4DBDFU§REF§
Artaxiad Armenia was at its peak power during the reign of Tigranes the Great (95-55 BCE). Tigranes was able to unifiy the country’s various autonomous regions, which were governed by the nakharars, and brought central control to the kingdom.§REF§“Artaxiad Dynasty,” https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IVLMP6Q8§REF§ His empire, though only this large for a short time, stretched “from the Caucasus mountains and Media in the northeast to Lebanon in the southwest.”§REF§Hovannisian 2004: 64. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B4DBDFU§REF§
During the reign of Tigranes the Great the ongoing wars between the Roman and Parthian Empires led to the demise of the Artaxiad dynasty. Tigranes had allied himself (officially through marriages) with Mithridates the Great, King of Pontus in Anatolia and as the Romans won victories and conquered the surrounding regions, they eventually forced Tigranes to surrender. The Romans, under Pompey, allowed Tigranes to remain on the throne, but reduced the Armenian territory and forced him to become a Roman ally, hence leaving the Armenian kingdom as a buffer between the Roman and the Parthian Empires.
Tigranes son and successor, Artavasdes II, remained an ally to the Romans. However, upon Mark Antony’s rule of Rome’s eastern territories, he invaded Armenia, captured Artavasdes II and had him executed, while then placing his own son, Alexander Helios, on the Armenian throne. Artavasdes' son Artaxias II, again allied with the Parthians and took back the throne. After a rule of ten years, he was murdered and the Armenian kingdom broke out in civil war led by two factions, pro-Roman and pro-Parthian. Though the Artaxians remained in power, the region became a Roman protectorate under emperor Augustus and the dynasty eventually died out completely with the final Roman overthrow in 12 CE.§REF§Hovannisian 2004: 58-62. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B4DBDFU§REF§
Overall, there is a general lack of information about the social and cultural nature of the Armenian Empire, and a lot of the information is taken from Roman sources and Armenia numismatic evidence.§REF§ Bournoutian 2003: 36. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/645FKRNL§REF§",,,,2023-11-10T15:00:02.602254Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
665,ni_aro,1690,1902,Aro,ni_aro,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
114,GhAshnL,1701,1895,Ashanti Empire,gh_ashanti_emp,LEGACY,"The gold-producing region between the Comoé and Volta rivers has been inhabited by Akan-speaking people since the 13th century CE. This region has seen the emergence of various autonomous states, including Bono, Djomo, Akwamu, Fante, and Asante. Later in its history, the founders of the Ga and Ewe states arrived from what is now Nigeria. §REF§ (Fage et al. 2017) Fage, John D., Ernest Amano Boateng, Donna J. Maier, and Oliver Davies. 2017. ""Ghana."" Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Ghana. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XFKDKSW3. §REF§ In 1471, Portuguese sailors reached this stretch of coast and quickly established trade with the coastal Akan states, exchanging European goods for gold. §REF§ (Fage et al. 2017) Fage, John D., Ernest Amano Boateng, Donna J. Maier, and Oliver Davies. 2017. ""Ghana."" Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Ghana. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XFKDKSW3. §REF§ Trade routes soon connected the coast to the Niger bend region, along which descendants of the former Bonda and Kumbu kingdoms founded the Akyerekyere and Akumu-Akoto kingdoms respectively. The Portuguese referred to this latter kingdom as the 'Acanes', which is the source of the name Akan. §REF§ (Gilbert, Lagacé and Skoggard 2000) Gilbert, Michelle, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard. 2000. ""Culture Summary: Akan."" eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN. §REF§
In 1701, the Asante rebelled against the dominant Denkyira state and formed a confederacy of Akan states who accepted Asante rule. This confederacy began to conquer the surrounding polities, and by 1764 the Greater Asante controlled an area nearly the size of present-day Ghana. §REF§ (Gilbert, Lagacé and Skoggard 2000) Gilbert, Michelle, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard. 2000. ""Culture Summary: Akan."" eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN. §REF§
Europeans continued to be drawn to the Ghanaian coast in search of gold and, by the 19th century, the British were the strongest European power in the region. In 1827, British-led troops defeated an Asante army at Katammanso. §REF§ (Gilbert, Lagacé and Skoggard 2000) Gilbert, Michelle, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard. 2000. ""Culture Summary: Akan."" eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN. §REF§ In 1831, the British and Asante signed a peace treaty that allowed trade in all ports, and by 1844 the British gained control over criminal matters in the areas around trade forts. By 1872, the British had complete control of the coast, and when they did not recognize Asante sovereignty, the Asante attacked. The British were victorious, and after another war in 1895, the Asante king and chiefs were exiled. The entire region was declared a British territory in 1901. §REF§ (Gilbert, Lagacé and Skoggard 2000) Gilbert, Michelle, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard. 2000. ""Culture Summary: Akan."" eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN. §REF§
Population and political organization
During the pre-Asante period, each Akan state consisted of a single kingdom ruled by an omanhene, which literally translates to 'state-chief'. §REF§ (Gilbert, Lagacé and Skoggard 2000) Gilbert, Michelle, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard. 2000. ""Culture Summary: Akan."" eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN. §REF§ This king came from a royal clan, and was elected by various officials, most notably the ohemmaa ('queen-mother'), who was a senior woman of the clan. The king was a sacred person who could not be observed eating or drinking; nor could he be heard to speak or be spoken to. §REF§ (Gilbert, Lagacé and Skoggard 2000) Gilbert, Michelle, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard. 2000. ""Culture Summary: Akan."" eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN. §REF§
After 1701, political organization within the region became far more bureaucratic and specialized. Kumasi became the capital of the union of Asante states and the seat of the empire. Appointed officials began to replace those wielding hereditary authority, and a treasury partly operated by literate Muslims was created. §REF§ (McLeod 1981) McLeod, M. D. 1981. The Asante. London: British Museum Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RS692TAZ. §REF§ However, while bureaucrats ran many of the day-to-day operations of the empire, the authority of the king was still absolute. §REF§ (Arhin 1986, 165-66) Arhin, Kwame. 1986. ""The Asante Praise Poems: The Ideology of Patrimonialism."" Paideuma, no. 32: 163-97. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/87N692IT. §REF§
Population estimates are not available for the pre-Asante period. The population of the entire Asante union in 1874 is estimated at three million people. §REF§ (Obeng 1996, 20) Obeng, J. Pashington. 1996. Asante Catholicism: Religious and Cultural Reproduction among the Akan of Ghana. Leiden: E. J. Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P8MFGRGQ. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",7.0,Ghanaian Coast,West Africa,-0.217920000000,5.573135000000,Accra,GH,Ghana,Africa,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
149,JpAshik,1336,1467,Ashikaga Shogunate,jp_ashikaga,LEGACY,"The period between 1336 and 1467 CE in Japan is known by several different names but is referred to here as 'Muromachi Ashikaga', a combination of two designations used in isolation in some sources. Muromachi, a district of Kyoto, was the base of the shogunate's power, while Ashikaga is the name of the family who served as shoguns throughout the period. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 3) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The Muromachi Ashikaga period sometimes includes the sub-periods known as 'the Northern and Southern Courts' and the 'Warring States', although we have decided to separate the Warring States period into its own polity. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 3) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
The period begins with the disintegration of Emperor Go-Daigo's brief 'Kenmu Restoration', an unsuccessful attempt to restore direct imperial control in Japan, and the appointment of Ashikaga Takauji as shogun by another branch of the imperial line with the support of other disillusioned lords. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 88) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ This initiated the divide between the Northern and Southern Courts (1336-1392 CE), both of which claimed to be the legitimate ruling authority. The Northern Court was located in Kyoto and headed by Emperor Komyo (from the senior imperial line) and the Ashikaga shoguns. The Southern Court was located at Yoshino and was the seat of the Emperor Go-Daigo (from the junior imperial line) and his supporters. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 7) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
The peak of the Ashikaga period corresponds to the reign of Shogun Yoshimitsu (r. 1368-1394 CE), who helped to broker the unification of the Northern and Southern Courts (1392 CE), with imperial succession reinstated through the Northern line. An able statesman, he helped advance many aspects of government and policy and was an active patron of the arts. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 8) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ His death in 1408 left a power vacuum that enabled provincial lords to gain greater independence from the court and shogunate.
The Onin War (1467-1477 CE) effectively brought an end to this period, although the Ashikaga shogunate remained in power nominally until the overthrow of their last shogun by Oda Nobunaga in 1573. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 9) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ This civil war, precipitated by economic problems, famine and conflicts over succession (both to the shogunate and to provincial military offices) initiated the period of instability known as the Warring States period. The conflict destroyed much of Kyoto, and spilled out into the provinces. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 8) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
Initially, the power of the Ashikaga Shogunate had theoretically extended throughout the main islands of Japan; however, by the time of the Onin War, the area under its direct control had shrunk to Kyoto and its hinterland. §REF§ (Totman 1993, 3-4) Conrad Totman. 1993. Early Modern Japan. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Hall 2008, 216) John Whitney Hall. 2008. 'The Muromachi Bakufu', in The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 3: Medieval Japan, edited by Kozo Yamamura, 231-59. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Despite this territorial disintegration, the 'idea' of a larger unified culture did not disappear. §REF§ (Batten 1999, 175) Bruce Batten. 1999. 'Frontiers and Boundaries of Pre-Modern Japan'. Journal of Historical Geography 25 (2): 166-82. §REF§
Population and political organization
During the period of the Northern and Southern Courts, the respective imperial heads were nominally in power, while the Ashikaga shogunate controlled the government. In contrast to the preceding Kamakura military regime, the Ashikaga shoguns did not have absolute control: their power was in tension with 'other court families, other members of the military aristocracy, and the religious orders'. §REF§ (Hall 2008, 10) John Whitney Hall. 2008. 'Introduction', in The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 4: Early Modern Japan, edited by Kozo Yamamura, 1-39. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Initially the Ashikaga shogunate retained much of the Kamakura administrative structure, even continuing to occupy the government buildings in Kamakura before moving their administration to the Muromachi district in 1378 CE. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 7-8) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Because the Ashikaga clan 'lacked significant landholdings and military might', these shoguns relied on their relationships with powerful vassals and provincial military governors to enforce their policies and keep other lords in line. However, as personal ties of loyalty deteriorated over time, the control of the shogunate over powerful provincial lords loosened and the latter were able to increase their independence from the central government. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 7-8) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Friday 2004, 59) Karl F. Friday. 2004. Samurai, Warfare and the State in Early Medieval Japan. New York: Routledge. §REF§
Population estimates for this period range from roughly 10 million around 1300 CE to approximately 17 million in 1500 CE. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 181) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. London: Penguin Books. §REF§ §REF§ (Farris 2006, 94) William Wayne Farris. 2006. Japan's Medieval Population: Famine, Fertility, and Warfare in a Transformative Age. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",21.0,Kansai,Northeast Asia,135.762200000000,35.025280000000,Kyoto,JP,Japan,East Asia,14,Northeast Asia,"Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
373,RuAstrakh,1466,1556,Astrakhan Khanate,ru_astrakhan_khanate,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,10,Pontic-Caspian,The steppe belt of Ukraine and European Russia,"{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
146,JpAsuka,538,710,Asuka,jp_asuka,LEGACY,"The last segment of the Kofun period is often designated by historians as Asuka period on the basis of the intoduction of the Buddhism religion in 538 CE. §REF§ G. Barnes, 2007. State formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th-century ruling elite. Routledge, 15. §REF§ §REF§ Brooks, T, 2013. ""Early Japanese Urbanism: A Study of the Urbanism of Proto-historic Japan and Continuities from the Yayoi to the Asuka Periods.""Unpublished thesis, Sydney University, 11. §REF§ As a consequence the historical period ""Asuka"" overlaps with the archaeological period ""Kofun"" until 710 CE.The Asuka period can be divided into two main phases. The first phase covers the period (572-645 CE) when four successive heads of the Soga clan were leading figures at court: Saga no Iname, Saga no Umako, Siga no Emishi, and Soga no Ir. The second period is the phase after the violent overthrow of the Soga which was dominated by Tenchi Tenno, his brother Temmu Tenno, and Temmu's widow Jito Tenno from 645 to 692. It ends with the abdication of Jito Tenno in favor of her son Mommu and the move of the capital to the Heijō Palace of Nara. §REF§ Brown, D., 1993.The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 2.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 164-190. §REF§
Population and political organization
In this period there is the establishment of a central administrative control with the introduction of the Ritsuryo law system based on Chinese style law codes. §REF§ G. Barnes, 2007. State formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th-century ruling elite. Routledge, 15. §REF§ §REF§ Farris, WW 1998, Sacred Texts and Buried Treasures: Issues in Historical Archaeology of Ancient Japan, University of Hawai'i Press, Honolulu. §REF§ The introduction of Buddhism in Japan was favoured by the Soga clan, a Japanese court family, which acquired political prominence with the ascension of the emperor Kimmei in 531. §REF§ McCallum, D. F., 2009. The Four Great Temples: Buddhist Archaeology, Architecture, and Icons of Seventh-Century Japan. Honolulu: University of Haway Press, 19-21. §REF§ The Soga clan intoduced Chinese model-based fiscal policies, etsablished the first national treasury and promoted trade links with the Korean peninsula. §REF§ Brown, D., 1993.The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 2.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 163-164. §REF§ With the Taika reform the size of large burial tumuli (kofun) was strongly decreased by imperial decree. §REF§ K. Mizoguchi, 2013 The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 319. §REF§ The disappearance of large tumuli coincided with the emergence of a marked pyramidal hierarchy indicated by the difference in the burial assemblage. §REF§ K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 320. §REF§ In the seventh century a deceased person was buried in individual, very small round tumuli, which were much smaller than the preceding monumental mounded tombs. However, burial tumuli disapperead at the end of the seventh century. §REF§ K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 320. §REF§ §REF§ Barnes, GL 1993, China, Korea and Japan: The Rise of Civilization in East Asia, Thames and Hudson, London, 251-255. §REF§ During this period elites began devoting resources to the building of Buddhist temples, which explains the reduction in size of tombs §REF§ Brooks, T, 2013. ""Early Japanese Urbanism: A Study of the Urbanism of Proto-historic Japan and Continuities from the Yayoi to the Asuka Periods.""Unpublished thesis, Sydney University, 43. §REF§ §REF§ K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 322-323. §REF§
We have estimated the population of Kansai to be between 1.5 million and 2 million people in 600 CE, and between 2 million and 3 million by 700 CE. §REF§ Kidder, J. E., 2007. Himiko and Japan's elusive chiefdom of Yamatai: archaeology, history, and mythology. University of Hawaii Press, 60. §REF§ §REF§ Koyama, S., 1978. Jomon Subsistence and Population. Senri Ethnological Studies 2. Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology §REF§",,,,2023-12-19T08:45:11.147310Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",21.0,Kansai,Northeast Asia,135.762200000000,35.025280000000,Kyoto,JP,Japan,East Asia,14,Northeast Asia,"Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
448,FrAtlBA,-2200,-1000,Atlantic Complex,fr_atlantic_complex,LEGACY,"The Early Bronze Age on the Atlantic seaboard of Western Europe lasted from around 1800 to 1300 BCE. §REF§ (Peregrine 2001, 412) Peregrine, P. N. 2001. Western European Earlier Bronze Age. In Peregrine, P.N. and M. Ember (eds) Encyclopedia of Prehistory. Volume 4: Europe, pp.412-414. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ. §REF§ Several technological and social changes marked this period, taking place in an area expanding over what is now the south of England, west and central France, and Flanders, §REF§ (Mordant 2013, 573) Mordant, Claude. 2013. The Bronze Age in France. In Fokkens, H. and A. Harding (eds) The Oxford Handbook of the European Bronze Age, pp. 571-593. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QX9UG55P. §REF§ but also Portugal and Spain. §REF§ (Otte 2008, 276) Otte, Marcel. 2008. La protohistoire, 2è édition. Bruxelles: de Boeck. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2PQEDZ2I. §REF§ Metals were used to craft new types of weapons and ornaments, beginning with copper and then bronze axes, used for working wood and individual defence, §REF§ (Ghesquière in Macigny et al. 2005, 23) Cyril Marcigny, Cécile Colonna, Emmanuel Ghesquière, Guy Verron (eds) 2005. La Normandie à l'aube de l'Histoire. Les découvertes archéologiques de l’âge du Bronze 2300-800 av. J.C. Somogy, Paris. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3ZA57Q27 §REF§ and culminating in more complex forms of weaponry like swords, daggers and halberds. §REF§ (Ghesquière in Macigny et al 2005, 23) Marcigny, Cyril, Cécile Colonna, Emmanuel Ghesquière, and Guy Verron. 2005. La Normandie à L’aube de L'histoire : Les Découvertes Archéologiques de L'âge Du Bronze 2300-800 Av. J.-C. Paris: Somogy éd. d’art. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3ZA57Q27. §REF§ However, most of the artefacts characterizing this period were items of personal jewellery such as torcs, anklets, and pins. §REF§ (Peregrine 2001, 413) Peregrine, P. N. 2001. Western European Earlier Bronze Age. In Peregrine, P.N. and M. Ember (eds) Encyclopedia of Prehistory. Volume 4: Europe, pp.412-414. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ. §REF§ The trade of these materials formed a vast European network of exchange. §REF§ (Peregrine 2001, 413) Peregrine, P. N. 2001. Western European Earlier Bronze Age. In Peregrine, P.N. and M. Ember (eds) Encyclopedia of Prehistory. Volume 4: Europe, pp.412-414. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ. §REF§
Population and political organization
Over the course of the Early Bronze Age, several trends originating in the Beaker period were reinforced: political integration was one of them. Two tiers of social hierarchy can be inferred from burial patterns. While most of these differences were tied to individual achievements over one's lifetime, social status could also be inherited. Indeed, children have been found in elite burials containing prestigious items, contrasting with the much simpler tombs of commoners. §REF§ (Peregrine 2001, 413) Peregrine, P. N. 2001. Western European Earlier Bronze Age. In Peregrine, P.N. and M. Ember (eds) Encyclopedia of Prehistory. Volume 4: Europe, pp.412-414. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ. §REF§
The construction of fortified settlements intensified, following a two-tiered settlement hierarchy. Simple hamlets corresponded to one or more extended families. Elsewhere, small fortified towns were built on raised areas of land and surrounded by walls and ditches. §REF§ (Peregrine 2001, 412-413) Peregrine, P. N. 2001. Western European Earlier Bronze Age. In Peregrine, P.N. and M. Ember (eds) Encyclopedia of Prehistory. Volume 4: Europe, pp.412-414. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",2.0,Paris Basin,Western Europe,2.312458000000,48.866111000000,Paris,FR,France,Europe,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
347,IrAtrop,-323,200,Atropatene Kingdom,ir_atropatene_k,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
759,as_australia_colonial,1803,1901,Australia Colonial Period,as_australia_colonial,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,28,Australia,Australia,"{'id': 8, 'name': 'Oceania-Australia'}"
565,at_habsburg_1,1454,1648,Austria - Habsburg Dynasty I,at_habsburg_1,OTHER_TAG,"Frederick III from the House of Habsburg was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1452, marking the beginning of an almost unbroken line of Habsburg Emperors.§REF§Heinig, Kaiser Friedrich III. (1440-1493). Zotero link: LA5W94UA§REF§
He elevated the Duchy of Austria to Archduchy, a unique title specifically created for the House of Habsburg which elevated the Archduke above all other Dukes which signifies Austria's position of power and influence within the Holy Roman Empire (HRE), but it was through the astute marriage policies—often summarized by the motto ""Let others wage war, but you, happy Austria, marry""—that they significantly expanded their power.§REF§Judson, The Habsburg Empire. Zotero link: SFXDYXYU§REF§
Notably, the marriage of Maximilian I to Mary of Burgundy in 1477 brought the Habsburgs into possession of the Burgundian Netherlands, a valuable and strategically located set of territories.
The reign of Maximilian I (1493-1519) also saw further consolidation of Habsburg power within the HRE, culminating in his grandson Charles V's election as Holy Roman Emperor in 1519. Charles V's vast empire, spanning from Spain to parts of Italy, Germany, and the Americas, marked the peak of Habsburg power, embodying the phrase ""the empire on which the sun never sets."" His reign was marked by religious upheaval, including the Reformation, and constant military engagements, most notably against France and the Ottoman Empire.§REF§Judson, The Habsburg Empire. Zotero link: SFXDYXYU§REF§
The Kingdom of Bohemia was incorporated into Habsburg domains during this period. The process began with the marriage of Ferdinand I, a Habsburg, to Anna of Bohemia and Hungary in 1521, strategically positioning the Habsburgs for a claim to the Bohemian throne. The opportunity for direct control came in 1526, following the Battle of Mohács, after which Ferdinand I claimed the thrones of Bohemia and Hungary due to the death of Louis II, who died without an heir at the battle.§REF§Jaroslav Pánek and Oldřich Tůma, A History of the Czech Lands (Prague: Karolinum Press, 2009). Zotero link: 5MFK58ZP§REF§
The period also witnessed the beginning of the long-standing struggle with the Ottoman Empire, including the first siege of Vienna in 1529, which marked the Ottoman Empire's furthest advance into Europe. The military engagements against the Ottomans continued for decades, influencing the political and military strategies of the Habsburgs.§REF§Klaus-Jürgen Bremm, Die Türken Vor Wien: Zwei Weltmächte Im Ringen Um Europa. Zotero link: VYHYLAE2§REF§
The period culminated in the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) , a defining conflict of this era. The war started as a religious conflict but evolved into a broader power struggle within Europe. The Habsburgs' role in the war was central, with Ferdinand II's attempts to consolidate Catholic power within the Empire leading to widespread conflict. The war concluded with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which had profound implications for the Habsburgs and the HRE, leading to the recognition of the sovereignty of the constituent states of the Empire and a decline in the central power of the Emperor.§REF§Arndt, Der Dreißigjährige Krieg. Zotero link: PULFEDKX§REF§",,,,2024-03-12T10:04:15.712719Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
567,at_habsburg_2,1649,1918,Austria - Habsburg Dynasty II,at_habsburg_2,LEGACY,"The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ended the Thirty Years' War, the Habsburgs faced the task of consolidating their fragmented territories, this era was marked by a series of succession wars, reflecting the Habsburgs' quest for territorial expansion and dynastic security.§REF§Arndt, Der Dreißigjährige Krieg. Zotero link: PULFEDKX§REF§
The beginning of the period saw the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession (1700-1714), a conflict over the vast inheritance of the Spanish Habsburgs. The war ended with the Treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt, which, while ceding the Spanish throne to the Bourbon Philip of Anjou, granted the Austrian Habsburgs significant territories in Italy and the Netherlands, reshaping the European balance of power.§REF§Schnettger, Der Spanische Erbfolgekrieg. Zotero link: HK6DTTSH§REF§
In mid-18th century the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) challenged Maria Theresa's right to her father's throne. Despite initial setbacks, including the loss of Silesia to Prussia, Maria Theresa confirmed her rule and laid the foundation for the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty.§REF§(Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. Kriegsarchiv) Zotero link: WC966X6J§REF§
The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) further tested the Habsburg power, as Maria Theresa sought to reclaim Silesia and counter Prussia’s rise. This global conflict, stretching from the heart of Europe to distant colonies, ended without altering the Silesian status quo but significantly realigned international alliances, setting the stage for future confrontations.§REF§Danley and Speelman, The Seven Years’ War. Zotero link: AE3M256H§REF§
At the end of the 18th century, the War of the Bavarian Succession (1778-1779) once again pitted the Habsburgs against Prussia, this time over the strategic region of Bavaria on the question of succession to the Electorate of Bavaria after the extinction of the Bavarian branch of the House of Wittelsbach. The conflict ended with the Treaty of Teschen with only minor gains for the Habsburg monarchy.
§REF§Michael Kotulla, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte: vom Alten Reich bis Weimar (1495 - 1934). Zotero link: U84B9DNB§REF§
In the 19th century, the Habsburg Empire faced the challenge of Napoleonic France which resulted in the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and the establishment of the Austrian Empire in 1804, Francis II became Francis I, Emperor of Austria.§REF§“Germany - Prussia, Napoleon, Reunification | Britannica.” Zotero link: F52JWVA3§REF§
The Congress of Vienna in 1815 which laid the foundation of the post Napoleonic order in central Europe. further redefined the Habsburg realm, securing its status as a great power.§REF§Heinz Duchhardt, Der Wiener Kongress: die Neugestaltung Europas 1814/15. Zotero link: KQ7ZZYPE§REF§
The revolutionary period of 1848, with its calls for liberalization and nationalism, profoundly challenged the imperial status quo, revealing the deep-seated tensions within its multi-ethnic composition.§REF§Dowe, Haupt, and Langewiesche, Europa 1848. Zotero link: ZDEFI38W§REF§
In response to these internal upheavals and the growing nationalist movements, “the Ausgleich” of 1867 with Hungary marked a pivotal compromise. This agreement gave rise to the Dual Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (“k. u. k.-Monarchie).
“The Ausgleich (“compromise”) reached with Hungary in 1867 was a major concession for Franz Joseph, and it created the so-called dualist Austria-Hungary that existed until 1918… The arrangement was dualist because it was not federalist. Rather than parceling out the monarchy into a structure in which the Austro-German lands, the Czech lands, Galicia, and Hungary-Croatia would all have roughly equal weight, it was divided simply into two, the Hungarian half and the Austrian half. This latter was not really called “Austria” but rather “Cisleithania,” meaning “beyond the Leitha River,” which was the border between Austria and Hungary. The formal name of the Cisleithanian half was “the countries and realms represented in the Reichsrat,” which gives some indication of the insubstantial basis for common identity of those territories. The governmental link between these two halves was also minimal. Foreign and military policy belonged almost exclusively to Franz Joseph. He retained the power to appoint and dismiss ministers, who thus had only a partial responsibility to parliament, and he could reject laws passed by the Reichsrat. There was a joint financial ministry and tariff regime. But details such as Hungary’s share of the budget could be renegotiated every decade, which led to repeated political conflicts in the years ahead, so dualism’s division of powers was by no means entirely clear. Nearly everything else was separate. There were distinct parliaments for the Cisleithanian and Hungarian halves, and each half had its own administrative, legal, and school systems. The realm was designated as kaiserlich (“imperial”) for the Austrian Empire of Cisleithania and königlich (“royal”) for the Kingdom of Hungary. In practice, dualism meant that the Austro-Germans dominated the other peoples in their half, and the Hungarians the other peoples in theirs. In many ways, Hungary’s weight within the Dual Monarchy only grew after 1867, thanks to economic advances that in turn fed into greater assertiveness on the part of the Magyar elite… Ultimately, even the Austro-Germans and the Hungarians disliked dualism. The former resented Hungarians’ disproportionate weight in the monarchy, while the latter constantly pushed for more autonomy and resisted any changes that would reduce their weight. And virtually all the other national groups detested the arrangement because it unfairly excluded them.” §REF§Berger, Der Österreichisch-ungarische Ausgleich von 1867. Zotero link: 7SEQIFJ2§REF§
“By the summer of 1918 the Habsburg dynasty’s death knell was ringing… Karl presided impotently over the progressive hollowing out of the whole monarchical state until there was almost nothing left that he actually governed. At the end of October the nearly 400-year-old monarchy dissolved in a matter of weeks. Karl issued a proposal for federalization on 16 October, but he and his idea were already irrelevant by that point. Gyula Andrássy, the last foreign minister of Austria-Hungary, said that the implicit logic behind the final, futile moves taken by the leadership was that “so that no one can kill us, we’ll commit suicide.” The initiative was instead firmly in the hands of the various national groups. On 18 October Romanians in Hungary called for union with the Kingdom of Romania. On the 21st the Germans of the monarchy declared their right to self-determination. On the 28th the Czech National Council declared independence, and on the 30th the new Czechoslovakia was officially formed. On the 29th the Croatian parliament formally dissolved its connections to Austria and Hungary and pledged to join the new Yugoslav kingdom. On the 31st the Ruthenians in Galicia announced their secession. On 1 November the Hungarians proclaimed their ties to the monarchy ended, followed ten days later by Galicia joining the new Polish republic. As all this was happening, Karl was still working at his desk in Schönbrunn, but the palace was mostly empty. Only a few loyal servants remained, since even his bodyguards had left. Finally on 11 November Karl signed papers that he was “temporarily” giving up his powers. He never formally abdicated but went into exile, first in Switzerland. Karl twice tried to retake the throne in Hungary in 1921, but after these unsuccessful attempts he was removed by the British to Madeira, where he died in 1922.”§REF§“Das Ende der Monarchie,” Die Welt der Habsburger, accessed February 4, 2024, https://www.habsburger.net/de/kapitel/das-ende-der-monarchie. Zotero link: G9K39WS5§REF§",,,,2024-03-12T09:42:59.315585Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
572,at_austro_hungarian_emp,1867,1918,Austro-Hungarian Monarchy,at_austro_hungarian_emp,LEGACY,"
“The Ausgleich (“compromise”) reached with Hungary in 1867 was a major concession for Franz Joseph, and it created the so-called dualist Austria-Hungary that existed until 1918… The arrangement was dualist because it was not federalist. Rather than parceling out the monarchy into a structure in which the Austro-German lands, the Czech lands, Galicia, and Hungary-Croatia would all have roughly equal weight, it was divided simply into two, the Hungarian half and the Austrian half. This latter was not really called “Austria” but rather “Cisleithania,” meaning “beyond the Leitha River,” which was the border between Austria and Hungary. The formal name of the Cisleithanian half was “the countries and realms represented in the Reichsrat,” which gives some indication of the insubstantial basis for common identity of those territories. The governmental link between these two halves was also minimal. Foreign and military policy belonged almost exclusively to Franz Joseph. He retained the power to appoint and dismiss ministers, who thus had only a partial responsibility to parliament, and he could reject laws passed by the Reichsrat. There was a joint financial ministry and tariff regime. But details such as Hungary’s share of the budget could be renegotiated every decade, which led to repeated political conflicts in the years ahead, so dualism’s division of powers was by no means entirely clear. Nearly everything else was separate. There were distinct parliaments for the Cisleithanian and Hungarian halves, and each half had its own administrative, legal, and school systems. The realm was designated as kaiserlich (“imperial”) for the Austrian Empire of Cisleithania and königlich (“royal”) for the Kingdom of Hungary. In practice, dualism meant that the Austro-Germans dominated the other peoples in their half, and the Hungarians the other peoples in theirs. In many ways, Hungary’s weight within the Dual Monarchy only grew after 1867, thanks to economic advances that in turn fed into greater assertiveness on the part of the Magyar elite… Ultimately, even the Austro-Germans and the Hungarians disliked dualism. The former resented Hungarians’ disproportionate weight in the monarchy, while the latter constantly pushed for more autonomy and resisted any changes that would reduce their weight. And virtually all the other national groups detested the arrangement because it unfairly excluded them.”§REF§(Curtis 2013: 284-286) Curtis, Benjamin. 2013. The Habsburgs: The History of a Dynasty. London; New York: Bloomsbury. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TRKUBP92§REF§
“By the summer of 1918 the Habsburg dynasty’s death knell was ringing… Karl presided impotently over the progressive hollowing out of the whole monarchical state until there was almost nothing left that he actually governed. At the end of October the nearly 400-year-old monarchy dissolved in a matter of weeks. Karl issued a proposal for federalization on 16 October, but he and his idea were already irrelevant by that point. Gyula Andrássy, the last foreign minister of Austria-Hungary, said that the implicit logic behind the final, futile moves taken by the leadership was that “so that no one can kill us, we’ll commit suicide.”15 The initiative was instead firmly in the hands of the various national groups. On 18 October Romanians in Hungary called for union with the Kingdom of Romania. On the 21st the Germans of the monarchy declared their right to self-determination. On the 28th the Czech National Council declared independence, and on the 30th the new Czechoslovakia was officially formed. On the 29th the Croatian parliament formally dissolved its connections to Austria and Hungary and pledged to join the new Yugoslav kingdom. On the 31st the Ruthenians in Galicia announced their secession. On 1 November the Hungarians proclaimed their ties to the monarchy ended, followed ten days later by Galicia joining the new Polish republic. As all this was happening, Karl was still working at his desk in Schönbrunn, but the palace was mostly empty. Only a few loyal servants remained, since even his bodyguards had left. Finally on 11 November Karl signed papers that he was “temporarily” giving up his powers. He never formally abdicated but went into exile, first in Switzerland. Karl twice tried to retake the throne in Hungary in 1921, but after these unsuccessful attempts he was removed by the British to Madeira, where he died in 1922.”§REF§(Curtis 2013: 304-305) Curtis, Benjamin. 2013. The Habsburgs: The History of a Dynasty. London; New York: Bloomsbury. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TRKUBP92§REF§",,,,2024-03-12T11:15:02.803449Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
382,MmAva,1364,1527,Ava Kingdom,mm_ava_k,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,41,Mainland Southeast Asia,"Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
284,HuAvarK,586,822,Avar Khaganate,hu_avar_khaganate,LEGACY,,,Propose changing polID to hu_avar_khaganate,,2024-03-13T11:07:57.528021Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
208,EtAksm1,-149,349,Axum I,et_aksum_emp_1,LEGACY,"An empire with Aksum as its capital dominated the northern highlands of Ethiopia from the first to the seventh century CE. "". §REF§ (Hatke 2013) George Hatke. 2013. Aksum and Nubia: Warfare, Commerce, and Political Fictions in Ancient Northeast Africa (Institute for the Study of the Ancient World). New York University Press. §REF§ This empire was characterised by a combination of indigenous Ethiopian and South Arabian culture. ."" §REF§ (Ricard 2004, 16) Alain Ricard. The Languages & Literatures of Africa: The Sands of Babel. James Currey Publishers. Oxford. §REF§ Between about 150 and 270 CE, Aksum extended its control to South Arabia, including the Yemen Coastal Plain or Plateau, the northwestern region of modern Yemen that lies between the Red Sea and the Yemeni Mountains.
Without Arabian and Nubian territories, the population of the Aksumite empire has been estimated as ""at the outside half a million"". §REF§ (Munro-Hay 1991, 166) Stuart C Munro-Hay. 1991. Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity. Edinburgh University Press. §REF§ As for Aksum itself, during the first four centuries CE its core area covered between 80 and 100 hectares; §REF§ (Curtis 2017, 106) Matthew C Curtis. Aksum, town and monuments. Siegbert Uhlig. David L Appleyard. Steven Kaplan. Alessandro Bausi. Wolfgang Hahn. eds. 2017. Ethiopia: History, Culture and Challenges. Michigan State University Press. East Lansing. §REF§ assuming 50-200 people per hectare, this would mean a population of between 4,500 and 200,000, at least in the core area. The empire was governed by a single ruler (negus) and his retinue; according to some sources, the administrative system was relatively poorly developed. §REF§ (Kobishanov 1981, 385) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California. §REF§ Provinces were ruled indirectly through regional rulers §REF§ (Kobishanov 1981, 384) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California. §REF§ who sent tribute. §REF§ (Falola 2002, 58) Toyin Falola. 2002. Key Events in African History: A Reference Guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport. §REF§",,,,2023-10-31T10:41:53.708288Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",12.0,Yemeni Coastal Plain,Arabia,43.315739000000,14.850891000000,Sanaa,YE,Yemen,Southwest Asia,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
210,EtAksm2,350,599,Axum II,et_aksum_emp_2,LEGACY,,,,,2023-10-31T10:42:19.731432Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
213,EtAksm3,600,800,Axum III,et_aksum_emp_3,LEGACY,,,,,2023-10-31T10:42:38.095859Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
44,ThAyuth,1593,1767,Ayutthaya,th_ayutthaya,LEGACY,"The city of Ayutthaya was founded in 1351 CE in the Chao Phraya Basin, in modern-day Thailand, and soon emerged as a dominant force in the region, turning neighbouring mueang, or city-states, into its tributaries. §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, xv, 7-13) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. A History of Thailand. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ This was largely thanks to its advantageous geographical position, which allowed it to become an entrepôt where goods could be exchanged between China to the east, India and Arabia to the west, and the Malay archipelago to the south. §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 10) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. A History of Thailand. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In 1569, Ayutthaya fell to the Burmese army. §REF§ (Wyatt 1984, 100) David K. Wyatt. 1984. Thailand: A Short History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§ Here, we only consider the second phase of the polity's history, starting in 1593, when Ayutthaya regained its independence after defeating Burma at the Battle of Nong Sarai. §REF§ (Wyatt 1984, 103) David K. Wyatt. 1984. Thailand: A Short History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§ The kingdom flourished throughout the 17th century, regaining its status as the dominant political and economic power of mainland Southeast Asia and ruling over Khmer, Lao, Lanna, and Shan. §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 13-18) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. A History of Thailand. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The polity may have reached its peak under King Borommakot (reigned 1733‒1758): during this time, Ayutthaya faced no serious external threats (indeed, it made peace with Burma and consolidated its hold over Cambodia), and supplanted Sri Lanka as the preeminent centre of Buddhist culture. §REF§ (Wyatt 1984, 130-31) David K. Wyatt. 1984. Thailand: A Short History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§ Shortly afterwards, however, hostilities with Burma resumed due to the ambitions of a new Burmese dynasty. In 1767, Ayutthaya was once again captured ‒ and this time, it was destroyed. §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 21-22) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. A History of Thailand. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
A number of different spellings of Ayutthaya are in use, including Ayuthaya, Ayudhya, and Ayuthia. §REF§ (Ooi 2004, xxiii) Keat Gin Ooi. 2004. Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia from Angkor Wat to East Timor. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. §REF§
Population and political organization
In the Ayutthaya Kingdom, kings ruled over a society composed of a 'service nobility of maybe 2000 people and their families, and a mass of people bound to surrender some or all of their labour to the elite'. §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 15) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. A History of Thailand. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ There was a four-part administrative structure: one ministry was dedicated to the palace and the capital; one to military affairs and relations with tributary states and cities; one to trade, the treasury, and foreign communities; and one, made up of Brahmans, to ritual, astrology, and records. §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 15) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. A History of Thailand. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
It is difficult to give a firm figure for the population of the kingdom as a whole. However, Ayutthaya may have been the largest city in Southeast Asia in the 17th and 18th centuries, §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 13) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. A History of Thailand. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ with perhaps 150,000 inhabitants in 1700 and 160,000 in 1750. §REF§ Christopher K. Chase-Dunn 2001, personal communication 2012 §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",17.0,Cambodian Basin,Siam,103.866700000000,13.412500000000,Angkor Wat,KH,Cambodia,Southeast Asia,41,Mainland Southeast Asia,"Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
367,EgAyyub,1171,1250,Ayyubid Sultanate,eg_ayyubid_sultanate,LEGACY,"The Ayyubid Sultanate was established in Egypt by Saladin (Ṣalāḥ-al-dīn), a member of the Kurdish Ayyubid family who had risen to prominence in Syria in the service of a local ruling dynasty, the Zangids. §REF§ (Humphreys 1987) R. S. Humphreys. 1987. 'Ayyubids', Encyclopӕdia Iranica III/2, pp. 164-67; an updated version is available online at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids (accessed 24 February 2017). §REF§ In 1168-69 CE, the Zangid prince Nur al-Din placed Saladin's uncle, Shirkuh, in command of a military expedition to Egypt (at that time under Fatimid rule) to take control of the country and expel the invading Frankish Crusaders. §REF§ (Lev 2010, 218) Yaacov Lev. 2010. 'The Fatimid Caliphate (358‒567 / 969‒1171) and the Ayyūbids in Egypt (567‒648 / 1171‒1250)', in The New Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 2. The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries, edited by Maribel Fierro, 201-36. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 290) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. A History of Islamic Societies, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Saladin accompanied him and was appointed vizier of Egypt by the Fatimid caliph when Shirkuh died in 1169. §REF§ (Humphreys 1987) R. S. Humphreys. 1987. 'Ayyubids', Encyclopӕdia Iranica III/2, pp. 164-67; an updated version is available online at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids (accessed 24 February 2017). §REF§
Saladin, however, did not have the local dynasty's interests at heart. He immediately set about undermining its power and the Ismaili (Shi'a) Islam professed by its elite in favour of a new Sunni order, in theory loyal to the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad. §REF§ (Lev 2010, 210-11) Yaacov Lev. 2010. 'The Fatimid Caliphate (358‒567 / 969‒1171) and the Ayyūbids in Egypt (567‒648 / 1171‒1250)', in The New Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 2. The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries, edited by Maribel Fierro, 201-36. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ We begin our Ayyubid Sultanate polity in 1171, when the last Fatimid caliph, Al-Adid, died and Saladin progressed from vizier to sultan in Egypt. §REF§ (Lev 2010, 210) Yaacov Lev. 2010. 'The Fatimid Caliphate (358‒567 / 969‒1171) and the Ayyūbids in Egypt (567‒648 / 1171‒1250)', in The New Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 2. The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries, edited by Maribel Fierro, 201-36. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ He nevertheless suppressed his ambitions until his old Zangid overlord Nur al-Din died in 1174, after which he launched a successful campaign of military expansion into the Levant and Upper Mesopotamia, as well as a brief 'holy war' on the Crusader states along the Levantine coast. §REF§ (Lyons and Jackson 1982, 201) Malcolm Cameron Lyons and D. E. P. Jackson. 1982. Saladin: The Politics of the Holy War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Humphreys 1987) R. S. Humphreys. 1987. 'Ayyubids', Encyclopӕdia Iranica III/2, pp. 164-67; an updated version is available online at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids (accessed 25 February 2017). §REF§
A succession crisis followed Saladin's death in 1193, and a devastating famine in 1200 reduced parts of the population to cannibalism. §REF§ (Lev 2010, 226) Yaacov Lev. 2010. 'The Fatimid Caliphate (358‒567 / 969‒1171) and the Ayyūbids in Egypt (567‒648 / 1171‒1250)', in The New Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 2. The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries, edited by Maribel Fierro, 201-36. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ However, Saladin's brother, al-'Adil, declared himself sultan in 1200 and managed to impose some degree of internal stability on the empire, §REF§ (Humphreys 1977, 125-26) R. Stephen Humphreys. 1977. From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus, 1193‒1260. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. §REF§ which was split into the kingdoms of Egypt, Damascus, Aleppo and Mosul. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 291) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. A History of Islamic Societies, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The reign of al-'Adil's son, al-Kamil, from 1218 to 1238 CE, was also a relatively stable and prosperous period in Egypt, §REF§ (Werthmuller 2010, 48) Kurt J. Werthmuller. 2010. Coptic Identity and Ayyubid Politics in Egypt, 1218‒1250. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press. §REF§ although he faced opposition from Ayyubid princes in Syria and Palestine. §REF§ (Hamblin 2005, 753) William J. Hamblin. 2005. 'Egypt: Ayyubid Dynasty, 1169-1250', in Encyclopedia of African History, volume 1: A-G, edited by Kevin Shillington, 752-54. New York: Fitzroy Dearborn. §REF§
As-Salih Ayyub, the sultan who came to power in 1240 CE, §REF§ (Keenan 1999, 287) James G. Keenan. 1999. 'Fayyum Agriculture at the End of the Ayyubid Era: Nabulsi's Survey'. Proceedings of the British Academy 96: 287-99. §REF§ attempted to enhance his power at the expense of other Ayyubid princely lines by purchasing many more Turkish Mamluks (high-ranking slave soldiers) than his predecessors. §REF§ (Levanoni 1990, 124) Amalia Levanoni. 1990. 'The Mamluks' Ascent to Power in Egypt'. Studia Islamica 72: 121-44. §REF§ They served him as a military and governmental elite. §REF§ (Humphreys 1987) R. S. Humphreys. 1987. 'Ayyubids', Encyclopӕdia Iranica III/2, pp. 164-67; an updated version is available online at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids (accessed 25 February 2017). §REF§ §REF§ (Levanoni 1990, 124) Amalia Levanoni. 1990. 'The Mamluks' Ascent to Power in Egypt'. Studia Islamica 72: 121-44. §REF§ The Mamluks' increasingly powerful position proved to be the downfall of the Ayyubid Sultanate when, after Salih-Ayyub's death in 1249, one faction (the Bahriyya Mamluks) assassinated his son Turanshah and seized the throne. §REF§ (Levanoni 1990, 137) Amalia Levanoni. 1990. 'The Mamluks' Ascent to Power in Egypt'. Studia Islamica 72: 121-44. §REF§ The Ayyubid dynasty hung onto power in Syria until 1260, when the Mamluks defeated the invading Mongols at 'Ayn Jalut and gained popular recognition of their right to rule as 'saviours of Islam'. §REF§ (Northrup 1998, 248) Linda S. Northrup. 1998. 'The Baḥrī Mamlūk Sultanate, 1250‒1390', in The Cambridge History of Egypt, Vol. 1: Islamic Egypt, 640‒1517, edited by Carl F. Petry, 242-89. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ However, we end our Ayyubid period with the assassination of Turanshah, the last Ayyubid sultan of Egypt.
Population and political organization
The Ayyubids made use of the pre-existing Fatimid bureaucratic system to administer Egypt, §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 246) I. M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and ruled via a Turkish and Kurdish 'military aristocracy', including some slave (Mamluk) regiments. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 291) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. A History of Islamic Societies, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lev 2010, 210, 213) Yaacov Lev. 2010. 'The Fatimid Caliphate (358‒567 / 969‒1171) and the Ayyūbids in Egypt (567‒648 / 1171‒1250)', in The New Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 2. The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries, edited by Maribel Fierro, 201-36. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ This was funded by the distribution of iqta's ‒ rights to tax revenue from estates of land ‒ in exchange for military and administrative services. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 291, 877) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. A History of Islamic Societies, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Saladin and his successors also promoted Sunni Islam in the empire by sponsoring law schools (madrasas) to serve as centres for the teaching of Sunni law. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 291, 877) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. A History of Islamic Societies, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
The Ayyubid Sultanate was never particularly centralized: it has been described as a 'family confederation', meaning that male members of the ruling dynasty were given principalities across the realm and allowed to govern them with substantial political autonomy. §REF§ (Humphreys 1987) R. S. Humphreys. 1987. 'Ayyubids', Encyclopӕdia Iranica III/2, pp. 164-67; an updated version is available online at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids (accessed 25 February 2017). §REF§ Kinship ties determined relationships between different princes, so that, for example, two brothers ruling different regions would have less authority over each other than a father would over his son. §REF§ (Humphreys 1987) R. S. Humphreys. 1987. 'Ayyubids', Encyclopӕdia Iranica III/2, pp. 164-67; an updated version is available online at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids (accessed 25 February 2017). §REF§ However, the sultan of Egypt was usually successful in asserting his suzerainty over the other kingdoms. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 291, 877) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. A History of Islamic Societies, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
It is difficult to find substantiated estimates for the population of the entire Ayyubid Sultanate, but there were about 2.4 million people in Egypt under Saladin. §REF§ (Dols 1977, 149) M. W. Dols. 1977. The Black Death in the Middle East. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",5.0,Upper Egypt,Northeastern Africa,32.714706000000,25.725715000000,Luxor,EG,Egypt,Africa,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
16,MxAztec,1427,1526,Aztec Empire,mx_aztec_emp,LEGACY,"The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Late Postclassic period, when the Aztecs or Mexica rose to power (c. 1427-1526 CE). The Aztec Empire was born from the ""Triple Alliance"" between the city-states (altepetl) of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan, who agreed to collaborate on campaign of territorial expansion and share the resulting tribute and tax payments. §REF§ (Smith and Sergheraert 2012: 449-451) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q. §REF§ Within a century, the three cities came to control a significant portion of Northern Mesoamerica, the main exception being the West, which, despite some military successes on the part of the Triple Alliance early on, largely remained under the control of the Tarascans. §REF§ (Evans 2012: 125) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X. §REF§
As the empire grew, so did the power of Tenochtitlan, which became the de-facto administrative capital, whose ruler came to hold the title huey tlatoani (“high king”). Tenochtitlan's power was strongest over the empire's central provinces, where the Aztecs ruled through governors, judges, tax collectors and other officials that they appointed themselves. For the ""outer"" provinces, the Aztecs limited themselves to targeting major centres, where, again, they appointed their governors and administrative officials. Finally, the Aztecs secured their power over ""frontier"" provinces by guaranteeing military protection from external foes, in exchange for ""gifts"" of soldiers and prestige goods. §REF§ (Smith and Sergheraert 2012: 455-457) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q. §REF§
By the time of Spanish conquest in the 1520s, Tenochtitlan likely housed between 150,000 and 250,000 people, §REF§ (Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to E. Cioni and G. Nazzaro) §REF§ perhaps even 3,000. §REF§ (De Rioja 2017: 220) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GC3T83JD. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",27.0,Basin of Mexico,Mexico,-99.130000000000,19.430000000000,Ciudad de Mexico,MX,Mexico,North America,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
510,EgBadar,-4400,-3800,Badarian,eg_badarian,LEGACY,"The Badarian, a Neolithic archaeological culture located in Upper Egypt and dating from c. 4400 to 3300 BCE, was first described in 1928 by archaeologists Guy Brunton and Gertrude Caton-Thompson, who excavated in the Badari district near Assyut. §REF§ (Hassan 1988, 138) F. A. Hassan. 1988. 'The Predynastic of Egypt'. Journal of World Prehistory 2 (2): 135-85. §REF§ Its relationship to an earlier culture, called the Tasian, is unclear, §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ but there is some evidence to link it to the later Naqada I period in Upper Egypt. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Little is known of the everyday lives of the people who occupied the Badarian sites: our information comes mainly from the numerous grave sites in the region around Assyut.
Population and political organization
Research on Badarian sites has yielded a total of about 600 graves and 40 poorly documented settlements. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The culture was first identified in the el-Badari region, near the modern city of Sohag, but several small sites near the villages of Qau el-Kebir, Hammamiya, Mostagedda, and Matmar are also categorized as Badarian. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Characteristic Badarian material culture has also been discovered much further south at Mahgar Dendera, Armant, Elkab, and Hierakonpolis, as well as to the east of the Nile in the Wadi Hammamat. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
The archaeology of the period has inevitably been affected by the flooding of the Nile over the millennia: any larger, more permanent settlements were likely situated close to the great river and subsequently washed away or covered with alluvium. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Surviving remains come from raised desert spurs and include 'huts and windbreaks associated with hearths and large, well-shaped granary pits or silos'. §REF§ (Hassan 1988, 153) F. A. Hassan. 1988. 'The Predynastic of Egypt'. Journal of World Prehistory 2 (2): 135-85. §REF§ A Badarian settlement at Deir Tasa covered an area of about 5000 square metres. §REF§ (Hassan 1988, 153) F. A. Hassan. 1988. 'The Predynastic of Egypt'. Journal of World Prehistory 2 (2): 135-85. §REF§ At the Seshat standard of 50-200 inhabitants per hectare, this gives us an estimated population between the range of 25 and 100 inhabitants.
Evidence from Badarian settlements shows that the people who occupied these sites were primarily engaged in agriculture and animal husbandry, §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ but we know trade also occurred. Badarians imported raw materials like wood, turquoise, shells and ivory and exchanged goods with groups from as far away as Palestine, the Red Sea and Syria. §REF§ (Trigger 1983, 29) Bruce G. Trigger. 1983. 'The Rise of Egyptian Civilization', in Ancient Egypt: A Social History edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B Lloyd, 1-70. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Model boats found at the site of Merimda to the north 'suggest that boats and canoes were already in use [in Egypt] before 4500 B.C.' §REF§ (Hassan 1988, 157) F. A. Hassan. 1988. 'The Predynastic of Egypt'. Journal of World Prehistory 2 (2): 135-85. §REF§
Very little can be concluded about Badarian political and social structure, but analysis of grave goods shows that there was an unequal distribution of wealth, and that the wealthier graves tended to be kept separate within the cemeteries. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ However, no monumental remains have been found so it is likely that higher-status members of society did not command a significant labour force.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",5.0,Upper Egypt,Northeastern Africa,32.714706000000,25.725715000000,Luxor,EG,Egypt,Africa,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
379,MmPagan,1044,1287,Bagan,mm_bagan,LEGACY,,,,,2023-11-14T13:55:38.367148Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,41,Mainland Southeast Asia,"Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
411,InBahma,1347,1518,Bahmani Sultanate,in_bahmani_sultanate,LEGACY,,,,,2025-04-08T15:48:16.237373Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
262,KrBalha,698,926,Balhae Kingdom,kr_balhae_k,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,14,Northeast Asia,"Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
434,MlBaman,1712,1861,Bamana kingdom,ml_bamana_k,LEGACY,"The Bamana Kingdom was founded in 1712 by Biton Kulibali §REF§ (Brett-Smith 2002, 940) Sarah C. Brett-Smith. 2002. 'Bamana Identity, State Formation, and the Sources of Bamana Art'. American Anthropologist 104 (3): 939-52. §REF§ and became part of the Tukulor (or Toucouleur) empire in 1861, when El Hajj Umar Tall seized the capital, Segu. §REF§ (Oloruntimehin 1972, 141) B. Olofunmilayo Oloruntimehin. 1972. The Segu Tukulor Empire. London: Longman. §REF§ This polity derives its name from its dominant ethnic group, §REF§ (Brett-Smith 2002, 939-952) Sarah C. Brett-Smith. 2002. 'Bamana Identity, State Formation, and the Sources of Bamana Art'. American Anthropologist 104(3): 939-952. §REF§ and because an alternative name for this group is 'Bambara', some sources will refer to the 'Bambara kingdom'. §REF§ (Izard and Ki-Zerbo 1992, 329-338) Michel Izard and Joseph Ki-Zerbo. 1992. 'From the Niger to the Volta' in ""General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries"", edited by Bethwell Allan Ogot. London: Heinemann. §REF§ Because this was not the only Bambara kingdom at the time, it is often known as the Bambara Kingdom of Segu, from the name of its capital. French spellings of some of these names are also commonly found in the literature ‒ for example, Kulibali is sometimes spelled Coulibaly and Segu is sometimes spelled Segou. §REF§ (Brett-Smith 2002, 940) Sarah C. Brett-Smith. 2002. 'Bamana Identity, State Formation, and the Sources of Bamana Art'. American Anthropologist 104(3): 939-52. §REF§
The kingdom was located in the Niger Bend, in West Africa. Between 1725 and 1751, under Biton's leadership, the Bamana of Segu conquered the whole of Bamana territory (including the Beledugu region, Jenne, and Timbuktu), and took Niani, the capital of the Mali Empire. §REF§ (Izard and Ki-Zerbo 1992, 333) Michel Izard and Joseph Ki-Zerbo. 1992. 'From the Niger to the Volta', in General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries, edited by Bethwell Allan Ogot, 327-67. London: Heinemann. §REF§ After a series of weak successors, Ngolo Diarra (1766‒1790) strengthened the kingdom's hold over Timbuktu and Macina and conquered part of Dogon country. §REF§ (Izard and Ki-Zerbo 1992, 333-34) Michel Izard and Joseph Ki-Zerbo. 1992. 'From the Niger to the Volta', in General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries, edited by Bethwell Allan Ogot, 327-67. London: Heinemann. §REF§ The Bamana Kingdom reached its greatest size under the rule of Monson Diarra (1792‒1808), who extended Segu power from San to Timbuktu, and from the Land of the Dogons to Kaarta. §REF§ (Izard and Ki-Zerbo 1992, 334) Michel Izard and Joseph Ki-Zerbo. 1992. 'From the Niger to the Volta', in General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries, edited by Bethwell Allan Ogot, 327-67. London: Heinemann. §REF§
Population and Political Organization
The Bamana kingdom was ruled by single leader, known as the faama, who also led the army and was advised by an assembly of 40 men, including warriors and holy men. This assembly was based on a pre-existing Bamana institution known as fla-n-ton or ton, that is, an association of young men who had undergone circumcision together. With exceptions like Biton Kulibali and Ngolo Diarra, it seems that most faama were weak and ineffectual, at the mercy of the assembly. Stronger rulers, however, were able to govern with few constraints. §REF§ (Izard and Ki-Zerbo 1992, 333-34) Michel Izard and Joseph Ki-Zerbo. 1992. 'From the Niger to the Volta', in General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries, edited by Bethwell Allan Ogot, 327-67. London: Heinemann. §REF§
It is also worth noting that slavery was an important institution in the Bamana kingdom: the trade in slaves for guns and horses lay at the heart of the power of this nascent 'warrior-state'. §REF§ (Brett-Smith 2002, 941) Sarah C. Brett-Smith. 2002. 'Bamana Identity, State Formation, and the Sources of Bamana Art'. American Anthropologist 104 (3): 939-52. §REF§
No official population estimates could be found for the Bamana Kingdom. However, the kingdom covered about half the territory of modern Mali, Guinea and Senegal, and the total population of these three countries in 1960 was around 12 million. §REF§ (World Bank 2016) World Bank, World DataBank. 2016. 'Mali: Population, total' [dataset]. Retrieved from http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=ML&view=chart. §REF§ §REF§ (World Bank 2016) World Bank, World DataBank. 2016. 'Guinea: Population, total' [dataset]. Retrieved from http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?end=1960&locations=GN&start=1960&view=chart. §REF§ §REF§ (World Bank 2016) World Bank, World DataBank. 2016. 'Senegal: Population, total' [dataset]. Retrieved from http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?end=1960&locations=SN&start=1960&view=chart. §REF§ No reference could be found to a population crash between 1800 and 1960, but demographic growth was probably slower in the 19th century than in the 20th century. The population of the Bamana Kingdom in 1800 may have numbered three or four million people.
",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",6.0,Niger Inland Delta,Sahel,-3.041703000000,16.717549000000,Timbuctu,ML,Mali,Africa,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
828,ba_bosnia_banate,1154,1376,Banate of Bosnia,ba_bosnia_banate,OTHER_TAG,,Banate of Bosnia,,2024-04-09T14:06:42.415836Z,2024-04-09T14:06:42.415847Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,19,Southeastern Europe,"Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
226,IbBnGhn,1126,1227,Banu Ghaniya,ib_banu_ghaniya,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,3,Maghreb,From Morocco to Libya,"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
481,IqBazi*,-1005,-986,Bazi Dynasty,iq_bazi_dyn,LEGACY,"This period begins with the ascension of the founder of the Bazi dynasty, Eulmash-shakin-shumi in 1005 BCE after a turbulent period of famine and invasions. §REF§ (Brinkman, 297) Brinkman, J.A. 1982. “Babylonia.” In The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 3, Part 1: The Prehistory of the Balkans, the Middle East and the Aegean World, Tenth to Eighth Centuries B.C., edited by John Boardman, I.E.S. Edwards, N.G.L. Hammond, and E. Sollberger, 282-312. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IWUWJEQ3. §REF§
There were four main settlement types during this period: the capital city of Babylon, secondary provincial cities, smaller towns, and villages. Although the capital city was Babylon, it was the city of Kar-Marduk where the king resided, potentially as this was located in a less vulnerable area. §REF§ Liverani, M. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge. p.364-370 §REF§
Although all settlements were joined under the king, political and economic crisis led to all major cities running their own affairs and so they held some level of autonomy. Temples acted as the centres of resources, policy and activity in each area and the sanga / shangum (chief priest) was an administrative as well as religious role. §REF§ (Liverani 2014, 471) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani. §REF§ §REF§ (McIntosh 2005: 206) McIntosh, J. 2005. Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD. §REF§
Written records, scripts, poems, religious texts and ‘scientific’ literature increased during this period.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",8.0,Southern Mesopotamia,Levant-Mesopotamia,44.420000000000,32.470000000000,Babylon (Hillah),IQ,Iraq,Southwest Asia,62,Mesopotamia,"Iraq, Kuwait","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
447,FrBeakr,-3200,-2000,Beaker Culture,fr_beaker_eba,LEGACY,"In the late 3rd millennium BCE, new forms of material culture spread across the former megalithic zone of Neolithic Europe. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 55) McIntosh, J. 2006. Handbook to Life in Prehistoric Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B5R92FJH. §REF§ §REF§ (Sherratt 1994, 250) Sherratt, Andrew. 1994. ""The emergence of elites: earlier Bronze Age Europe, 2500-1300 BC."" in B. Cunliffe (ed.) The Oxford illustrated prehistory of Europe: 244-276. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM. §REF§ §REF§ (Milisauskas and Kruk 2002, 252) Milisauskas, Sarunas, and Janusz Kruk. 2002. “Late Neolithic Crises, Collapse, New Ideologies, and Economies, 3500/3000-2200/2000 BC.” In European Prehistory: A Survey, edited by Sarunas Milisauskas, 247-69. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ERGSEABJ. §REF§ The Beaker, or Bell-Beaker, §REF§ (Milisauskas and Kruk 2002, 248) Milisauskas, Sarunas, and Janusz Kruk. 2002. “Late Neolithic Crises, Collapse, New Ideologies, and Economies, 3500/3000-2200/2000 BC.” In European Prehistory: A Survey, edited by Sarunas Milisauskas, 247-69. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ERGSEABJ. §REF§ phenomenon is named after a characteristic drinking vessel, which had an inverted bell shape and was decorated with incisions. §REF§ (Sherratt 1994, 250-251) Sherratt, Andrew. 1994. ""The emergence of elites: earlier Bronze Age Europe, 2500-1300 BC."" in B. Cunliffe (ed.) The Oxford illustrated prehistory of Europe: 244-276. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM. §REF§ Other features of this cultural 'package' include individual burials in round mounds, sets of weapons and metals, and other precious items. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 26) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ. §REF§
The phenomenon started in what is now the Netherlands and expanded into Britain, Brittany, southern Spain and then into most of continental France, Belgium, Switzerland and Western Europe in the form of small pockets of activity. §REF§ (Sherratt 1994, 246) Sherratt, Andrew. 1994. ""The emergence of elites: earlier Bronze Age Europe, 2500-1300 BC."" in B. Cunliffe (ed.) The Oxford illustrated prehistory of Europe: 244-276. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM. §REF§ §REF§ (Milisauskas and Kruk 2002, 214) Milisauskas, Sarunas, and Janusz Kruk. 2002. “Late Neolithic Crises, Collapse, New Ideologies, and Economies, 3500/3000-2200/2000 BC.” In European Prehistory: A Survey, edited by Sarunas Milisauskas, 247-69. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ERGSEABJ. §REF§
Population and political organization
Beaker society was organized into myriad stratified polities of varying sizes. Some were composed of small, dispersed communities with 10 to 20 domestic units, §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 25) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ. §REF§ but larger groups could gather into fortified settlements: Los Millares in Spain was home to 1000-1500 people. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 26) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ. §REF§ The Beaker culture is also associated with demographic growth in Europe, as the small-scale polities moved into previously marginal lands. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 26) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ. §REF§
The spread of this material culture has been interpreted as evidence for a wide set of circulation networks, fuelled by elite demand for prestige goods. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 26) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ. §REF§ The items may have been exchanged on the occasion of social rituals consolidating the power of emerging leaders. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 26) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ. §REF§ In this interpretation, the archaeologically visible spread of Beaker culture would not be tied to immigration but to the emergence of mobile ways of life, §REF§ (Sherratt 1994, 250-251) Sherratt, Andrew. 1994. ""The emergence of elites: earlier Bronze Age Europe, 2500-1300 BC."" in B. Cunliffe (ed.) The Oxford illustrated prehistory of Europe: 244-276. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/STUGR4MM. §REF§ with independent leaders affirming their belonging to a wider cultural sphere through the consumption and display of valuable items. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 26) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ. §REF§
Beaker people built on the legacy of their early Neolithic predecessors, reusing and modifying ceremonial structures such as Stonehenge. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 28) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ. §REF§ However they distinguished themselves through their burial customs, preferring single burials in grave pits to passage and gallery graves. In certain areas, such as the Iberian Peninsula or southern France, they occasionally reused ancient megalithic structures. §REF§ (Clop Garcia 2001, 28-29) Garcia, Xavier Clop. 2001. “Bell Beaker.” In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, edited by Peter Neal Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 4:24-31. New York: Springer US. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ. §REF§ ",,,,2024-04-15T15:39:50.374042Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",2.0,Paris Basin,Western Europe,2.312458000000,48.866111000000,Paris,FR,France,Europe,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
409,BdBengl,1338,1538,Bengal Sultanate,bd_bengal_sultanate,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,37,Eastern South Asia,"Bangladesh + Indian states of West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and Sikkim","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
672,ni_benin_emp,1140,1897,Benin Empire,ni_benin_emp,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
861,tr_candar_bey,1291,1461,Beylik of Candar,tr_candar_bey,OTHER_TAG,,Beylik of Isfendiyar,,2024-04-10T10:22:18.974378Z,2024-04-10T10:22:18.974393Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
847,tr_karaman_bey,1250,1487,Beylik of Karaman,tr_karaman_bey,OTHER_TAG,,Beylik of Karaman,,2024-04-10T08:47:45.437183Z,2024-04-10T08:47:45.437197Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
413,InBijap,1470,1686,Bijapur Sultanate,in_bijapur_sultanate,LEGACY,,,,,2025-04-08T15:49:24.595109Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
535,UgBito,1700,1894,Bito Dynasty,ug_bunyoro_k_2,LEGACY,,,,,2023-10-30T17:40:10.647554Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,1,Central Africa,Angola and DRC,"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
904,bo_bolivia_rep,1825,1952,Bolivia - Independence and Republican Era,bo_bolivia_rep,OTHER_TAG,,,,2024-10-16T09:33:47.632873Z,2024-10-16T09:33:47.632893Z,,,,,,,,,,,32,Andes,From Ecuador to Chile,"{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}"
905,bo_bolivia_modern,1953,2024,Bolivia - Modern Era,bo_bolivia_modern,OTHER_TAG,,,,2024-10-16T09:35:44.049773Z,2024-10-16T09:35:44.049791Z,,,,,,,,,,,32,Andes,From Ecuador to Chile,"{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}"
802,de_brandenburg_2,1618,1870,Brandenburg-Prussia,de_hohenzollern_2,OTHER_TAG,"This period marks the rise of Brandenburg-Prussia from a principality to a leading European power, culminating in the unification of Germany, laying the groundwork for the modern German state.
It started with the personal union of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia under John Sigismund of the Hohenzollern dynasty in 1618. This union expanded Brandenburg's territorial reach and changed its political and religious landscape, combining Prussia's Lutheran territories with the predominantly Calvinist Brandenburg.§REF§Heinz Immekeppel, Das Herzogtum Preussen von 1603 Bis 1618, Studien zur Geschichte Preussens Bd. 24 (Köln: G. Grote, 1975). Zotero link: XUFQZXAA§REF§
The Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which concluded the Thirty Years' War, marked a turning point, granting Brandenburg-Prussia significant territorial expansions and sovereignty over its affairs, free from Imperial interference.§REF§Arndt, Der Dreißigjährige Krieg. Zotero link: PULFEDKX§REF§
Under the ""Great Elector"" Frederick William (1640-1688), Brandenburg-Prussia underwent a series of sweeping reforms aimed at centralizing authority. He is credited with laying the administrative foundations of the Prussian state.§REF§Barbara Beuys, Der Große Kurfürst: der Mann, der Preußen schuf, Rororo rororo - Sachbuch 7820 (Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowohlt-Taschenbuch-Verl, 1984). Zotero link: G9K39WS5§REF§
Frederick III, Elector of Brandenburg was coronated as King Frederick I in Prussia in 1701. The elevation to kingdom status was part of the Treaty of Utrecht and a reward for Prussia's alliance with the Holy Roman Empire during the War of the Spanish Succession. By becoming a king, Frederick I aimed to elevate Prussia's prestige and influence among European powers.§REF§Otto Hintze, Die Hohenzollern und ihr Werk: 1415 - 1915, Reprint d. Originalausg. Berlin, Parey, 1915 / mit e. Geleitw. von W. Knopp u.e. Vorw. von W. Hubatsch. (Hamburg Berlin: Parey, 1987). Zotero link: 83G7KCF2§REF§
The 18th century saw the rise of Prussia as a major military power under the leadership of Frederick William I and his son, Frederick II, known as Frederick the Great. Frederick William I's focus on military organization and state infrastructure further strengthened Prussia's foundations, while Frederick the Great's military successes, particularly during the Silesian Wars and the Seven Years' War, established Prussia as a leading European power and expanded its territories significantly§REF§Biographie, “Friedrich der Große - Deutsche Biographie.” Zotero link: AF7NP8Z9§REF§
The Napoleonic Wars and the Congress of Vienna in 1815 reshaped the European political landscape. The reforms initiated in response to the Napoleonic occupation, including the abolition of serfdom, the reform of the judiciary, and the introduction of municipal self-governance, modernized the Prussian state and society.§REF§Heinz Duchhardt, Der Wiener Kongress: die Neugestaltung Europas 1814/15, Beck’sche Reihe. Wissen 2778 (München: C.H. Beck, 2013). Zotero link: KQ7ZZYPE§REF§
The 19th century was marked by the growing sentiments of nationalism and liberalism across Europe, leading to the revolutions of 1848. In Prussia, these revolutionary currents led to demands for constitutional government and national unification. While the immediate revolutionary fervor was subdued, the seeds for German unification were sown.§REF§Dieter Hein, Die Revolution von 1848/49, 6., durchgesehene und aktualisierte Auflage., C.H. Beck Wissen 2019 (München: C.H. Beck, 2019). Zotero link: F929SJQT§REF§
The unification of Germany was achieved under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck, the Prussian Prime Minister, through a series of diplomatic maneuvers and three decisive wars: the Danish War (1864), the Austro-Prussian War (1866), and the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). The victory in the Franco-Prussian War and the proclamation of the German Empire in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles in January 1871 marked the culmination of Brandenburg-Prussia's rise from a small principality to the heart of a unified German state.§REF§Helmut Böhme, Die Reichsgründung (Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 1967). Zotero link: TD42N4CS§REF§",,,2024-01-26T14:19:29.747465Z,2024-03-12T09:42:55.795821Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
778,BdEastIndiaCompany,1757,1858,British East India Company,in_east_india_co,OTHER_TAG,,,,,2023-11-20T10:53:54.606866Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,37,Eastern South Asia,"Bangladesh + Indian states of West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and Sikkim","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
587,gb_british_emp_1,1690,1849,British Empire I,gb_british_emp_1,LEGACY,"
The British Empire consisted of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by England (later as Britain after the Union Act of 1707).
The foundations of the Empire began in the early seventeenth century when England established overseas trading posts in North America, Africa, India, South Asia and the West Indies. By 1600 the East India Company had already established trading posts in India. In 1661 the first permanent British settlement was made on James Island on the Gambia River in Africa.
British American colonies were well established in New England, Virginia, and Maryland by 1670. After a series of wars with France and the Netherlands in the seventeenth century, Britain also acquired Quebec in 1759 and become the dominant colonial power in North America. Following the American War of Independence (1776-83) Britain lost its thirteen American colonies. Many loyalists from the US migrated to Canada, further growing the empire’s colonies there.
By 1757 Britain had also become the leading power in the Indian subcontinent, after the East India Company, under the colonial administrator, Robert Clive, defeated the Mughal Empire and overthrew the Nawabs.
By the 1840s Britain had acquired more settlements in Australia, and New Zealand became a British domain, while control was extended to islands in the Pacific Ocean such as Fiji, Tonga and Papua.",,,,2023-11-20T11:00:44.261539Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",15.0,Deccan,Central India,76.625407000000,15.386856000000,Kampli,DEC,India,South Asia,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
786,gb_british_emp_2,1850,1968,British Empire II,gb_british_emp_2,OTHER_TAG,"
The British Empire consisted of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was a constitutional monarchy. Governors, Proconsuls, and Viceroys were tasked with translating directives from London into forms that were suited to conditions in the colonies. §REF§ (Burroughs 1999) Peter Burroughs. Imperial institutions and the Government of Empire. Andrew Porter. ed. 1999. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume III: The Nineteenth Century. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§
At its peak, at the end of the nineteenth century, the British Empire was the largest empire in history, comprising territories of almost one-quarter of the worlds land surface, and a population that was one-quarter of the entire world’s population.
By 1858 the British Crown had taken full control of India from the East India Company after the mutiny and rebellion against the EIC in 1857. British India was then renamed as the British Raj. This lasted until the end of this polity period with the independence of India from the British Empire.
A system of self-governance was gradually applied to some colonies after the independence of the American colonies. Dominion status was given to Canada (1867), Australia (1901), New Zealand (1907), the Union of South Africa (1910), and the Irish Free State (1921).
Following World Wars I and II, the call for independence for the British territories and colonies across the Empire gained momentum. The breakup of the Empire began in 1947 when India was granted full independence, quickly followed by Pakistan, Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) and Burma.
At the same time that the breakup of the empire began, The Commonwealth of Nations was established.
The remaining territories would not be granted independence until after the end of this polity period. African colonies gained independence starting with the Gold Coast in 1957. In 1997 the last major colony of Hong Kong was returned to China.",,MB: gb_british_emp_222222 must be temporary.,2023-11-03T19:43:55.307566Z,2025-03-14T09:53:53.240837Z,"{'id': 22, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
35,KhMekBA,-1200,-501,Bronze Age Cambodia,kh_cambodia_ba,LEGACY,"Provide a descriptive paragraph detailing the key features of the polity, which will help understanding the codes below.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",17.0,Cambodian Basin,Siam,103.866700000000,13.412500000000,Angkor Wat,KH,Cambodia,Southeast Asia,41,Mainland Southeast Asia,"Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
816,gb_brythonic_k,410,1283,Brythonic Kingdoms,gb_brythonic_k,OTHER_TAG,This quasipolity refers to the Brythonic-speaking kingdoms that emerged in western Britain and Brittany after the withdrawal of the Roman Empire in the early fifth century. They persisted in some form until the final conquest of Wales by Edward I of England in 1283.,"Brythons, Kingdom of Gwynedd, Kingdom of Powys, Kingdom of Brycheiniog, Kingdom of Gwent, Kingdom of Morgannwg, Kingdom of Rheged, Dumnonia, Strathclyde, Cornwall, Kingdom of Seisyllwg",,2024-04-09T07:43:59.657759Z,2024-04-09T07:43:59.657772Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
683,Classical Buganda,1700,1894,Buganda,ug_buganda_k_2,POL_AFR_EAST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
685,Early Buganda copy,1450,1699,Buganda,ug_buganda_k_1,POL_AFR_EAST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
694,Bugesera,1700,1799,Bugesera,rw_bugesera_k,POL_AFR_EAST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
696,Buhaya,1700,1890,Buhaya,tz_buhayo_k,POL_AFR_EAST,,,,,2024-10-16T08:57:51.040129Z,"{'id': 82, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
308,BgErBlg,681,864,Bulgaria - Early,bg_bulgaria_early,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,19,Southeastern Europe,"Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
312,BgMdBlg,865,1018,Bulgaria - Middle,bg_bulgaria_medieval,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,19,Southeastern Europe,"Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
690,Burundi,1680,1903,Burundi,bu_burundi_k,POL_AFR_EAST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
362,IrBuyid,932,1062,Buyid Confederation,ir_buyid_confederation,LEGACY,"The Buyid dynasty originated from Shahrud Valley in northwestern Iran. Ali b. Buya, a soldier in the Abbasid state, began taking territory by forced after being removed from his position as administrator of Karaj. By 934 CE, he had reached Fars. §REF§ (Busse 1975, 253-254) H Busse. 1975. Iran under the Buyids. In Frye, R. N. (ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran. Volume 4. The period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuq's. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.253-4 §REF§ In 945 CE the Buyids claimed Baghdad and Basra creating for themselves a stable base of power in Mesopotamia. §REF§ (Donohue 2003, 2-11) J J Donohue. 2003. The Buwayhid Dynasty in Iraq 334H./945 to 403H./1012. Leiden: Brill. p. 2-11 §REF§
The Buyid ruler was known as an amir or shahanshah, the latter ""more a recognition of seniority within the family than an office with authority"". §REF§ (Kennedy 2004) Hugh N Kennedy. 2004. The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates. Second edition. Pearson Longman. Harlow. §REF§ The Buyids were essentially a provincial military aristocracy with an army composed partly of Daylamite infantry and slave Turkish cavalry. The regiments of the Buyid Princes often fought one another while the central government increasingly became ineffectual. ""The Buyid state was divided into several appanages, of which Shiraz and Baghdad were the most important, each held by a different member of the family."" §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 43) A C S Peacock. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh §REF§
In theory the Buyid amirs were governors under the Abbasid caliph who remained in Baghdad with powers to appoint religious officials, §REF§ (Kennedy 2004, 216) Hugh N Kennedy. 2004. The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates. Second edition. Pearson Longman. Harlow. §REF§ and continued to be symbolically important (in Iraq) appearing on coinage and grants of land. Although Baghdad was the most important political, economic and religious center, whose amir's chief secretary of the bureaucracy was formally granted the title of vizier §REF§ (Donohue 2003, 140) John J Donohue. 2003. The Buwayhid Dynasty in Iraq. BRILL §REF§ , Fars was the heartland of the empire, with all civil servants being drawn from there. §REF§ (Busse 1975, 271) H Busse. 1975. Iran under the Būyids. In Frye, R. N. (ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran. Volume 4. The period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuq's. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.271 §REF§ The Buyids replaced previous established bureaucratic families with Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians.
The Buyids paid their military using iqta holdings whereby ""in lieu of salary an amir would be granted the right to collect the taxes of a given area. An iqta could thus vary in size from a whole province to much smaller subdivision, to a single town or village."" However, ""Under the Buyids, this system was widely credited with economic disaster, as absentee amirs sought to reap the swiftest possible profits before their iqta was removed them."" §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 79) A C S Peacock. 2015. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§
",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",9.0,Susiana,Levant-Mesopotamia,48.235564000000,32.382851000000,Susa (Shush),IR,Iran,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
73,TrByzM1,632,866,Byzantine Empire I,tr_byzantine_emp_1,LEGACY,"The first Byzantine period, which lasts from 632 CE in the reign of Heraclius (r.610-641 CE) to 866 CE at the end of the reign of Michael III (r.842-867 CE) §REF§ (Haussig 1971, Chronological Table) H W Haussig. J M Hussey, trans. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ was in many ways characterized by the Greek response to the Arab expansion. This and other developments led to a dramatic transformation of Byzantium with regard to dimension and complexity of the society. §REF§ (Johannes Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences §REF§
The signature change was the reform of Byzantine control of the regions with the introduction of themes introduced under Constantine IV 668-685 CE §REF§ (Haussig 1971, Chronological Table) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ headed by commanders called strategi. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 178) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ This was a progressive development as provinces still existed with the first themes, the last European theme (Nicopolis or Dalmatia) being set up about 900 CE. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 96-97) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§
Reform of the regions into themes was directly reflected with administrative reforms at the capital. At the professional imperial administration in Constantinople, taxation and military administration was 'fused' about 680 CE into a single office called 'logothete tou stratiotikou.' ""In this office, taxation and military administration were made the responsibility of one minister in the central government. The officials concerned with the muster rolls of the soldiers and with the collection of the annona were thus combined in a single functionary."" §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 97-98) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§
From Justinian II (r.668-711 CE) the strategi gained powers of tax collection and each individual theme had a logothete who behaved like the logothete tou stratiotikou in Constantinople. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 98) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ ""Thus there grew up this fusion of military and civil authority which spread over the whole Empire with the introduction of the themes and undermined the control exercised by the state."" §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 97) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ However, while control from the center was lost, the Byzantines gained the ability to more flexibly respond to external threats.
After the shock of losing 1 million km2 of territory by 700 CE to the expanding Islamic Caliphate the reforms eventually appear to have put the Byzantine state, and its 5 million inhabitants, on a stronger footing. While the 695-717 CE period was known for being a period of anarchy by the ninth century military success had slightly increased the land area to 520,000 km2. §REF§ (Johannes Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences) §REF§ Basileus Theophilus (r.829-842 CE) was able to finance a major construction spree. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 169) Haussig, H W.trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ ",,,,2024-05-07T17:04:48.385331Z,"{'id': 41, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",11.0,Konya Plain,Anatolia-Caucasus,32.521164000000,37.877845000000,Konya,TR,Turkey,Southwest Asia,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
75,TrByzM2,867,1072,Byzantine Empire II,tr_byzantine_emp_2,LEGACY,"The phase of the Byzantine Empire from 867-1072 CE is commonly known as the Macedonian Dynasty (867-1056 CE), which the dates approximate. The Byzantine culture of the period was a military and aristocratic one with palaces serving ""not only as imperial residences but also as administrative centres. They were placed prominently in the centre of cities and surpassed all other public buildings in scale and ostentation."" §REF§ (Bakirtzis 2008, 374) E Jeffreys. J Haldon. R Cormack. eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§
In the previous period the Byzantines responded to the Arab conquests with the creation of themes, whose local commander governors could raise taxes, that enabled the Byzantine elites and their thematic armies to respond more rapidly to external threats with the result of less centralized control. In this era the powers of the themes were drawn back: the number of officials within the thematic administrations increased and by the end of the period the strategos, military governor, was replaced by a krites (judge). §REF§ (Cheynet 2008, 522) E Jeffreys. J Haldon. R Cormack. eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ In the early eleventh century Basil II brought in a professional army directed from Constantinople called the tagmata, which lead to the disappearance of the thematic armies. §REF§ (Cheynet 2008, 521) E Jeffreys. J Haldon. R Cormack. eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§
The professional Byzantine civil service and palace staff was ""relatively small, and mostly composed of humble clerks or custodians"", although there were some very rich bureaucrats and dignitaries. §REF§ (Treadgold 1997, 552) Warren Treadgold. 1997. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press. Stanford. §REF§ In the 10th CE the most important official was the Grand Chamberlain, who worked in the Great Palace, and was especially influential during periods of regency or when the Emperor was on military campaign. §REF§ (Treadgold 1997, 550) Warren Treadgold. 1997. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press. Stanford. §REF§
A significant codification of Byzantine law occurred in this period when Leo VI (886-912 CE) in six volumes and sixty books (variously called the Exavivlos or the Vasilika (Basilika)) presented in the Greek language ""virtually all the laws in the Justinian Corpus, arranged here (as it had not been before) in a systematic manner."" §REF§ (Gregory 2010, 253-254) Timothy E Gregory. 2010. A History of Byzantium. Second Edition. Wiley-Blackwell. Chichester. §REF§ A resurgence of literature began, in the early ninth CE, after the Iconoclasm had motivated copying and reading of religious literature. Intellectuals began to receive government positions under ""iconoclast emperors"". Emperor Theophilus founded Magnaura Palace school, ""the empire's first known public school since the reign of Heraclius."" §REF§ (Treadgold 1997, 559-561) Warren Treadgold. 1997. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press. Stanford. §REF§
The peak of Byzantine military power and international prestige was under Emperor Basil II who conquered the Bulgarian Empire and continued Byzantine expansion into Syria and Armenia. §REF§ (Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Johannes Preiser-Kapeller. Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences §REF§",,,,2024-01-08T15:48:32.982101Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",11.0,Konya Plain,Anatolia-Caucasus,32.521164000000,37.877845000000,Konya,TR,Turkey,Southwest Asia,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
76,TrByzM3,1073,1204,Byzantine Empire III,tr_byzantine_emp_3,LEGACY,"The Byzantine period (1073-1204 CE) began with Michael VII Ducas (r.1071-1078 CE §REF§ (Haussig 1971, Chronological Table) H W Haussig. J M Hussey, trans. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ and ended in disintegration with court in-fighting over the regency agenda for Manuel's heir Alexios II §REF§ (Holmes 2008, 276) E Jeffreys. J Haldon. R Cormack. eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ , which preceded the devastating 1204 CE conquest of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade. §REF§ (Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences §REF§ The state had controlled about 500,000 km2 territory and upwards of 6 million people.
In ideology the Byzantine Empire carried the Roman worldview of its rightful domain of influence. Byzantine Emperors ""recognized neither the western Frankish Empire nor the Bulgarian Emperor"" and ""never gave up its claims to universal rule. It claimed to be at the apex of the family of kings; it was the father, they were the sons."" §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 201) H W Haussig. J M Hussey, trans. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ The reality was that, although the state could maintain a professional army of over 100,000 soldiers, §REF§ (Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences) §REF§ increasingly the Byzantine state was dependent on allies for the the projection of military power. ""Emperors from the time of Basil II found it cheaper to call upon allies and dependents, such as Venice, to supply warships, than to pay for an expensive standing fleet at Constantinople."" §REF§ (Haldon 2008, 560) E Jeffreys. J Haldon. R Cormack. eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§
Nevertheless the Byzantine government was, in terms of sophistication, with its legion of professional officials employed on state salary, a cut-above that which was present in the western states of the middle ages. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 54) Haussig, H W. trans Hussey, J M. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization. Thames and Hudson. §REF§ §REF§ (Preiser-Kapeller 2015) Institute for Medieval Research, Division of Byzantine Research, Austrian Academy of Sciences) §REF§ The Emperor headed a complex imperial government that was led by a Mesazon (Prime minister) who had secretaries and an official called Master of Petitions who took feedback from the people. Provinces were governed by doukes (provincial governors) who had provincial administrations staffed with multiple levels of fiscal administrators. §REF§ (Haldon 2008, 550) E Jeffreys. J Haldon. R Cormack. eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",4.0,Crete,Southeastern Europe,25.144200000000,35.338700000000,Heraklion,GR,Greece,Europe,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
22,USMisEW,-600,-150,Cahokia - Early Woodland,us_woodland_1,LEGACY,"2000 BCEPeriod of population growth begins §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) §REF§
1 CE
c1 CE ""large quantities of native cultigens began to be incorporated into midcontinental diets. §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) §REF§
100 CEMaize appears in the archaeological record §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
Atlatl is the contemporary weapon §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
""periodic rituals at ceremonial mound centers"" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
""groups ensured access to needed resources through maintenance of alliance-exchange relationships"" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
200 CE
300 CEEarly arrowheads appear. ""Beginning A.D. 300-400, the bow replaced the atlatl in most regions"" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
In the Mississippian region (Midwest and Upland South) the transition from atlatl to bow was ""relatively rapid because dart points disappear from the archaeological record"" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
Introduction of the bow in the Mississippi region decreased social complexity because it caused the collapse of the Hopewell system, the abandonment of mound centers and alliance-exchange relationships §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
Bow enabled a new bow and native crops subsistence strategy which lead to a movement to and the effective exploitation of previously marginal lands and ""household autonomy"" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
There followed an economic intensification and population growth which eventually ""packed the landscape with settlements."" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",28.0,Cahokia,Mississippi Basin,-90.062035000000,38.658938000000,St. Louis,USMO,United States,North America,24,Mississippi Basin,From the Great Lakes to Louisiana,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
27,USMisSp,750,900,Cahokia - Emergent Mississippian I,us_emergent_mississippian_1,LEGACY,"The Sponemann-Collinsville-Loyd Period at Cahokia (750-900 CE) is significant for being a foundational period for later social developments at Cahokia. At this time appears the first signs of warfare, an increase in social complexity and more widespread consumption of farmed crops like maize.
The increase in social complexity was reflected in settlements with houses clustered into court-yard groups. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§ While there is little evidence for warfare in the preceding Middle Woodland §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§ from c800 CE there is evidence of inter-group violence as human bones have been recovered with arrow points embedded into them in individual and group burials. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§ Some settlements even gained palisades and ditches §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§ , although at this time they were present at only a tiny fraction of all sites (0.5% between 800-950 CE §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) G R Milner. G Chaplin. E Zavodny. 2013. Conflict and Societal Change in Late Prehistoric Eastern North America. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:96-102. Wiley. §REF§ ). After 700-800 CE there was a dramatic intensification of food production, particularly of maize farming, which brought higher yields and enabled more food to be extracted from a smaller territory and would lead to population growth. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§ §REF§ (Iseminger 2010, 26) W R Iseminger. 2010. Cahokia Mounds: America's First City. The History Press. Charleston. §REF§ §REF§ (Milner 2006, xx) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§
The evidence suggests communities experienced increased differentiation of social roles, with individuals dedicated to ""community defense, organization of labor, and communal storage of maize in secure central places"". §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§ The Upper Mississippi region was populated by a number of small communities. The population of largest settlement was probably in the region of 500 people - although this population was not resident at the site that later became Cahokia.
",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",28.0,Cahokia,Mississippi Basin,-90.062035000000,38.658938000000,St. Louis,USMO,United States,North America,24,Mississippi Basin,From the Great Lakes to Louisiana,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
34,USMisME,900,1049,Cahokia - Emergent Mississippian II,us_emergent_mississippian_2,LEGACY,"In the Emergent Mississippian Period (900-1050 CE) the Upper Mississippi region was populated by a number of small communities. The population of the largest settlement was probably in the region of 500 people - but a population is not thought to have been resident at the site that later became Cahokia until towards the end of the period.
In this period the trends established in the Sponemann-Collinsville-Loyd Period continued. Maize farming was intensified and consumption increased creating higher yields and needs for storage and larger populations. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§ §REF§ (Milner 2006, xx) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§ Paregrine and Trubitt (2014) note that Cahokia was an excellent environment for growing maize and its geographic location meant it was easily accessible from many directions. §REF§ (Peregrine/Trubitt 2014, 20) Peregrine P, Ortman S, Rupley, E. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ It is thought that many different groups created the initial settlement at Cahokia, bringing with them a social structure. §REF§ (Peregrine/Iseminger 2014, 27) Peregrine P, Ortman S, Rupley, E. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§
The levels of social complexity in Emergent Mississippian societies were increasing creating specialised social roles for ""community defense, organization of labor, and communal storage of maize"". Settlements now consisted of court-yard clusters and ""toward [1000 CE], the southern pattern of civic-ceremonial centers with large earthen mounds was established in many places."" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§ Warfare appears to have become established. The percentage of sites that were palisaded increased throughout this period from 0.5% 800-950 CE, to 1.5% of sites 1000 CE, to 3% of sites in 1050 CE. §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) G R Milner. G Chaplin. E Zavodny. 2013. Conflict and Societal Change in Late Prehistoric Eastern North America. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:96-102. Wiley. §REF§ The nucleated nature of the settlements themselves may also have been a ""defensive response to bow warfare."" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) J H Blitz. E S Porth. 2013. Social complexity and the Bow in the Eastern Woodlands. Evolutionary Anthropology. 22:89-95. Wiley. §REF§
",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",28.0,Cahokia,Mississippi Basin,-90.062035000000,38.658938000000,St. Louis,USMO,United States,North America,24,Mississippi Basin,From the Great Lakes to Louisiana,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
24,USMisRo,300,450,Cahokia - Late Woodland I,us_woodland_3,LEGACY,"2000 BCEPeriod of population growth begins §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) §REF§
1 CE
c1 CE ""large quantities of native cultigens began to be incorporated into midcontinental diets. §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) §REF§
100 CEMaize appears in the archaeological record §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
Atlatl is the contemporary weapon §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
""periodic rituals at ceremonial mound centers"" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
""groups ensured access to needed resources through maintenance of alliance-exchange relationships"" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
200 CE
300 CEEarly arrowheads appear. ""Beginning A.D. 300-400, the bow replaced the atlatl in most regions"" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
In the Mississippian region (Midwest and Upland South) the transition from atlatl to bow was ""relatively rapid because dart points disappear from the archaeological record"" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
Introduction of the bow in the Mississippi region decreased social complexity because it caused the collapse of the Hopewell system, the abandonment of mound centers and alliance-exchange relationships §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
Bow enabled a new bow and native crops subsistence strategy which lead to a movement to and the effective exploitation of previously marginal lands and ""household autonomy"" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
There followed an economic intensification and population growth which eventually ""packed the landscape with settlements."" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
400 CE
500 CE
""The greatest environmental hazard would have been a late summer Mississippi River flood similar to the one that took place in 1993. A rise in the river at that time of the year simultaneously drowned crops, prevented easy fishing in shallow ponds, and ruined food stored in underground pits. Floods attributable to severe storms, including excessive water funnelled into the floodplain by creeks that drain the uplands, certainly caused localized disasters much like they did a century ago before effective flood-control measures were put in place."" §REF§ (Milner 2006, 168) §REF§
""No other major site was as advantageously situated. Cahokia was located in what was by far the widest expanse of land suitable for settlement in the American Bottom. More people could live there than anywhere else ... The high ground where Cahokia was located was bordered on the north and south by large tracts of low-lying land that received the waters of different upland streams."" §REF§ (Milner 2006, 168) §REF§
",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",28.0,Cahokia,Mississippi Basin,-90.062035000000,38.658938000000,St. Louis,USMO,United States,North America,24,Mississippi Basin,From the Great Lakes to Louisiana,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
25,USMisMu,450,600,Cahokia - Late Woodland II,us_woodland_4,LEGACY,"2000 BCEPeriod of population growth begins §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) §REF§
1 CE
c1 CE ""large quantities of native cultigens began to be incorporated into midcontinental diets. §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) §REF§
100 CEMaize appears in the archaeological record §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
Atlatl is the contemporary weapon §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
""periodic rituals at ceremonial mound centers"" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
""groups ensured access to needed resources through maintenance of alliance-exchange relationships"" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
200 CE
300 CEEarly arrowheads appear. ""Beginning A.D. 300-400, the bow replaced the atlatl in most regions"" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
In the Mississippian region (Midwest and Upland South) the transition from atlatl to bow was ""relatively rapid because dart points disappear from the archaeological record"" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
Introduction of the bow in the Mississippi region decreased social complexity because it caused the collapse of the Hopewell system, the abandonment of mound centers and alliance-exchange relationships §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
Bow enabled a new bow and native crops subsistence strategy which lead to a movement to and the effective exploitation of previously marginal lands and ""household autonomy"" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
There followed an economic intensification and population growth which eventually ""packed the landscape with settlements."" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
400 CE
500 CE
600 CELate arrowheads appear. ""This transition to small, thin, triangular or triangular corner-notched points has long been accepted as evidence of the bow, but variation in the morphology of late arrow point types suggest that this transition was governed by social and historical factors that varied across these regions."" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
Late arrowheads may indicate the technological development of fletching as they are less heavy and thick than the early arrowheads. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
First evidence of intergroup violence appears in the archaeological record (arrowpoints embedded in skeletons in individual and group burials). §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
No evidence for an increase in social complexity and hierarchy or deviation from the ""trend toward household autonomy"" at this time. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
""For the first time, there is evidence, in the form of group and individual burials with embedded arrow points, of the bow as the primary weapon of intergroup violence."" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
""In Middle Woodland times there isn’t much evidence for warfare."" ""Later, after about A.D. 600 there is more evidence (scalping, embedded arrow points)."" §REF§ (Peregrine/Pauketat 2014, 16) §REF§
""Population growth, reduced access to resources, sedentism, and the desire to avoid conflict made the high costs of intensified food production more attractive."" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
""trail networks also are important, and some of the historic east-west ones cross near Cahokia."" §REF§ (Peregrine/Trubitt 2014, 21) §REF§
Cahokia ""controlled a critical choke point in trade routes that spanned the midcontinent"" an idea that goes back to Brackenridge (1813 CE). §REF§ (Milner 2006, 12) §REF§
""The greatest environmental hazard would have been a late summer Mississippi River flood similar to the one that took place in 1993. A rise in the river at that time of the year simultaneously drowned crops, prevented easy fishing in shallow ponds, and ruined food stored in underground pits. Floods attributable to severe storms, including excessive water funnelled into the floodplain by creeks that drain the uplands, certainly caused localized disasters much like they did a century ago before effective flood-control measures were put in place."" §REF§ (Milner 2006, 168) §REF§
""No other major site was as advantageously situated. Cahokia was located in what was by far the widest expanse of land suitable for settlement in the American Bottom. More people could live there than anywhere else ... The high ground where Cahokia was located was bordered on the north and south by large tracts of low-lying land that received the waters of different upland streams."" §REF§ (Milner 2006, 168) §REF§
",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",28.0,Cahokia,Mississippi Basin,-90.062035000000,38.658938000000,St. Louis,USMO,United States,North America,24,Mississippi Basin,From the Great Lakes to Louisiana,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
26,USMisPa,600,750,Cahokia - Late Woodland III,us_woodland_5,LEGACY,"2000 BCEPeriod of population growth begins §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) §REF§
1 CE
c1 CE ""large quantities of native cultigens began to be incorporated into midcontinental diets. §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) §REF§
100 CEMaize appears in the archaeological record §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
Atlatl is the contemporary weapon §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
""periodic rituals at ceremonial mound centers"" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
""groups ensured access to needed resources through maintenance of alliance-exchange relationships"" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
200 CE
300 CEEarly arrowheads appear. ""Beginning A.D. 300-400, the bow replaced the atlatl in most regions"" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
In the Mississippian region (Midwest and Upland South) the transition from atlatl to bow was ""relatively rapid because dart points disappear from the archaeological record"" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
Introduction of the bow in the Mississippi region decreased social complexity because it caused the collapse of the Hopewell system, the abandonment of mound centers and alliance-exchange relationships §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
Bow enabled a new bow and native crops subsistence strategy which lead to a movement to and the effective exploitation of previously marginal lands and ""household autonomy"" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
There followed an economic intensification and population growth which eventually ""packed the landscape with settlements."" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
400 CE
500 CE
600 CELate arrowheads appear. ""This transition to small, thin, triangular or triangular corner-notched points has long been accepted as evidence of the bow, but variation in the morphology of late arrow point types suggest that this transition was governed by social and historical factors that varied across these regions."" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
Late arrowheads may indicate the technological development of fletching as they are less heavy and thick than the early arrowheads. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
First evidence of intergroup violence appears in the archaeological record (arrowpoints embedded in skeletons in individual and group burials). §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
No evidence for an increase in social complexity and hierarchy or deviation from the ""trend toward household autonomy"" at this time. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
""For the first time, there is evidence, in the form of group and individual burials with embedded arrow points, of the bow as the primary weapon of intergroup violence."" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
""In Middle Woodland times there isn’t much evidence for warfare."" ""Later, after about A.D. 600 there is more evidence (scalping, embedded arrow points)."" §REF§ (Peregrine/Pauketat 2014, 16) §REF§
""Population growth, reduced access to resources, sedentism, and the desire to avoid conflict made the high costs of intensified food production more attractive."" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
700 CE
800 CEIntensification of Maize farming begins. Higher yields from maize cultivation enables more food to be extracted from a smaller territory. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
""Although there is scattered evidence for corn, or maize, during Middle Woodland times, it wasn't until Late Woodland times, after AD 700-800, that it became an important food crop."" §REF§ (Iseminger 2010, 26) §REF§
Social complexity increases from this period. ""Site plans gained greater internal complexity as houses clustered into court-yard groups and, toward [1000 CE], the southern pattern of civic-ceremonial centers with large earthen mounds was established in many places. Nucleated settlements may have been a defensive response to bow warfare. Burials with embedded arrow points and sites fortified with palisades and ditches are widespread, although no present everywhere... New social roles linked to community defense, organization of labor, and communal storage of maize in secure central places laid the foundation for the increased group differentiation, competition, and hierarchy of the Mississippian period beginning A.D. 1000."" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
Palisades and ditches appear in the archaeological record. The first evidence of substantial intergroup warfare. §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
""trail networks also are important, and some of the historic east-west ones cross near Cahokia."" §REF§ (Peregrine/Trubitt 2014, 21) §REF§
Cahokia ""controlled a critical choke point in trade routes that spanned the midcontinent"" an idea that goes back to Brackenridge (1813 CE). §REF§ (Milner 2006, 12) §REF§
""The greatest environmental hazard would have been a late summer Mississippi River flood similar to the one that took place in 1993. A rise in the river at that time of the year simultaneously drowned crops, prevented easy fishing in shallow ponds, and ruined food stored in underground pits. Floods attributable to severe storms, including excessive water funnelled into the floodplain by creeks that drain the uplands, certainly caused localized disasters much like they did a century ago before effective flood-control measures were put in place."" §REF§ (Milner 2006, 168) §REF§
""No other major site was as advantageously situated. Cahokia was located in what was by far the widest expanse of land suitable for settlement in the American Bottom. More people could live there than anywhere else ... The high ground where Cahokia was located was bordered on the north and south by large tracts of low-lying land that received the waters of different upland streams."" §REF§ (Milner 2006, 168) §REF§
",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",28.0,Cahokia,Mississippi Basin,-90.062035000000,38.658938000000,St. Louis,USMO,United States,North America,24,Mississippi Basin,From the Great Lakes to Louisiana,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
32,USCahoE,1050,1199,Cahokia - Lohman-Stirling,us_cahokia_1,LEGACY,"Generations of archaeologists have been amazed that the geographical location of Cahokia had ""almost no inhabitants' until 1000 CE. §REF§ (Peregrine/Trubitt 2014, 20) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ Suddenly there was an influx of people of more than one group §REF§ (Peregrine/Iseminger 2014, 27) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ - the ""population surges by at least an order of magnitude within decades"" §REF§ (Peregrine 2014) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ - bringing with them to this heretofore vacant spot a new social and settlement structure and an obsession with moundbuilding. §REF§ (Milner 2006, 168) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§ Bill Romaine (2009) has noted, based on lunar alignments used at Cahokia, there were cultural similarities to a Toltec site in Arkansas. §REF§ (Peregrine/Pauketat 2014, 28) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§
The period of 1000-1150 CE is thus one of great change and demographic expansion. The previous settlement pattern of nucleated clusters of houses ""was abandoned in favor of widely scattered single-family farmsteads"" §REF§ (Milner 2006, 100) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§ between which were structures ""with special ritual and social significance."" §REF§ (Milner 2006, 101) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§ Whilst most Cahokians were self-sufficient granaries were also present. §REF§ (Peregrine/Trubitt 2014, 20) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ There were likely at least 50,000 people supported within the the 2000 Km2 region of 'greater Cahokia' §REF§ (Pauketat 2014, 15) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ of which about 15,000 lived in an area called the 'central administrative complex'. §REF§ (Pauketat 2014, 15) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§
Many archaeologists are skeptical whether there was a ruler king at Cahokia §REF§ (Iseminger 2014, 26) W R Iseminger. 2010. Cahokia Mounds: America's First City. The History Press. Charleston. §REF§ the polity more likely led by a ""a priesthood or a group of ruler-priests"" §REF§ (Peregrine 2014, 31) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ within a social strata that included included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries."" §REF§ (Iseminger 2014, 26) W R Iseminger. 2010. Cahokia Mounds: America's First City. The History Press. Charleston. §REF§ The Cahokians were capable of feats of organization that included the famous Monks Mound and other mounds which required moving 1.1 million m3 or earth and a 15m high wooden palisade that ran for nearly 3km. §REF§ (Milner 2006, 148) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§
",,,,2025-01-23T14:54:25.339592Z,"{'id': 149, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",28.0,Cahokia,Mississippi Basin,-90.062035000000,38.658938000000,St. Louis,USMO,United States,North America,24,Mississippi Basin,From the Great Lakes to Louisiana,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
23,USMisMW,-150,300,Cahokia - Middle Woodland,us_woodland_2,LEGACY,"2000 BCEPeriod of population growth begins §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) §REF§
1 CE
c1 CE ""large quantities of native cultigens began to be incorporated into midcontinental diets. §REF§ (Milner, Chaplin and Zavodny 2013) §REF§
100 CEMaize appears in the archaeological record §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
Atlatl is the contemporary weapon §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
""periodic rituals at ceremonial mound centers"" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
""groups ensured access to needed resources through maintenance of alliance-exchange relationships"" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
200 CE
300 CEEarly arrowheads appear. ""Beginning A.D. 300-400, the bow replaced the atlatl in most regions"" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
In the Mississippian region (Midwest and Upland South) the transition from atlatl to bow was ""relatively rapid because dart points disappear from the archaeological record"" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
Introduction of the bow in the Mississippi region decreased social complexity because it caused the collapse of the Hopewell system, the abandonment of mound centers and alliance-exchange relationships §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
Bow enabled a new bow and native crops subsistence strategy which lead to a movement to and the effective exploitation of previously marginal lands and ""household autonomy"" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
There followed an economic intensification and population growth which eventually ""packed the landscape with settlements."" §REF§ (Blitz and Porth 2013, 89-95) §REF§
",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",28.0,Cahokia,Mississippi Basin,-90.062035000000,38.658938000000,St. Louis,USMO,United States,North America,24,Mississippi Basin,From the Great Lakes to Louisiana,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
33,USCahoL,1200,1275,Cahokia - Moorehead,us_cahokia_2,LEGACY,"Generations of archaeologists have been amazed that at the geographical location of Cahokia there were ""almost no inhabitants' until 1000 CE. §REF§ (Peregrine/Trubitt 2014, 20) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ Suddenly there was an influx of people of more than one group §REF§ (Peregrine/Iseminger 2014, 27) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ - the ""population surges by at least an order of magnitude within decades"" §REF§ (Peregrine 2014) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ - bringing with them to this heretofore vacant spot a new social and settlement structure and an obsession with moundbuilding. §REF§ (Milner 2006, 168) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§ Almost equally puzzling, the society came to an abrupt end with a migration away around 1250 CE. §REF§ (Peregrine/Kelly 2014, 24) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§
The fall of Cahokia probably occurred across the whole of the 1200-1275 CE period. Milner estimates that by the Morehead phase the Cahokia (city) population had fallen about 40% from the Lohmann peak. §REF§ (Milner 2006, 124) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§ The settlement pattern was still of nucleated clusters of houses §REF§ (Milner 2006, 100) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§ between which were structures ""with special ritual and social significance."" §REF§ (Milner 2006, 101) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§ At its height about 15,000 lived in an area called the 'central administrative complex'. §REF§ (Pauketat 2014, 15) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§
Many archaeologists are skeptical whether there was a ruler king at Cahokia §REF§ (Iseminger 2014, 26) W R Iseminger. 2010. Cahokia Mounds: America's First City. The History Press. Charleston. §REF§ the polity more likely led by a ""a priesthood or a group of ruler-priests"" §REF§ (Peregrine 2014, 31) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ within a social strata that included included chiefs, sub-chiefs, elders, priests, and other religious functionaries."" §REF§ (Iseminger 2014, 26) W R Iseminger. 2010. Cahokia Mounds: America's First City. The History Press. Charleston. §REF§ Whilst most Cahokians were self-sufficient granaries were also present. §REF§ (Peregrine/Trubitt 2014, 20) P Peregrine. S Ortman. E Rupley. 2014. Social Complexity at Cahokia. SFI WORKING PAPER: 2014-03-004. Sante Fe Institute. §REF§ The Cahokians were capable of feats of organization that included the famous Monks Mound and other mounds which required moving 1.1 million m3 or earth and a 15m high wooden palisade that ran for nearly 3km. §REF§ (Milner 2006, 148) G R Milner. 2006. The Cahokia Chiefdom: The Archaeology of a Mississippian Society. University Press of Florida. Gainesville. §REF§
",,,,2024-11-21T16:31:51.153051Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",28.0,Cahokia,Mississippi Basin,-90.062035000000,38.658938000000,St. Louis,USMO,United States,North America,24,Mississippi Basin,From the Great Lakes to Louisiana,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
28,USMisSd,1275,1400,Cahokia - Sand Prairie,us_cahokia_3,LEGACY,"The Sand Prairie phase is the name given by archaeologists to the period between around 1275 and 1400 CE in the American Bottom region, the portion of the floodplain of the Mississippi now located in southwestern Illinois. §REF§ (Kelly et al. 1984, 130) Kelly, John E., Steven J. Ozuk, Douglas K. Jackson, Dale L. McElrath, Fred A. Finney, and Duane Esarey. 1984. ""Emergent Mississippian Period."" In American Bottom Archaeology: A Summary of the FAI-270 Project Contribution to the Culture History of the Mississippi River Valley, edited by Charles L. Bareis and James W. Porter, 128-57. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2UP556X5. §REF§ §REF§ (Hall 2000, 13) Hall, Robert L. 2000. ""Cahokia Identity and Interaction Models of Cahokia Mississippian."" In Cahokia and the Hinterlands: Middle Mississippian Cultures of the Midwest, edited by Thomas E. Emerson and R. Barry Lewis, 3-34. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WNR98AWH. §REF§ This period is considered the final phase of the Mississippian culture. §REF§ (Milner 1986, 234) Milner, George R. 1986. ""Mississippian Period Population Density in a Segment of the Central Mississippi River Valley."" American Antiquity 51 (2): 227-38. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P35FE59S. §REF§ The chronology is not universally agreed upon, however: the dates given by different scholars for the Sand Prairie phase vary. §REF§ (Hall 2000, 13) Hall, Robert L. 2000. ""Cahokia Identity and Interaction Models of Cahokia Mississippian."" In Cahokia and the Hinterlands: Middle Mississippian Cultures of the Midwest, edited by Thomas E. Emerson and R. Barry Lewis, 3-34. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WNR98AWH. §REF§
Population and political organization
The Sand Prairie phase was one of decreasing social complexity and depopulation at the site of Cahokia and on the surrounding Middle Mississippi floodplain. §REF§ (Emerson 1997, 6, 53) Emerson, Thomas E. 1997. Cahokia and the Archaeology of Power. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QH7AMQ74. §REF§ Already by 1150 CE, archaeological evidence indicates that the political and ceremonial ties binding the site of Cahokia and its elite to its hinterland were weakening, and by 1350, there are very few signs of culturally Mississippian populations left in the American Bottom. §REF§ (Pauketat and Bernard 2004, 38-39) Pauketat, Timothy, and Nancy Stone Bernard. 2004. Cahokia Mounds. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MH4W8AV5. §REF§ During the Sand Prairie phase, Mississippians seem to have abandoned the old monumental sites and dispersed out of the river valley into the uplands. §REF§ (Emerson 1997, 53) Emerson, Thomas E. 1997. Cahokia and the Archaeology of Power. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QH7AMQ74. §REF§ The evidence for political hierarchies and inherited status distinctions is much weaker than for previous periods, and community activity may have revolved around funerary rites at rural cemeteries. §REF§ (Emerson 1997, 180) Emerson, Thomas E. 1997. Cahokia and the Archaeology of Power. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QH7AMQ74. §REF§
The population of the site of Cahokia and the surrounding Mississippi floodplain reached its lowest point for several centuries during this period. §REF§ (Milner 1986, 227) Milner, George R. 1986. ""Mississippian Period Population Density in a Segment of the Central Mississippi River Valley."" American Antiquity 51 (2): 227-38. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P35FE59S. §REF§ §REF§ (Pauketat and Lopinot 1997, 120) Pauketat, Timothy R., and Neal H. Lopinot. 1997. ""Cahokian Population Dynamics."" In Cahokia: Domination and Ideology in the Mississippian World, edited by Timothy R. Pauketat and Thomas E. Emerson, 103-23. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. §REF§ Concrete population estimates are difficult to find, but archaeologist George Milner has estimated a Sand Prairie-period population density of between one and seven people per square kilometre for a stretch of the Mississippi floodplain just south of Cahokia. §REF§ (Milner 1986, 227) Milner, George R. 1986. ""Mississippian Period Population Density in a Segment of the Central Mississippi River Valley."" American Antiquity 51 (2): 227-38. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P35FE59S. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",28.0,Cahokia,Mississippi Basin,-90.062035000000,38.658938000000,St. Louis,USMO,United States,North America,24,Mississippi Basin,From the Great Lakes to Louisiana,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
103,IlCanaa,-2000,-1175,Canaan,il_canaan,LEGACY,"_Short description_
Very little is known about the ancient Canaanites and what is known is often through references given by other cultures (such as the Egyptians). Even combined with what is known and not known from archaeological work the overall picture of Canannite society should be taken as a very provisional one.
Canaanites seem to have lived between 2000-1175 BCE, from a time contemporary to the Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt, the Canaanite Hyksos Period of Egypt and their expulsion, through the New Kingdom of Egypt, to the invasion of the Sea Peoples (which have often been associated with the destruction of Canaanite cities).
Outside of the city-state organization the Canaanites did not achieve any territorial centralization in the Levant. The Canaanites lived in hierarchical city-states that would form alliances and fight opposing coalitions of Canaanites. The region as a whole was under Egyptian control after the invasion of Thutmose III.
One tentative archaeological interpretation of Canaanite government holds that Canaanite regimes were more similar to an household oikos economy than a Mesopotamian-style redistributive state: ""in sharp contrast to both the Aegean and the entire ancient Near East, there is not a single indication that literate administration ever played any significant role in the [Middle Bronze Age] Canaanite economy."" §REF§ (Yasur-Landau et al. 2015, 609). Assaf Yasur-Landau, Eric H. Cline, Andrew J. Koh, David Ben-Shlomo, Nimrod Marom, Alexandra Ratzlaff and Inbal Samet. 2015. ""Rethinking Canaanite Palaces? The Palatial Economy of Tel Kabri during the Middle Bronze Age."" Journal of Field Archaeology, Vol. 40, No. 6: 607-625. §REF§
However, it appears at least some Canaanites did use writing to record laws. Two fragments of a larger clay tablet (designated Hazor 18) were discovered in 2010 at Tel Hazor, that would possibly have contained as many as 20 or 30 laws (which in turn could have been part of a larger collection of law tablets) in a format similar to the Code of Hammurabi. An earlier tablet, Hazor 5, contains part of the description of a lawsuit, judged by the king personally. §REF§ (Horowitz, Oshima, Vukosavovic 2012) Wayne Horowitz, Oshima Takayoshi and Filip Vukosavovic. 2012. ""Hazor 18: Fragments of a Cuneiform Law Collection from Hazor."" Israel Exploration Journal, Vol. 62, No. 2: 158-176. §REF§ It is likely that at least some Canaanite polities would have had formal law codes.
The population of the Canaanites probably never exceeded much beyond 50,000 people in a single polity, though more were likely present towards the end of the period than at the beginning.
_Oren's long description_
During the Bronze Age, Canaan was composed of dozens of ""city-states,"" some strong enough to lead regional confederations against each other or against outside invaders. These city-states appear to have been significantly institutionalized, featuring standing armies, bureaucracies and public works, and official cults. The social structure was highly unequal; most of the land was concentrated in the hands of the small ruling class, with the vast majority of inhabitants being serfs, slaves, or landless vagabonds or nomads. The economy depended heavily on trade, with intensive agriculture of staples such as wine and oil meant for export in exchange for prestige goods such as imported pottery, and tin for making bronze.
Canaan of the Middle and Late Bronze was by no means a unified entity, even as its polities shared significant cultural elements. The varying landscape carried with it different geopolitical conditions for each local polity, strongly conditioning the development of each one and its various political/strategic needs. ""The Coastal Plain, the setting for the region's largest political and economic centers, conventionally seen as the hearth of Canaanite civilization, emerges as a hodge-podge of polities with highly variable structures and their attendant political connotations. The Jordan Rift, normally seen as a smaller-scale backwater off the Mediterranean littoral, features settlement patterns most consistent with a series of highly integrated peer polities or city-states, and subregional political coherence. In contrast to both of these lowland areas, the settlement clusters of the Hill Country are more dispersed, with consistent evidence of less settlement integration. When considered structurally, these results suggest three fundamentally different bases for political development in a region normally viewed as a single, albeit fractious, social and cultural entity during the Late Bronze Age. These distinctions help illuminate the foundations of the particularly volatile political dynamics of the southern Levant."" §REF§ Savage/Falconer (2003:42). §REF§
During the Middle Bronze, Canaanite polities were wealthy and powerful enough to extend their influence into the Egyptian Delta (via the so-called ""Hyksos). However, the end of the Middle Bronze is marked by the campaign of Thutmose I, who expelled the Hyksos and then campaigned into Canaan proper, imposing Egyptian overlordship over many of the Canaanite cities. As the Late Bronze progressed, Canaanite cities were marked with increasing social turmoil, wracked by repeated uprisings against Egyptian officials or against local elites, and facing periodic invasions from the sea or pressure from the Hittite Empire. The politics of this period are somewhat better understood thanks to the finding of the Amarna Letters, some 350 clay tablets of Egyptian diplomatic correspondence that date to about the middle of the 14th Century BCE. Many of them are from Canaanite ""mayors,"" sending groveling obeisances to the Pharaoh and pleading for military assistance in the face of urgent threats. Finally, during the 12th Century BCE, a series of poorly-understood calamities and city destructions brought the Bronze Age Canaanite civilization to a close; it would be succeeded by the Phoenicians to the north, and the Israelites in the Judean highlands.
(A word of caution is in order about coding methodology. Much of the evidence we have about this polity comes from archaeological finds. However, the brute fact of an archaeological artifact is often used as the basis for considerable interpretation and conjecture. Methods have been improving over time, but still some archaeologists tend to leap far ahead of what the evidence will support. Additionally, the meaning of many finds is hotly disputed by archaeologists, each faction insisting for its point of view: ""When any scholar defends the correctness or appropriateness of a singular point of view, or set of data, everything else tends to be analyzed accordingly - alternative views are intensely criticized, dismissed, or ignored entirely, while complementary views or evidence are presented with little critical reflection. Whether the evidence is archaeological or scientific, often it is only partial or ambiguous and so becomes easy to interpret or manipulate in a manner that serves to perpetuate a preconceived idea or point of view. The outcome is often a selective filtering of data and related information and an unwillingness to contemplate or envisage a counter position."" §REF§ Knapp/Manning (2016:101). §REF§
This is a particular problem with regard to establishing chronologies. While on a given archaeological site researchers are (usually) able to determine the boundaries of relative temporal layers, tying those layers to an absolute timeline, or even fitting them into a relative relationship with the layers of other sites, is a fraught business; and when the time period in question is as far back as the Middle Bronze, the available evidence becomes correspondingly scarcer and more difficult to correlate with each other. Unfortunately, many researchers are too quick to claim certainty where none exists. §REF§ See extensive discussion in Knapp/Manning (2016). §REF§
In short, every data point that is backed up with archaeology must be considered provisional, and new discoveries can totally upend our picture of what happened—as can new interpretations that correct erroneous early interpretations, a constant danger with motivated archaeologists.)",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",10.0,Galilee,Levant-Mesopotamia,35.303500000000,32.699600000000,Nazareth,IL,Israel,Southwest Asia,61,Levant,"Israel/Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
701,in_carnatic_sul,1710,1801,Carnatic Sultanate,in_carnatic_sul,POL_SA_SI,"The Carnatic Sultanate originated as a vassal state of the Mughal Empire. In 1710 CE The Navaiyat dynasty under Saadutullah Khan became the first nawab of the Carnatic. The Carnatic Sultanate had its capital at Arcot. The Carnatic nawabs practiced Sufi Islam and their court language was Persian. §REF§ (Bugge, 2020) Bugge, Henriette. 2020. Mission and Tamil Society: Social and Religious Change in South India (1840-1900). London: Routledge Curzon. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9SKWNUF4/collection §REF§ §REF§ (Ramaswami 1984, 329) Ramaswami, N.S. 1984. Political History of Carnatic Under the Nawabs. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PTIS9MB4/collection §REF§ The Carnatic Sultanate contributed to the building of mosques, Hindu temples and educational centres. The nawabs benefitted heavily from trade and support with the British East India Company. §REF§ (Ramaswami 1984, 333) Ramaswami, N.S. 1984. Political History of Carnatic Under the Nawabs. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PTIS9MB4/collection §REF§ By the turn of the nineteenth century the British East India Company took control of the entire Carnatic region. The nawabs of the Carnatic continued to survive until 1855 CE as dependents of the British rule. §REF§ (Bugge, 2020) Bugge, Henriette. 2020. Mission and Tamil Society: Social and Religious Change in South India (1840-1900). London: Routledge Curzon. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9SKWNUF4/collection §REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
309,FrCarlE,752,840,Carolingian Empire I,fr_carolingian_emp_1,LEGACY,"Members of the Carolingian Dynasty had served as mayors of the palace under the Merovingian kings from the late 7th century CE onwards, wielding substantial power behind the throne. In 752 CE, however, Childeric III (last of the Merovingian rulers) was deposed and they seized outright control of the Frankish realm. §REF§ (Wood 1994, 292) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35. §REF§ §REF§ (Morby and Rozier 2014) Morby, John E., and Charlie Rozier. 2014. Dynasties of the World. 2nd ed., online edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/acref/9780191780073.001.0001. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3C5IVS6E. §REF§ With the new dynasty the capital moved east: Aachen, or Aix-la-Chapelle, became the main royal residence of the Carolingian monarchs until the empire began to disintegrate in the 9th century. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 31) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Aix-La-Chapelle.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 31-32. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/J93C7T3S. §REF§
Charlemagne was the most powerful Carolingian king, but after his death in 811 CE, the empire stopped expanding. The year 811 also marked the beginning of a rise in sociopolitical instability that resulted ultimately in a complete split of the kingdom. After the 843 CE Treaty of Verdun, the Carolingian lands were partitioned among Louis the Pious' sons: Charles took the west, Louis the German the east, and Lothair took the Frankish territory between these two regions. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 332) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD. §REF§ The Treaty of Meerssen (870 CE) resulted in the absorption of the central Frankish realm into West and East Francia, forming a boundary that even now endures as the border between France and Germany. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 332-33) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD. §REF§ The empire was briefly reunited from 884 to 887 under Charles the Fat, §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 333) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD. §REF§ but as a rule the Frankish lands remained politically fragmented from the mid-9th century to 987 CE, when power passed to the Capetian Dynasty. §REF§ (Bouchard 1995, 312) Bouchard, Constance B. 1995. “Capetian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 312-17. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNRCJVG. §REF§
This polity represents the early period of Carolingian rule, from 752 to 840 CE.
Population and political organization
In the Carolingian era, the lands under Frankish control grew considerably and an administrative system was developed in order to govern this large territory. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 329-30) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD. §REF§ One official position that first appeared in this period was the missus dominicus (king's representative), who could be sent out from the court to inspect the counties and pass on the king's decrees. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 330) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD. §REF§ Decrees were sometimes set down in documents called capitularies. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 330) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD. §REF§ However, capitularies post-dating 843 CE are only found in West Francia, and they stopped being produced there too after the death of Charles the Bald in 877. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 330) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD. §REF§ §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 318) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Capitulary.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 318-19. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/K3U2V585. §REF§ This might suggest that the office of missus dominicus did not exist beyond that date and did not survive the rise in instability.
The Carolingian kings ruled in an essentially decentralized fashion like the Merovingians before them. Control over the regions was delegated to fief holders, often hereditary vassals of the king. §REF§ (Nicolle 1995, 18) Nicolle, David. 2005. Carolingian Cavalryman AD 768-987. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QHXZFXS3. §REF§ The king ruled by decree §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 330) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD. §REF§ and under Charlemagne (r. 800-814 CE) counties were established as the basic unit of governance. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 330) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD. §REF§ Counts were responsible for enforcing local laws, dispensing justice and setting taxes. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 330) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD. §REF§ By 850 CE, almost every county in West Francia also had a viscount, who assisted the count in his duties. §REF§ (Boulton 1995, 1822) Boulton, D’A. Jonathan D. 1995. “Viscount/Viscounty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1822-23. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IZK522AK. §REF§
During Charlemagne's reign, the population of Gaul probably reached 5 million §REF§ (Percy, Jr. 1995, 1415) Percy, Jr., William A. 1995. “Population and Demography.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1415-17. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QI73FMSM. §REF§ but levels of urbanization were low in these supposed 'dark ages' of medieval France: no town reached over 10,000 inhabitants between the 8th century and 1000 CE. §REF§ (Percy, Jr. 1995, 1739) Percy, Jr., William A. 1995. “Towns.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1739-40. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z3F9HKUJ. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",2.0,Paris Basin,Western Europe,2.312458000000,48.866111000000,Paris,FR,France,Europe,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
311,FrCarlL,840,987,Carolingian Empire II,fr_carolingian_emp_2,LEGACY,"Members of the Carolingian Dynasty had served as mayors of the palace under the Merovingian kings from the late 7th century CE onwards, wielding substantial power behind the throne. In 752 CE, however, Childeric III (last of the Merovingian rulers) was deposed and they seized outright control of the Frankish realm. §REF§ (Wood 1994, 292) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35. §REF§ §REF§ (Morby and Rozier 2014) Morby, John E., and Charlie Rozier. 2014. Dynasties of the World. 2nd ed., online edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/acref/9780191780073.001.0001. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3C5IVS6E. §REF§ With the new dynasty the capital moved east: Aachen, or Aix-la-Chapelle, became the main royal residence of the Carolingian monarchs until the empire began to disintegrate in the 9th century. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 31) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Aix-La-Chapelle.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 31-32. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/J93C7T3S. §REF§
Charlemagne was the most powerful Carolingian king, but after his death in 811 CE, the empire stopped expanding. The year 811 also marked the beginning of a rise in sociopolitical instability that resulted ultimately in a complete split of the kingdom. After the 843 CE Treaty of Verdun, the Carolingian lands were partitioned among Louis the Pious' sons: Charles took the west, Louis the German the east, and Lothair took the Frankish territory between these two regions. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 332) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD. §REF§ The Treaty of Meerssen (870 CE) resulted in the absorption of the central Frankish realm into West and East Francia, forming a boundary that even now endures as the border between France and Germany. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 332-33) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD. §REF§ The empire was briefly reunited from 884 to 887 under Charles the Fat, §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 333) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD. §REF§ but as a rule the Frankish lands remained politically fragmented from the mid-9th century to 987 CE, when power passed to the Capetian Dynasty. §REF§ (Bouchard 1995, 312) Bouchard, Constance B. 1995. “Capetian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 312-17. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNRCJVG. §REF§
This polity represents the late period of Carolingian rule, from 840 to 987 CE.
Population and political organization
In the Carolingian era, the lands under Frankish control grew considerably and an administrative system was developed in order to govern this large territory. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 329-30) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD. §REF§ One official position that first appeared in this period was the missus dominicus (king's representative), who could be sent out from the court to inspect the counties and pass on the king's decrees. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 330) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD. §REF§ Decrees were sometimes set down in documents called capitularies. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 330) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD. §REF§ However, capitularies post-dating 843 CE are only found in West Francia, and they stopped being produced there too after the death of Charles the Bald in 877. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 330) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD. §REF§ §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 318) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Capitulary.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 318-19. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/K3U2V585. §REF§ This might suggest that the office of missus dominicus did not exist beyond that date and did not survive the rise in instability.
The Carolingian kings ruled in an essentially decentralized fashion like the Merovingians before them. Control over the regions was delegated to fief holders, often hereditary vassals of the king. §REF§ (Nicolle 1995, 18) Nicolle, David. 2005. Carolingian Cavalryman AD 768-987. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QHXZFXS3. §REF§ The king ruled by decree §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 330) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD. §REF§ and under Charlemagne (r. 800-814 CE) counties were established as the basic unit of governance. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 330) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD. §REF§ Counts were responsible for enforcing local laws, dispensing justice and setting taxes. §REF§ (Chazelle 1995, 330) Chazelle, Celia. 1995. “Carolingian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 328-34. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F3ZBDZSD. §REF§ By 850 CE, almost every county in West Francia also had a viscount, who assisted the count in his duties. §REF§ (Boulton 1995, 1822) Boulton, D’A. Jonathan D. 1995. “Viscount/Viscounty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1822-23. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IZK522AK. §REF§
During Charlemagne's reign, the population of Gaul probably reached 5 million §REF§ (Percy, Jr. 1995, 1415) Percy, Jr., William A. 1995. “Population and Demography.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1415-17. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QI73FMSM. §REF§ but levels of urbanization were low in these supposed 'dark ages' of medieval France: no town reached over 10,000 inhabitants between the 8th century and 1000 CE. §REF§ (Percy, Jr. 1995, 1739) Percy, Jr., William A. 1995. “Towns.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1739-40. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z3F9HKUJ. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",2.0,Paris Basin,Western Europe,2.312458000000,48.866111000000,Paris,FR,France,Europe,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
201,TnCarth,-814,-146,Carthage Empire,tn_carthage_emp,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,3,Maghreb,From Morocco to Libya,"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
321,EsCastil,1065,1230,Castile Kingdom,es_castile_k,LEGACY,,,,,2024-10-17T08:53:14.802707Z,"{'id': 91, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
770,us_chaco_bonito_2,1041,1100,Chaco Canyon - Classic Bonito phase,us_chaco_bonito_2,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,25,Western North America,"West Coast, the Rockies, and the American SouthWest","{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
769,us_chaco_bonito_1,850,1040,Chaco Canyon - Early Bonito phase,us_chaco_bonito_1,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,25,Western North America,"West Coast, the Rockies, and the American SouthWest","{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
576,us_chaco_bonito_3,1101,1140,Chaco Canyon - Late Bonito phase,us_chaco_bonito_3,LEGACY,"
“Chaco Canyon is a remote and lonely place in northwest New Mexico that stretches for about 20 miles between high sandstone cliffs. The wind whips clouds of dry, sandy soil through the olive green greasewood bushes scattered across the canyon floor and swirls around the ragged walls of the silent ruins of ancient buildings that once rang with shouting and laughter. A thousand years ago, people lived in the canyon in 11 ‘great houses’, each one of them big enough to provide homes for an entire village. These long-ago people dug ditches to carry water to their fields of corn, beans, and squash. They constructed wide, straight roads to connect with the world outside the canyon. They built circular underground rooms called kivas, where they gathered to perform special rituals and ceremonies.”§REF§(Vivian and Anderson 2002: 8-9) Vivian, R. Gwinn and Anderson, Margaret. 2002. Chaco Canyon, Digging for the Past. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/996XW2NW§REF§
“By 1050, Chaco had become the ceremonial, administrative, and economic center of the San Juan Basin. Its sphere of influence was extensive. Dozens of great houses in Chaco Canyon were connected by roads to more than 150 great houses throughout the region. It is thought that the great houses were not traditional farming villages occupied by large populations. They may instead have been impressive examples of ""public architecture"" that were used periodically during times of ceremony, commerce, and trading when temporary populations came to the canyon for these events.
What was at the heart of this great social experiment? Pueblo descendants say that Chaco was a special gathering place where many peoples and clans converged to share their ceremonies, traditions, and knowledge. Chaco is central to the origins of several Navajo clans and ceremonies. Chaco is also an enduring enigma for researchers. Was Chaco the hub of a turquoise-trading network established to acquire macaws, copper bells, shells, and other commodities from distant lands? Did Chaco distribute food and resources to growing populations when the climate failed them? Was Chaco ""the center place,"" binding a region together by a shared vision? We may never fully understand Chaco.”§REF§(“History & Culture - Chaco Culture”) “History & Culture - Chaco Culture” U.S. National Park Service, accessed May 08, 2023, https://www.nps.gov/chcu/learn/historyculture/index.htm. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GB3X6QCR§REF§
“From about AD 1000 - 1150, Chacoan culture presided over much of the Four Corners region. The Chacoan people created an urban center of spectacular public architecture by employing formal design, astronomical alignments, geometry, unique masonry, landscaping, and engineering techniques that allowed multi-storied construction for the first time in the American Southwest. The people built monumental public and ceremonial buildings in the canyon. The buildings were massive, multi-storied masonry structures of rooms, kivas, terraces, and plazas. The largest building-Pueblo Bonito-is estimated to have contained over 600 rooms and rose four, possibly five, stories high. Hundreds of miles of formal roads radiated out from the canyon and linked Chaco to distant communities.”§REF§(“Chaco Culture”) “Chaco Culture” NPS Museum Collections, accessed May 8, 2023, https://www.nps.gov/museum/exhibits/chcu/index1.html. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NMRVDA5I§REF§
“In the 1100s and 1200s, change came to Chaco as new construction slowed and Chaco's role as a regional center shifted. Chaco's influence continued at Aztec, Mesa Verde, the Chuska Mountains, and other centers to the north, south, and west. In time, the people shifted away from Chacoan ways, migrated to new areas, reorganized their world, and eventually interacted with foreign cultures. Their descendants are the modern Southwest Indians. Many Southwest Indian people look upon Chaco as an important stop along their clans' sacred migration paths-a spiritual place to be honored and respected.”§REF§(“History & Culture - Chaco Culture”) “History & Culture - Chaco Culture” U.S. National Park Service, accessed May 08, 2023, https://www.nps.gov/chcu/learn/historyculture/index.htm. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GB3X6QCR§REF§
“Classic Chacoan and Mimbres society was brilliant, vibrant, and brief. Beginning around A.D. 1100, after only 150 to 200 years of good times, decline set in. People moved out of the warm, scrubby basins to upland areas of mixed piñon/ponderosa forest where new farmsteads were built. Some groups resettled near long-abandoned villages in surrounding highlands, while others pioneered in remote, forested districts like the Upper Gila drainage or the area around Bandelier National Monument north of Santa Fe.”§REF§(Stuart 2009: 106) Stuart, David E. 2009. The Ancient Southwest: Chaco Canyon, Bandelier, and Mesa Verde. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X4CQDXF9§REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,25,Western North America,"West Coast, the Rockies, and the American SouthWest","{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
583,us_chaco_mcelmo,1141,1200,Chaco Canyon - McElmo phase,us_chaco_mcelmo,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,25,Western North America,"West Coast, the Rockies, and the American SouthWest","{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
771,us_chaco_mesa_verde,1201,1300,Chaco Canyon - Mesa Verde phase,us_chaco_mesa_verde,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,25,Western North America,"West Coast, the Rockies, and the American SouthWest","{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
296,UzChagt,1227,1402,Chagatai Khanate,uz_chagatai_khanate,LEGACY,"""Under Kebeg's successor Tarmashirin Khan (1326-1334) the khan's more conservative and nomadic followers rebelled against his policy of assimilation with the settled population, and deposed the khan. In the disturbances which followed Tarmashirin's downfall the Chaghadayid khanate split into two parts; the western section, Transoxiana, became known as the Ulus Chaghatay, and the eastern section as Moghulistan.5"" §REF§ (Forbes Manz 1983, 82) §REF§",,,,2025-01-29T13:30:26.152031Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",23.0,Sogdiana,Turkestan,66.938170000000,39.631284000000,Samarkand,UZ,Uzbekistan,Central Eurasia,13,Turkestan,"Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
415,InGangC,-3000,-601,Chalcolithic Middle Ganga,in_ganga_ca,LEGACY,"The Middle Ganga corresponds to the eastern portion of the Upper Ganga Plain, in the eastern part of the north-central modern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh and the state of Bihar. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Chalcolithic (c. 3000-6001 BCE). Overall, there is not much to suggest that the transition from the Neolithic to the Chalcolithic significantly changed the prevalent lifestyle, apart from the addition of copper technology and new forms of pottery. Larger sites found in the wider Gangetic region dating from this time have yielded evidence for agricultural activities, including animal husbandry; moreover, one site (Chirand) has also yielded evidence for large-scale production of tools made of bone and antler, as well as of items of likely domestic use, indicating some degree of craft specialisation. The political organisation of such sites remain overall unclear, though one site in a neighbouring valley, Magahara, seems to have housed a relatively egalitarian community, judging from the similarity between houses and their arrangement around a likely cattle pen, suggesting communal ownership of livestock. No population estimates could be found for the Middle Ganga specifically, but the typical community in the nearby Vindhya region would likely have numbered around 200 people, and the region as a whole likely had a population of about 1,000. §REF§ (Vikrama and Chattopadhyaya 2002: 127-132) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U4F7KRKD/. §REF§",,,,2024-07-19T07:50:47.378670Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",14.0,Middle Ganga,Indo-Gangetic Plain,82.700000000000,25.750000000000,Jaunpur,UTPR,India,South Asia,64,North India,"Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
92,InChaBd,543,753,Chalukyas of Badami,in_badami_chalukya_emp,LEGACY,"The Chalukyas of Badami (or Chalukyas of Vatapi) §REF§ (Kadambi 2007, 158) Hemanth Kadambi. 2007. 'Negotiated Pasts and Memorialized Present in Ancient India', in Negotiating the Past in the Past: Identity, Memory, and Landscape in Archaeological Research, edited by Norman Yoffee, 155-82. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ ruled over an area roughly corresponding to the modern-day Indian states of Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Telangana, the region of South Gujarat, half of the state of Madhya Pradesh, the Rayaseema district and half the Andhra district of Andhra Pradesh. §REF§ (Kamath 1980) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ This polity was founded in 543 CE, when Pulakesin I established the capital of Badami or Vatapi, §REF§ (Kadambi 2007, 178) Hemanth Kadambi. 2007. 'Negotiated Pasts and Memorialized Present in Ancient India', in Negotiating the Past in the Past: Identity, Memory, and Landscape in Archaeological Research, edited by Norman Yoffee, 155-82. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ and it was supplanted by the Rashtrakuta polity in the 750s. §REF§ (Basavaraja 1984, 62) K. R. Basavaraja. 1984. History and Culture of Karnataka: Early Times to Unification. Dharwad: Chalukya Publications. §REF§ The peak of the polity can be considered to correspond to the reign of Pulakesin II (609-643 CE), who re-established his dynasty's power throughout much of the Deccan after a period of instability, further extended the empire's bounds through a series of successful military campaigns, and founded new dynastic lines in eastern India and in the Gujarat region. §REF§ (Sastri 1960, 212) K. A. Nilakanta Sastri. 1960. 'The Chalukyas of Badami', in The Early History of the Deccan, Vol. 1, edited by Ghulam Yazdani, 201-46. London: Oxford University Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
At the head of this polity was an emperor, who often ruled over conquered territories indirectly, through feudal subordinates or family relations. §REF§ (Dikshit 1980, 219-21) D. P. Dikshit. 1980. Political History of the Chalukyas of Badami. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. §REF§ The emperor was also the polity's supreme military commander. §REF§ (Dikshit 1980, 267) D. P. Dikshit. 1980. Political History of the Chalukyas of Badami. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. §REF§ In both military and administrative matters, he was assisted by the sandhivigrahika, or minister of war and peace: the only minister in the emperor's council mentioned explicitly in Chalukya inscriptions, and probably the most powerful. §REF§ (Dikshit 1980, 267) D. P. Dikshit. 1980. Political History of the Chalukyas of Badami. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. §REF§
No population estimates for the entire polity could be found in the literature. However, the capital may have been inhabited by as many as 70,000 people. §REF§ Christopher Chase-Dunn 2001, personal communication. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",15.0,Deccan,Central India,76.625407000000,15.386856000000,Kampli,DEC,India,South Asia,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
94,InChaKl,973,1189,Chalukyas of Kalyani,in_kalyani_chalukya_emp,LEGACY,"The Chalukyas of Kalyani ruled over a territory roughly corresponding to the modern-day Indian states of Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Telangana, as well as the Andhra Pradesh districts of Kurnool and Anantapur. §REF§ (Kamath 1980) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ Taila II re-established Chalukya rule over the Deccan by inflicting several military defeats on the Rashtrakutas and sacking their capital in 973 CE. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 91) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. A History of Karnataka. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ Then, in the 12th century, the Chalukyas lost their empire twice: first, briefly, to the Kalachuris, and then, permanently, in 1191, to the Hoysalas and the Yadavas. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 96) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. A History of Karnataka. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ This polity probably reached its peak during the reign of Vikramaditya VI (1076-1126 CE): during this relatively peaceful time, the capital flourished, as did scholarship, and the Chalukyas' territories and influence expanded. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 92-94) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. A History of Karnataka. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§
Population and political organization
At the head of this polity was an emperor, aided at court by his yuvaraja (crown prince) and ministers, and represented in the provinces by feudal subordinates. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 91-96) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. A History of Karnataka. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ According to some sources, the Chalukyan administration was insufficiently centralized, and allowed too much freedom and autonomy to provincial rulers. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 116) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§
No population estimates for the polity as a whole could be found in the literature. However, the capital, Kalyani, is estimated to have been home to between 50,000 and 125,000 inhabitants in the 12th century CE. §REF§ Christopher Chase-Dunn 2001, personal communication. §REF§",,"JR: changing the end date from 1191 to 1189 to avoid overlap with the succeeding polity, the Yadava Dynasty (aka Seuna Dynasty).",,2024-06-20T13:14:23.504316Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",15.0,Deccan,Central India,76.625407000000,15.386856000000,Kampli,DEC,India,South Asia,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
400,InChandel,950,1308,Chandela Kingdom,in_chandela_k,LEGACY,,,,,2025-04-15T09:30:20.914408Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,64,North India,"Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
780,BdChandra,900,1050,Chandra Dynasty,bd_chandra_dyn,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,37,Eastern South Asia,"Bangladesh + Indian states of West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and Sikkim","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
401,InChauh,973,1192,Chauhana Dynasty,in_chauhana_dyn,LEGACY,,,,,2023-11-14T13:48:05.200718Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,64,North India,"Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
399,InSolan,941,1245,Chaulukya Dynasty,in_chaulukya_dyn,LEGACY,,,"Renaming from ""Solankis"" to Chaulukya Dynasty",,2024-06-26T16:45:39.040784Z,"{'id': 67, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,64,North India,"Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
39,KhChenl,550,825,Chenla,kh_chenla,LEGACY,"According to Chinese records, Chenla (also known as Zhenla) §REF§ (Miksic 2007, 426) John N. Miksic. 2007. Historical Dictionary of Ancient Southeast Asia. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. §REF§ was the polity that ruled over much of mainland Southeast Asia after the decline of Funan. §REF§ (Southworth 2004, 324) William A. Southworth. 2004. 'Chenla', in Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopaedia, edited by Keat Gin Ooi, 324-26. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. §REF§ As with Funan, this was likely not a unitary state, but rather a cluster of competing small city-states. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 831) Charles Higham. 2014. 'From the Iron Age to Angkor: New Light on the Origins of a State'. Antiquity 88: 822-35. §REF§ These states occupied much of modern Cambodia and northwestern Thailand, with sites all across the Mekong River Basin, and particularly dense clusters just before the river's delta, in the Tonlé Sap region, and in the Upper Mun Valley. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 831) Charles Higham. 2014. 'From the Iron Age to Angkor: New Light on the Origins of a State'. Antiquity 88: 822-35. §REF§ With respect to Chenla's chronological boundaries, many authors date its beginning to the mid-6th century, §REF§ (Higham 2014, 831) Charles Higham. 2014. 'From the Iron Age to Angkor: New Light on the Origins of a State'. Antiquity 88: 822-35. §REF§ that is, at the beginning of Funan's century-long decline. §REF§ (Hall 2010, 60-61) Kenneth R. Hall. 2010. A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100-1500. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. §REF§ This is the chronology we follow, although it is worth noting that, according to the Chinese records, Chenla only conquered Funan in the 7th century. §REF§ (Miksic 2007, 426-27) John N. Miksic. 2007. Historical Dictionary of Ancient Southeast Asia. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. §REF§ The Chenla era came to a close at the turn of the the 9th century with the beginning of the Angkor period, traditionally dated from Jayavarman II's coronation ceremony in 802 CE. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 254) Charles Higham. 2014. Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§
Population and political organization
Although Chenla was probably a cluster of competing centres rather than a unitary polity, inscriptions suggest that there was an overall political hierarchy, at the top of which sat a vrah kamraten, that is, most likely, a deified ruler §REF§ (Higham 2014, 831) Charles Higham. 2014. 'From the Iron Age to Angkor: New Light on the Origins of a State'. Antiquity 88: 822-35. §REF§ Below this ruler, there was a series of elite ranks whose relationship to each other is not always clear, though no rank was higher than that of pura. §REF§ (Vickery 1998, 24) Michael Vickery. 1998. Society, Economics, and Politics in pre-Angkor Cambodia: The 7th-8th Centuries. Chicago: Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies. §REF§ At the local level, poñ (settlement chiefs) exercised their authority over individual temples, which were important economic as well as ritual centres for their sustaining populace. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 831-32) Charles Higham. 2014. 'From the Iron Age to Angkor: New Light on the Origins of a State'. Antiquity 88: 822-35. §REF§
No overall population estimates could be found in the literature, but the largest settlement probably housed over 20,000 families, §REF§ (Higham 2014, 293) Charles Higham. 2014. Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§ and Chinese records describe Chenla as 'a wealthy and militarily powerful country with over 30 cities'. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 60) Michael Coe. 2003. Angkor and the Khmer Civilization. London: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ ",,,,2024-05-08T12:55:13.437877Z,"{'id': 42, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",17.0,Cambodian Basin,Siam,103.866700000000,13.412500000000,Angkor Wat,KH,Cambodia,Southeast Asia,41,Mainland Southeast Asia,"Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
277,KzChion,300,388,Chionites,kz_chionite,LEGACY,,,,,2023-11-14T16:19:57.647781Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,13,Turkestan,"Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
397,InChol*,849,1280,Chola Empire,in_chola_emp,LEGACY,"This polity was founded in the mid-ninth century CE, when members of the Chola dynasty, centred in the fertile Kaveri delta of Tamil Nadu, began a series of territorial conquests. At their peak in the eleventh century, they ruled over large parts of southern India and north-central Sri Lanka.§REF§(Mahalakshmi 2016: 1), Mahalakshmi, Rakesh. 2016. ‘Chola (Cola) Empire’. In The Encyclopedia of Empire, edited by John M. MacKenzie, 1st ed., 1–7. Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe366. Zotero ID: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ET6Z69AC.§REF§",,,,2024-05-08T13:11:53.749070Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
246,CnChuSA,-740,-489,Chu Kingdom - Spring and Autumn Period,cn_chu_dyn_spring_autumn,LEGACY,,,,,2024-07-03T13:13:47.385708Z,"{'id': 70, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,59,South China,Yangtze Basin and South China,"{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
249,CnChuWS,-488,-223,Chu Kingdom - Warring States Period,cn_chu_k_warring_states,LEGACY,,,,,2023-11-14T12:50:31.125021Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",20.0,Middle Yellow River Valley,North China,112.517587000000,34.701825000000,Luoyang,CN,China,East Asia,59,South China,Yangtze Basin and South China,"{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
57,FmTrukE,1775,1886,Chuuk - Early Truk,fm_truk_1,LEGACY,"The Chuuk Islands, part of what is today Micronesia, were first settled in the first century CE. §REF§ (Goodenough and Skoggard, 1999. 1) Goodenough, Ward Hunt, and Ian A. Skoggard. 1999. ""Culture Summary: Chuuk."" New Haven, Conn.: HRAF. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000. §REF§ The name Chuuk, meaning ""high mountains"", comes from the Chuukese language. §REF§ The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. ""Chuuk Islands."" Encyclopædia Britannica. August 09, 2013. Accessed June 22, 2017. https://www.britannica.com/place/Chuuk-Islands. §REF§ The islands' first contact with Europeans came in 1528, when they were sighted by Spanish explorers. §REF§ The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. ""Chuuk Islands."" Encyclopædia Britannica. August 09, 2013. Accessed June 22, 2017. https://www.britannica.com/place/Chuuk-Islands. §REF§ In the late 19th century, the Chuuk islands became part of Spanish and German, then Japanese colonial regimes. §REF§ The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. ""Chuuk Islands."" Encyclopædia Britannica. August 09, 2013. Accessed June 22, 2017. https://www.britannica.com/place/Chuuk-Islands. §REF§ . After the Second World War, where the islands were a major site of conflict in the Pacific Theater, the Chuuk islands became part of the UN Trust Territory of the Pacific under US administration. §REF§ The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. ""Chuuk Islands."" Encyclopædia Britannica. August 09, 2013. Accessed June 22, 2017. https://www.britannica.com/place/Chuuk-Islands. §REF§ .
Population and political organization
During the pre-colonial period, Chuuk was extremely fragmented politically. Each district had its own chiefship, which was divided between the ""oldest man in the senior female line in the chiefly lineage and the oldest man in the lineage generally."" §REF§ Goodenough, Ward and Skoggard 1999) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5IETI75E. §REF§
During the colonial period, the colonial governments superimposed a colonial administration onto the native system. They appointed head chiefs to lead each of the main Micronesian islands, but the individual communities remained fragmented. §REF§ (Bollig, 1927. 124) Bollig, Laurentius. 1927. ""Inhabitants Of The Truk Islands: Religion, Life And A Short Grammar Of A Micronesian People."" Munster I W.: Aschendorff. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-022. §REF§
The only available population figures refer to the colonial period. In 1947, Chuuk's population was about 9,200. §REF§ (Goodenough and Skoggard, 1999. 1) Goodenough, Ward Hunt, and Ian A. Skoggard. 1999. ""Culture Summary: Chuuk."" New Haven, Conn.: HRAF. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",34.0,Chuuk Islands,Micronesia,151.601918000000,7.351343000000,Chuuk,MI,Micronesia,Oceania-Australia,30,Polynesia,Polynesia,"{'id': 8, 'name': 'Oceania-Australia'}"
58,FmTrukL,1886,1948,Chuuk - Late Truk,fm_truk_2,LEGACY,"The Chuuk Islands, part of what is today Micronesia, were first settled in the first century CE. §REF§ (Goodenough and Skoggard, 1999. 1) Goodenough, Ward Hunt, and Ian A. Skoggard. 1999. ""Culture Summary: Chuuk."" New Haven, Conn.: HRAF. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000. §REF§ The name Chuuk, meaning ""high mountains"", comes from the Chuukese language. §REF§ (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica 2013) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3CNVADQA. §REF§ The islands' first contact with Europeans came in 1528, when they were sighted by Spanish explorers. §REF§ (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica 2013) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3CNVADQA. §REF§ In the late 19th century, the Chuuk islands became part of Spanish and German, then Japanese colonial regimes. §REF§ (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica 2013) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3CNVADQA. §REF§ . After the Second World War, where the islands were a major site of conflict in the Pacific Theater, the Chuuk islands became part of the UN Trust Territory of the Pacific under US administration. §REF§ (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica 2013) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3CNVADQA. §REF§ .
Population and political organization
During the pre-colonial period, Chuuk was extremely fragmented politically. Each district had its own chiefship, which was divided between the ""oldest man in the senior female line in the chiefly lineage and the oldest man in the lineage generally."" §REF§ (Goodenough and Skoggard, 1999. 4) Goodenough, Ward Hunt, and Ian A. Skoggard. 1999. ""Culture Summary: Chuuk."" New Haven, Conn.: HRAF. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000. §REF§
During the colonial period, the colonial governments superimposed a colonial administration onto the native system. They appointed head chiefs to lead each of the main Micronesian islands, but the individual communities remained fragmented. §REF§ (Bollig, 1927. 124) Bollig, Laurentius. 1927. ""Inhabitants Of The Truk Islands: Religion, Life And A Short Grammar Of A Micronesian People."" Munster I W.: Aschendorff. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-022. §REF§
The only available population figures refer to the colonial period. In 1947, Chuuk's population was about 9,200. §REF§ (Goodenough and Skoggard, 1999. 1) Goodenough, Ward Hunt, and Ian A. Skoggard. 1999. ""Culture Summary: Chuuk."" New Haven, Conn.: HRAF. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=or19-000. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",34.0,Chuuk Islands,Micronesia,151.601918000000,7.351343000000,Chuuk,MI,Micronesia,Oceania-Australia,30,Polynesia,Polynesia,"{'id': 8, 'name': 'Oceania-Australia'}"
12,MxClass,100,649,Classic Basin of Mexico,mx_basin_of_mexico_7,LEGACY,"The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Classic or Early Classic period (c. 100-649 CE). This period was characterised by sophisticated forms of artistic expression and high levels of craft specialisation, pronounced differences between the material culture of the wealthier classes and that of the poorer ones, and trade networks extending farther and farther across the wider region. In the Basin of Mexico, Teotihuacan was the dominant centre, and the presence of Teotihuacano artefacts outside of the Basin testifies to its far-ranging influence. §REF§ (Evans 2012: 122-123) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X. §REF§ Indeed, Teotihuacan was the largest city in the world, with a population of about 100,000 §REF§ (Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to E. Cioni and G. Nazzaro) §REF§ or 125,000. §REF§ (Sugiyama 2005: 2) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P56I2R2H. §REF§
Relatively little is known regarding Teotihuacan's political organisation. There is no consensus on the existence of a ruler's palace at the site, nor have royal burials or depictions of individual rulers been found. The site has yielded representations of elite personages, but they are usually shown in groups, partaking in processions, and wearing masks, suggesting that power was shared or distributed: perhaps, the city was governed by a committee of representatives from different interest groups, and/or spokespeople for some or each of the city's thousands of apartment compounds. §REF§ (Feinman 2012: 230-231) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/M7SIWVJQ. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",27.0,Basin of Mexico,Mexico,-99.130000000000,19.430000000000,Ciudad de Mexico,MX,Mexico,North America,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
562,mx_maya_classic,550,950,Classic Maya,mx_maya_classic,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
710,tz_tana,1100,1498,Classic Tana,tz_tana,POL_AFR_EAST,,,,2023-10-25T14:01:08.713664Z,2023-10-25T14:01:08.713677Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
41,KhAngkC,1100,1220,Classical Angkor,kh_angkor_2,LEGACY,"The Khmer Empire was established in 802 CE, when a ruler known as Jayavarman II had himself proclaimed a 'universal monarch' in a ceremony performed by Sanskrit-speaking priests on a mountain close to the Tonlé Sap lake. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ By bringing previously independent polities under their control, Jayavarman II and his successors expanded their realm across mainland Southeast Asia, including parts of modern-day Cambodia, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam. §REF§ (Fletcher 2012, 300) Roland Fletcher. 2012. 'Low-Density, Agrarian-Based Urbanism: Scale, Power, and Ecology', in The Comparative Archaeology of Complex Societies, edited by M. Smith, 285-320. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Our Classic Angkor period begins in 1100 CE, when a new dynasty ‒ named after their place of origin, Mahidharapura ‒ came to power. §REF§ (Higham 2001, 107-09) Charles Higham. 2001. The Civilization of Angkor. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ The reign of Jayavarman VII, beginning in 1181 CE, marks the height of Angkorean power in the region, and we end this period with his death around 1220 CE. §REF§ (Tully 2005, 27) John Tully. 2005. A Short History of Cambodia: From Empire to Survival. Singapore: Allen & Unwin. §REF§ §REF§ (Vickery 1986, 103) Michael Vickery. 1986. 'Some Remarks on Early State Formation in Cambodia', in Southeast Asia in the 9th to 14th Centuries, edited by David G. Marr and A. C. Milner, 95-115. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. §REF§
Population and political organization
Numerous small kingdoms formed in the lower Mekong Basin in the mid-1st millennium CE, but until the conquests of Jayavarman II, most failed to outlive their founders. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Jayavarman II managed to unify previously warring local lords under his aegis, turning independent polities into provinces and laying the foundations for over six centuries of Khmer rule centred on the Siem Reap plain. §REF§ (Higham 2012, 185) Charles Higham. 2012. 'Khmer Civilization and the Empire of Angkor', in The Oxford Companion to Archaeology, edited by Brian M. Fagan, 183-86. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
Like many polities in Southeast Asia at the turn of the 1st millennium CE, the new kingdom, with its growing urban centre on the north shore of the Tonlé Sap, borrowed from Indian religious practices, concepts of divine kingship, language, writing and iconography in order to legitimize royal power. §REF§ (Higham 2001, 8) Charles Higham. 2001. The Civilization of Angkor. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Kulke 1986, 14-15) Hermann Kulke. 1986. 'The Early and the Imperial Kingdom in Southeast Asian History', in Southeast Asia in the 9th to 14th Centuries, edited by David G. Marr and A. C. Milner, 1-22. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. §REF§ Its kings patronized both Hindu and Buddhist institutions, building monasteries and sanctuaries dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and the Buddha that doubled as outposts of royal power throughout the realm. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 160) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lieberman 2003, 33) Victor Lieberman. 2003. Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800‒1830, Vol. 1: Integration on the Mainland. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The Early Angkor devaraja (god-king) cult and the veneration of Hindu gods retained their importance into the Classic Angkor period: it was Suryavarman II (r. 1113‒1150 CE) who sponsored the construction of Angkor Wat, dedicated to Vishnu and still one of the largest single religious structures in the world. §REF§ (Winter 2007, 9) Tim Winter. 2007. Post-Conflict Heritage, Postcolonial Tourism: Culture, Politics and Development at Angkor. London: Routledge. §REF§ However, Jayavarman VII's religious policies differed from those of his predecessors. Providing support for the spread of Buddhism throughout the Khmer realm and portraying himself as a compassionate ruler, he also mobilized labour to build 102 'hospitals', 121 rest houses, and to improve the road network. §REF§ (Hall 2011, 197) Kenneth R. Hall. 2011. A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Social Development, 100-1500. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. §REF§
The riches of Angkor ultimately flowed from wet-rice agriculture, §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and an institutionalized hierarchy of officials developed to funnel surplus rice produced in villages, as well as other goods like honey, spices, cloth and gold, to the royal centre. §REF§ (Higham 2012, 185) Charles Higham. 2012. 'Khmer Civilization and the Empire of Angkor', in The Oxford Companion to Archaeology, edited by Brian M. Fagan, 183-86. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Coe 2003, 141) Michael D. Coe. 2003. Angkor and the Khmer Civilization. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ Angkor kings also used corvée labour to build temples, irrigation infrastructure and other public works. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 141) Michael D. Coe. 2003. Angkor and the Khmer Civilization. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ §REF§ (Higham 2014, 368-70) Charles Higham. 2014. Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§
The Khmer Empire is famous for its sprawling but low-density urban sites. §REF§ (Fletcher 2012, 300) Roland Fletcher. 2012. 'Low-Density, Agrarian-Based Urbanism: Scale, Power, and Ecology', in The Comparative Archaeology of Complex Societies, edited by M. Smith, 285-320. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ It has been claimed that Angkor itself was the 'largest settlement complex of the preindustrial world': §REF§ (Evans et al. 2013, 12595) Damian H. Evans, Roland J. Fletcher, Christophe Pottier, Jean-Baptiste Chevance, Dominique Soutif, Boun Suy Tan, Sokrithy Im, Darith Ea, Tina Tin, Samnang Kim, Christopher Cromarty, Stéphane De Greef, Kasper Hanus, Pierre Bâty, Robert Kuszinger, Ichita Shimoda, and Glenn Boornazian. 2013. 'Uncovering Archaeological Landscapes at Angkor Using Lidar'. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110 (31): 12595-600. §REF§ at its peak in the 12th century it covered 1000 square kilometres and may have housed over 750,000 people. §REF§ (Penny et al. 2014, 1) Dan Penny, Jean-Baptiste Chevance, David Tang, and Stéphane De Greef. 2014. 'The Environmental Impact of Cambodia's Ancient City of Mahendraparvata (Phnom Kulen)'. PLoS ONE 9 (1): e84252. §REF§ However, the total population of the empire in this period is still unclear.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",17.0,Cambodian Basin,Siam,103.866700000000,13.412500000000,Angkor Wat,KH,Cambodia,Southeast Asia,41,Mainland Southeast Asia,"Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
68,GrCrCls,-500,-323,Classical Crete,gr_crete_classical,LEGACY,"Population and political organization
In terms of the island's population at this time, estimates vary for a minimum of 200,000 to a maximum of 1,000,000 people; however, the most likely estimate is of 450,000-500,000 people. §REF§ (Chaniotis 1987, 194-195) Angelos Chaniotis. 1897. 'Κλασική και Ελληνιστική Κρήτη', in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός, edited by N. Panagiotakis. Heraklion: ΣΥΝΔΕΣΜΟΣ ΔΗΜΩΝ & ΚΟΙΝΟΤΗΤΩΝ ΚΡΗΤΗΣ. §REF§ Political, military and religious control in Cretan city-states was exercised by the Kosmoi (Κόσμοι), a board of 3 to 10 nobles, annually elected by the Ecclesia, the body of free male citizens. One of the Kosmoi, known as protokosmos or stratagetas, was the president of the board. The council of elders, the Gerousia, whose members were chosen among the best Kosmoi, had legislative and juridical authority. §REF§ (Willetts 1965, 56-75) Ronald F. Willetts. 1965. Ancient Crete. A Social History. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. §REF§ §REF§ (Chaniotis 1987, 196-199) Angelos Chaniotis. 1897. 'Κλασική και Ελληνιστική Κρήτη', in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός, edited by N. Panagiotakis. Heraklion: ΣΥΝΔΕΣΜΟΣ ΔΗΜΩΝ & ΚΟΙΝΟΤΗΤΩΝ ΚΡΗΤΗΣ. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",4.0,Crete,Southeastern Europe,25.144200000000,35.338700000000,Heraklion,GR,Greece,Europe,19,Southeastern Europe,"Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
656,ni_yoruba_classic,1000,1400,Classical Ife,ni_yoruba_classic,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
310,EsCordo,929,1031,Cordoba Caliphate,es_cordoba_cal,LEGACY,,,,,2024-02-27T12:25:44.863093Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
299,RuCrKha,1440,1783,Crimean Khanate,ru_crimean_khanate,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,10,Pontic-Caspian,The steppe belt of Ukraine and European Russia,"{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
814,es_aragon_crown,1164,1515,Crown of Aragon,es_aragon_crown,OTHER_TAG,,,,2024-03-14T12:25:12.466335Z,2024-03-14T12:25:12.466351Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
815,es_castile_crown,1231,1515,Crown of Castile,es_castile_crown,OTHER_TAG,,,,2024-03-14T12:26:13.144686Z,2024-03-14T12:26:13.144699Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
78,PeCuzE1,200,499,Cuzco - Early Intermediate I,pe_cuzco_2,LEGACY,"The Early Intermediate Period of Andean history lasted from 400 BCE to 550 CE, §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 12) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ and is known for the emergence of regional forms of political organization, such as the Moche in northern Peru (100-800 CE) and the Nazca in the Rio Grande de Nazca and Ica regions (100 BC-800 CE). In the Cuzco Valley, this period saw the development of numerous chiefdoms of varying sizes. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 54) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ One of these polities is known as Qotakalli (200-500 CE), §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 47) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ and may have controlled an area of up to 1000 square kilometres. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 59) Alan R. Covey. 2006. How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§
The period also saw a change in settlement patterns. Wimpillay no longer dominated the valley, as several new large sites grew in the west of the basin, with a possible large settlement under the modern city of Cusco. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 52) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ New settlements grew along the lower valley slopes below 3500 metres above sea level, which archaeologist Brian Bauer interprets as evidence for population growth and a possible shift in the valley's economy towards maize production. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 53) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§
In the Lucre Basin further to the east, the Chanapata culture still flourished in the form of small farming villages until 600 CE: Chanapata ceramics were found in the lowest strata during excavations at the site of Choquepukio. §REF§ (McEwan 2006, 88) Gordon F. McEwan. 2006. 'Inca State Origins: Collapse and Regeneration in the Southern Peruvian Andes', in After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and John J. Nichols, 85-98. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ These polities may have centred around the sites of Choquepukio and Mama Qolda. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 52) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ Furthermore, the presence of Pucara ceramics and early Tiwanaku-related wares indicate possible contacts between the Cuzco Valley polities and the Titicaca cultural sphere, perhaps through trade, but not through political assimilation. §REF§ (McEwan 2006, 88) Gordon F. McEwan. 2006. 'Inca State Origins: Collapse and Regeneration in the Southern Peruvian Andes', in After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and John J. Nichols, 85-98. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 143) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
Although the population of the region during this period is currently impossible to determine, it is worth mentioning that 16 Qotakalli sites with an area of between 1 and 5 hectares have been surveyed, as well as 35 sites between 0.25 and 1 hectares, §REF§ (Covey 2006, 60) Alan R. Covey. 2006. How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ suggesting a possible two-tiered settlement pattern. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 51) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ The density of sites near modern Cuzco may indicate various groups of elite households interacting with each other within the Qotakalli chiefdom. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 52) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",30.0,Cuzco,Andes,-72.067772000000,-13.477380000000,Cuzco,PE,Peru,South America,32,Andes,From Ecuador to Chile,"{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}"
79,PeCuzE2,500,649,Cuzco - Early Intermediate II,pe_cuzco_3,LEGACY,"The Early Intermediate Period of Andean history lasted from 400 BCE to 550 CE, §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 12) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ and is known for the emergence of regional forms of political organization, such as the Moche in northern Peru (100‒800 CE) and the Nazca in the Rio Grande de Nazca and Ica regions (100 BC‒800 CE). In the Cuzco Valley, this period saw the development of numerous chiefdoms of varying sizes. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 54) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ One of these polities is known as Qotakalli (200‒500 CE), §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 47) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ and may have controlled an area of up to 1000 square kilometres. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 59) Alan R. Covey. 2006. How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§
The period also saw a change in settlement patterns. Wimpillay no longer dominated the valley, as several new large sites grew in the west of the basin, with a possible large settlement under the modern city of Cusco. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 52) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ New settlements grew along the lower valley slopes below 3500 metres above sea level, which archaeologist Brian Bauer interprets as evidence for population growth and a possible shift in the valley's economy towards maize production. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 53) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§
In the Lucre Basin further to the east, the Chanapata culture still flourished in the form of small farming villages until 600 CE: Chanapata ceramics were found in the lowest strata during excavations at the site of Choquepukio. §REF§ (McEwan 2006, 88) Gordon F. McEwan. 2006. 'Inca State Origins: Collapse and Regeneration in the Southern Peruvian Andes', in After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and John J. Nichols, 85-98. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ These polities may have centred around the sites of Choquepukio and Mama Qolda. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 52) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ Furthermore, the presence of Pucara ceramics and early Tiwanaku-related wares indicate possible contacts between the Cuzco Valley polities and the Titicaca cultural sphere, perhaps through trade, but not through political assimilation. §REF§ (McEwan 2006, 88) Gordon F. McEwan. 2006. 'Inca State Origins: Collapse and Regeneration in the Southern Peruvian Andes', in After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and John J. Nichols, 85-98. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 143) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
Although the population of the region during this period is currently impossible to determine, it is worth mentioning that 16 Qotakalli sites with an area of between 1 and 5 hectares have been surveyed, as well as 35 sites between 0.25 and 1 hectares, §REF§ (Covey 2006, 60) Alan R. Covey. 2006. How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ suggesting a possible two-tiered settlement pattern. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 51) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ The density of sites near modern Cuzco may indicate various groups of elite households interacting with each other within the Qotakalli chiefdom. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 52) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§
The chronological boundaries between this polity and the previous one are not clear-cut. Brian Bauer designates 200-600 CE as the Qotakalli period, §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 47) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ while Alan Covey states that Qotakalli appeared around 400 CE. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 59) Alan R. Covey. 2006. How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ Moreover, Covey refers to a settlement shift after 400 CE in the Sacred Valley (within our NGA, natural geographical area): before 400 CE, he says there was a small chiefdom with a three-tiered settlement hierarchy, and another one in the Cuzco Basin. After 400 CE the large villages were abandoned and new ones built at about 3500 metres above sea level. In the Sacred Valley, the abandoned sites represent 70% of the sample. Qotakalli pottery has been found at the new sites. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 60-63) Alan R. Covey. 2006. How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ Depending on the chronology used, we could postulate either continuity or cultural assimilation of the previous polity in the Qotakalli circa 400 CE.
What can be noted with more confidence, however, is that the 6th and 7th centuries CE saw the incursion of Wari colonies into the Cuzco valley, interacting with smaller local polities in the south and west of the valley. §REF§ (Bauer and Covey 2002, 850) B. S. Bauer and A. R. Covey. 2002. 'Processes of State Formation in the Inca Heartland (Cuzco, Peru)'. American Anthropologist 104 (3): 846-64. §REF§ Araway ceramics may have been one of the markers of elite status, exchanged between local chiefs and Wari representatives. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 77) Alan R. Covey. 2006. How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ There seems to be strong cultural continuity between the Qotakalli sites and the sites where Araway pottery is present: although Wari colonists were present in the valley, their numbers remained low and evidence suggests that they did not exert political or military dominance over other groups. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 74) Alan R. Covey. 2006. How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ §REF§ Alan Covey 2017, personal communication §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",30.0,Cuzco,Andes,-72.067772000000,-13.477380000000,Cuzco,PE,Peru,South America,32,Andes,From Ecuador to Chile,"{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}"
77,PeCuzLF,-500,200,Cuzco - Late Formative,pe_cuzco_1,LEGACY,"The Formative period in the Cuzco valley (2200-500 BCE) marks the transition from small-scale semi-nomadic groups of hunter-gatherers to sedentary villages associated with ceramic production and agriculture. Traditionally, it has been subdivided into three periods. The Early Formative (2200-1500 BCE) corresponds to the beginning of ceramic production and quinoa cultivation and the establishment of large, permanent villages. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 39) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ During the Middle Formative (1500-500 BCE), Marcavalle ceramics appeared and villages grew, possibly leading to the beginnings of ranked village societies. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 40) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ The domestication of camelids was also under way. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 41) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ The Late Formative (500 BCE-200 CE) saw the emergence of a three-tiered settlement pattern in the Cuzco and Oropesa basins, dominated by the settlement of Wimpillay. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 44-45) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ This period is also known as Chanapata, in reference to a dominant ceramic style discovered in the 1940s. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 42) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ It is possible that other small chiefdoms existed in the region: a few early villages have been found near Raqchi in the Chit'apampa Basin, §REF§ (Covey 2006, 61) Alan R. Covey. 2006. How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ and there may have been some small independent polities near Paruro and Cusichaca. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 46) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ In the Lucre Basin to the east of modern Cuzco, a small chiefdom may have centred around the site of Choquepukio. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 46) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
The population of these early polities remains unknown, but over 80 archaeological sites dating to this period have been surveyed in the valley by archaeologist Brian Bauer. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 42) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ Some of these were identified as hamlets and small villages, with between a few dozen and a few hundred inhabitants. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 43) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ More research is needed in order to understand sociopolitical relations at the time, but Bauer has interpreted the Late Formative as the period in which chiefdoms begin to emerge. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 45) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ This process continued and solidified in the Early Intermediate Period.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",30.0,Cuzco,Andes,-72.067772000000,-13.477380000000,Cuzco,PE,Peru,South America,32,Andes,From Ecuador to Chile,"{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}"
81,PeCuzL1,1000,1250,Cuzco - Late Intermediate I,pe_cuzco_5,LEGACY,"After the collapse of the Wari empire, the Cuzco valley once more underwent a phase of regionalization, known as the Late Intermediate Period (1000‒1476 CE). §REF§ (Andrushko, Torres Pino and Bellifemine 2006, 66) Valerie A. Andrushko, Elva C. Torres Pino and Viviana Bellifemine. 2006. 'The Burials at Sacsahuaman and Chokepukio: a Bioarchaeological Case Study of Imperialism from the Capital of the Inca Empire'. Ñawpa Pacha 28: 63-92. §REF§ In other valleys of Peru, this period saw the emergence of complex kingdoms such as the Chimu, the Chincha, the Ischma and the Chanchay.
In the Cuzco Valley, this period lasted from the early 11th century to the early 15th century and was characterized by incipient state formation in two areas. To the west, the Killke or K'illke may have been the successors to the local Qotakalli chiefdoms of the Early Intermediate period and Middle Horizon. §REF§ (McEwan 2006, 95) Gordon F. McEwan. 2006. 'Inca State Origins: Collapse and Regeneration in the Southern Peruvian Andes', in After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies, edited by G. M. Schwartz and J. J. Nichols, 85-98. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ §REF§ (McEwan, Chatfield and Gibaja 2002, 295) Gordon F. McEwan, Melissa Chatfield and Arminda Gibaja. 2002. 'The Archaeology of Inca Origins: Excavations at Choquepukio, Cuzco, Peru', in Andean Archaeology I: Variations in Sociopolitical Organization, edited by W. H. Ibsell and H. Silverman, 287-301. New York: Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers. §REF§ Centred around the location of modern Cuzco, where Killke material has been excavated, §REF§ (Farrington 2013, 142) Ian Farrington. 2013. Cusco: Urbanism and Archaeology in the Inka World. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. §REF§ their sphere of influence extended south of Cuzco for around 20 kilometres. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 105) R. Alan Covey. 2006. How The Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan. §REF§ Smaller undefended polities to the west of modern Cuzco may have been under Killke domination, while it is likely that the developing political units to the north were independent. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 105) R. Alan Covey. 2006. How The Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan. §REF§
In the Lucre Basin to the east, another powerful cluster emerged, referred to as 'Pinagua' or 'Pinagua-Moyna' by ethnohistorians. These polities developed around the sites of Choquepukio, Cotocotuyoc and Minaspata. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 103) R. Alan Covey. 2006. 'Intermediate Elites in the Inka Heartland, AD 1000-1500', in Intermediate Elites in Pre-Columbian States and Empires, edited by Christina M. Elson and R. Alan Covey, 112-35. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ They may have upheld the cultural legacy of Wari colonizers from the Middle Horizon, §REF§ (Hiltunen and McEwan 2004, 246) Juha Hiltunen and Gordon F. McEwan. 2004. 'Knowing the Inca Past', in Andean Archaeology, edited by H. Silverman, 237-54. New York: Blackwell. §REF§ §REF§ (McEwan 2006, 93) Gordon F. McEwan. 2006. 'Inca State Origins: Collapse and Regeneration in the Southern Peruvian Andes', in After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies, edited by G. M. Schwartz and J. J. Nichols, 85-98. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ as their ceramics and architecture show profound Wari influence. §REF§ (McEwan, Chatfield and Gibaja 2002, 295) Gordon F. McEwan, Melissa Chatfield and Arminda Gibaja. 2002. 'The Archaeology of Inca Origins: Excavations at Choquepukio, Cuzco, Peru', in Andean Archaeology I: Variations in Sociopolitical Organization, edited by W. H. Ibsell and H. Silverman, 287-301. New York: Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers. §REF§ Choquepukio in particular exhibits significant continuity with the Wari through its monumental architecture. §REF§ (Hiltunen and McEwan 2004, 246) Juha Hiltunen and Gordon F. McEwan. 2004. 'Knowing the Inca Past', in Andean Archaeology, edited by H. Silverman, 237-54. New York: Blackwell. §REF§ Even further to the east, another small state may have existed around the settlements of Andahuaylillas, Huaro and Urcos. It has been suggested that the Pinagua cluster and these polities together prevented the eastern expansion of the Killke until the late 14th century. §REF§ (Hiltunen and McEwan 2004, 246) Juha Hiltunen and Gordon F. McEwan. 2004. 'Knowing the Inca Past', in Andean Archaeology, edited by H. Silverman, 237-54. New York: Blackwell. §REF§ Between these two extremities of the Cuzco Valley, the Oropesa Basin acted as a buffer zone. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 86) B. S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Covey 2006, 117) R. Alan Covey. 2006. 'Intermediate Elites in the Inka Heartland, AD 1000-1500', in Intermediate Elites in Pre-Columbian States and Empires, edited by Christina M. Elson and R. Alan Covey, 112-35. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. §REF§
The Killke, centred in the Cuzco region, appear to have been the most influential and expansionary of these cultures during the Late Intermediate Period: their ceramics were widely used, in contrast to the limited spread of Lucre Basin styles. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 103) R. Alan Covey. 2006. How The Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan. §REF§
Population and political organization
The Cuzco Basin and the Sacred Valley experienced significant population growth after 1000 CE, §REF§ (Covey 2006, 89) R. Alan Covey. 2006. How The Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan. §REF§ although population estimates are extremely difficult to produce. §REF§ Alan Covey 2015, personal communication. §REF§ The Lucre Basin cluster comprised at least 4 settlements extending over 10 hectares (e.g. Minaspata and Coto-coto), and Choquepukio covered 60 ha. These settlements may have housed several thousand people each. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 81-82) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ The capital of the Killke polity, now buried beneath modern Cuzco, may have covered 50 ha. §REF§ (Covey 2003, 339) Alan R. Covey. 2003. 'A Processual Study of Inka Formation'. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology (22): 333-57. §REF§
Little is known about political organization at the beginning of the Late Intermediate period, but archaeological work has revealed that the Killke polity had a four-tiered settlement hierarchy §REF§ (Covey 2003, 338-39) Alan R. Covey. 2003. 'A Processual Study of Inka Formation'. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology (22): 333-57. §REF§ The second half of the Late Intermediate Period would lead to the consolidation of the Killke polity, to the detriment of the Lucre Basin. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 85-86) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ Eventually, the Killke elites laid the foundations of what would become the Inca empire.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",30.0,Cuzco,Andes,-72.067772000000,-13.477380000000,Cuzco,PE,Peru,South America,32,Andes,From Ecuador to Chile,"{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}"
82,PeCuzL2,1250,1400,Cuzco - Late Intermediate II,pe_cuzco_6,LEGACY,"After the collapse of the Wari empire, the Cuzco valley once more underwent a phase of regionalization, known as the Late Intermediate Period (1000‒1476 CE). §REF§ (Andrushko, Torres Pino and Bellifemine 2006, 66) Valerie A. Andrushko, Elva C. Torres Pino and Viviana Bellifemine. 2006. 'The Burials at Sacsahuaman and Chokepukio: a Bioarchaeological Case Study of Imperialism from the Capital of the Inca Empire'. Ñawpa Pacha 28: 63-92. §REF§ In other valleys of Peru, this period saw the emergence of complex kingdoms such as the Chimu, the Chincha, the Ischma and the Chanchay.
In the Cuzco Valley, this period lasted from the early 11th century to the early 15th century and was characterized by incipient state formation in two areas. To the west, the Killke or K'illke may have been the successors to the local Qotakalli chiefdoms of the Early Intermediate period and Middle Horizon. §REF§ (McEwan 2006, 95) Gordon F. McEwan. 2006. 'Inca State Origins: Collapse and Regeneration in the Southern Peruvian Andes', in After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies, edited by G. M. Schwartz and J. J. Nichols, 85-98. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ §REF§ (McEwan, Chatfield and Gibaja 2002, 295) Gordon F. McEwan, Melissa Chatfield and Arminda Gibaja. 2002. 'The Archaeology of Inca Origins: Excavations at Choquepukio, Cuzco, Peru', in Andean Archaeology I: Variations in Sociopolitical Organization, edited by W. H. Ibsell and H. Silverman, 287-301. New York: Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers. §REF§ Centred around the location of modern Cuzco, where Killke material has been excavated, §REF§ (Farrington 2013, 142) Ian Farrington. 2013. Cusco: Urbanism and Archaeology in the Inka World. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. §REF§ their sphere of influence extended south of Cuzco for around 20 kilometres. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 105) R. Alan Covey. 2006. How The Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan. §REF§ Smaller undefended polities to the west of modern Cuzco may have been under Killke domination, while it is likely that the developing political units to the north were independent. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 105) R. Alan Covey. 2006. How The Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan. §REF§
In the Lucre Basin to the east, another powerful cluster emerged, referred to as 'Pinagua' or 'Pinagua-Moyna' by ethnohistorians. These polities developed around the sites of Choquepukio, Cotocotuyoc and Minaspata. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 103) R. Alan Covey. 2006. 'Intermediate Elites in the Inka Heartland, AD 1000-1500', in Intermediate Elites in Pre-Columbian States and Empires, edited by Christina M. Elson and R. Alan Covey, 112-35. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ They may have upheld the cultural legacy of Wari colonizers from the Middle Horizon, §REF§ (Hiltunen and McEwan 2004, 246) Juha Hiltunen and Gordon F. McEwan. 2004. 'Knowing the Inca Past', in Andean Archaeology, edited by H. Silverman, 237-54. New York: Blackwell. §REF§ §REF§ (McEwan 2006, 93) Gordon F. McEwan. 2006. 'Inca State Origins: Collapse and Regeneration in the Southern Peruvian Andes', in After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies, edited by G. M. Schwartz and J. J. Nichols, 85-98. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ as their ceramics and architecture show profound Wari influence. §REF§ (McEwan, Chatfield and Gibaja 2002, 295) Gordon F. McEwan, Melissa Chatfield and Arminda Gibaja. 2002. 'The Archaeology of Inca Origins: Excavations at Choquepukio, Cuzco, Peru', in Andean Archaeology I: Variations in Sociopolitical Organization, edited by W. H. Ibsell and H. Silverman, 287-301. New York: Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers. §REF§ Choquepukio in particular exhibits significant continuity with the Wari through its monumental architecture. §REF§ (Hiltunen and McEwan 2004, 246) Juha Hiltunen and Gordon F. McEwan. 2004. 'Knowing the Inca Past', in Andean Archaeology, edited by H. Silverman, 237-54. New York: Blackwell. §REF§ Even further to the east, another small state may have existed around the settlements of Andahuaylillas, Huaro and Urcos. It has been suggested that the Pinagua cluster and these polities together prevented the eastern expansion of the Killke until the late 14th century. §REF§ (Hiltunen and McEwan 2004, 246) Juha Hiltunen and Gordon F. McEwan. 2004. 'Knowing the Inca Past', in Andean Archaeology, edited by H. Silverman, 237-54. New York: Blackwell. §REF§ Between these two extremities of the Cuzco Valley, the Oropesa Basin acted as a buffer zone. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 86) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Covey 2006, 117) R. Alan Covey. 2006. 'Intermediate Elites in the Inka Heartland, AD 1000-1500', in Intermediate Elites in Pre-Columbian States and Empires, edited by Christina M. Elson and R. Alan Covey, 112-35. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. §REF§
The Killke, centred in the Cuzco region, appear to have been the most influential and expansionary of these cultures during the Late Intermediate Period: their ceramics were widely used, in contrast to the limited spread of Lucre Basin styles. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 103) R. Alan Covey. 2006. How The Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan. §REF§
Population and political organization
The Cuzco Basin and the Sacred Valley experienced significant population growth after 1000 CE, §REF§ (Covey 2006, 89) R. Alan Covey. 2006. How The Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan. §REF§ although population estimates are extremely difficult to produce. §REF§ Alan Covey 2015, personal communication. §REF§ The Lucre Basin cluster comprised at least 4 settlements extending over 10 hectares (e.g. Minaspata and Coto-coto), and Choquepukio covered 60 ha. These settlements may have housed several thousand people each. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 81-82) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ The capital of the Killke polity, now buried beneath modern Cuzco, may have covered 50 ha. §REF§ (Covey 2003, 339) Alan R. Covey. 2003. 'A Processual Study of Inka Formation'. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology (22): 333-57. §REF§
The second half of the Late Intermediate Period proved to be a gradual phase of consolidation for what would become the Inca Empire. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 85-86) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ Indeed, the Killke followed a pattern of 'leapfrogging', conquering new territories on an ad hoc basis. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 88) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ Administrative and temple buildings at Qhapaqkancha, Markasunay and Pukara Pantillijlla probably developed during the Inca expansion into the Sacred Valley (1250‒1310 CE). §REF§ (Covey 2006, 129, 134) R. Alan Covey. 2006. How The Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan. §REF§ One suggested cause of this expansionary strategy is a period of drought between 1250 and 1310. §REF§ (Covey 2006, 117) R. Alan Covey. 2006. How The Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan. §REF§
Meanwhile, there was another phase of construction at the site of Choquepukio around 1300 CE, which may have corresponded to the arrival of a new elite group from the Titicaca cultural sphere. §REF§ (McEwan 2006, 95) Gordon F. McEwan. 2006. 'Inca State Origins: Collapse and Regeneration in the Southern Peruvian Andes', in After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies, edited by G. M. Schwartz and J. J. Nichols, 85-98. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ Our evidence for this incursion comes from DNA analysis as well as from the presence of chullpas (burial towers) and ceramic styles characteristic of the Altiplano. §REF§ (McEwan 2006, 95) Gordon F. McEwan. 2006. 'Inca State Origins: Collapse and Regeneration in the Southern Peruvian Andes', in After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies, edited by G. M. Schwartz and J. J. Nichols, 85-98. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ The construction of grand niched halls and the presence of luxury items made of ceramic, metal, precious stones, and bone may indicate elite-sponsored feasting. §REF§ (Andrushko, Torres Pino and Bellifemine 2006, 66) Valerie A. Andrushko, Elva C. Torres Pino and Viviana Bellifemine. 2006. 'The Burials at Sacsahuaman and Chokepukio: a Bioarchaeological Case Study of Imperialism from the Capital of the Inca Empire'. Ñawpa Pacha 28: 63-92. §REF§ §REF§ (McEwan, Gibaja and Chatfield 2005, 258) Gordon McEwan, Arminda Gibaja and Melissa Chatfield. 2005. 'Arquitectura monumental en el Cuzco del Periodo Intermedio Tardio: Evidencias de continuidades en la reciprocidad ritual y el manejo administrativo entre los horizontes medio y tardio'. Boletín de Arqueología PUCP 9: 257-80. §REF§ The paramount leader of Choquepukio may have held these feasts in order to establish his power in relation to other local elites. §REF§ (McEwan, Gibaja and Chatfield 2005, 274) Gordon McEwan, Arminda Gibaja and Melissa Chatfield. 2005. 'Arquitectura monumental en el Cuzco del Periodo Intermedio Tardio: Evidencias de continuidades en la reciprocidad ritual y el manejo administrativo entre los horizontes medio y tardio'. Boletín de Arqueología PUCP 9: 257-80. §REF§ Early Inca chronicles document these Pinagua leaders or capacs as a rival force, blocking their expansion into the Lucre Basin. §REF§ (McEwan, Gibaja and Chatfield 2005, 274) Gordon McEwan, Arminda Gibaja and Melissa Chatfield. 2005. 'Arquitectura monumental en el Cuzco del Periodo Intermedio Tardio: Evidencias de continuidades en la reciprocidad ritual y el manejo administrativo entre los horizontes medio y tardio'. Boletín de Arqueología PUCP 9: 257-80. §REF§
Archaeological evidence of a major burning event between 1400 and 1430 CE indicates that the Choquepukio state finally succumbed to Killke expansion. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 64) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ Choquepukio's arts and monumental architecture profoundly influenced the material culture of the Inca Empire: §REF§ (Moseley 2001, 248) Michael E. Moseley. 2001. The Incas and Their Ancestors: The Archaeology of Peru. Revised edition. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ for example, Inca ceramics blended Lucre ceramic technology with Killke motifs. §REF§ (McEwan, Chatfield and Gibaja 2002, 295) Gordon F. McEwan, Melissa Chatfield and Arminda Gibaja. 2002. 'The Archaeology of Inca Origins: Excavations at Choquepukio, Cuzco, Peru', in Andean Archaeology I: Variations in Sociopolitical Organization, edited by W. H. Ibsell and H. Silverman, 287-301. New York: Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers. §REF§ With the demise of the Choquepukio polity and the expansion of Killke dominance across the valley, the conditions were in place for the rise of the Inca Empire during the 15th century, creatively building upon the legacy of its predecessors.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",30.0,Cuzco,Andes,-72.067772000000,-13.477380000000,Cuzco,PE,Peru,South America,32,Andes,From Ecuador to Chile,"{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}"
534,UgCwezi,1450,1699,Cwezi Dynasty,ug_bunyoro_k_1,LEGACY,,,,,2023-10-30T17:40:21.080135Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,1,Central Africa,Angola and DRC,"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
866,cz_czech_rep,1993,2020,Czech Republic,cz_czech_rep,OTHER_TAG,,Czech Republic,,2024-04-11T07:11:05.201927Z,2024-04-11T07:11:05.201939Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
865,cz_czechoslovakia,1919,1992,Czechoslovakia,cz_czechoslovakia,OTHER_TAG,,Czechoslovakia,,2024-04-11T07:10:05.084327Z,2024-04-11T07:10:05.084340Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
378,CnDali,937,1253,Dali Kingdom,cn_dali_k,LEGACY,,,,,2024-01-24T10:08:52.081429Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,41,Mainland Southeast Asia,"Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
628,sl_dambadeniya,1232,1293,Dambadaneiya,sl_dambadeniya,POL_SA_SI,,,,,2025-04-15T09:40:52.844064Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,63,Sri Lanka,Sri Lanka,"{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
817,gb_danelaw,878,926,Danelaw,gb_danelaw,OTHER_TAG,,Viking City-States,,2024-04-09T12:39:28.820754Z,2024-06-26T13:59:21.403521Z,"{'id': 44, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
744,dk_danish_emp_modern,1815,1940,Danish Empire,dk_danish_emp_modern,OTHER_TAG,,,,,2024-04-30T12:39:28.959628Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,17,Northern Europe,"Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
86,InDecIA,-1200,-300,Deccan - Iron Age,in_deccan_ia,LEGACY,"The South Indian Iron Age lasted, roughly, from 1200 to 300 BCE. §REF§ (Johansen 2014, 59) Peter G. Johansen. 2014. 'The Politics of Spatial Renovation: Reconfiguring Ritual Practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India'. Journal of Social Archaeology 14 (1): 59-86. §REF§ The vast majority of Iron Age megalithic structures and associated sites have been found in the modern-day Indian states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. §REF§ (Brubaker 2001-2002, 253) Robert Brubaker. 2001-2002. 'Aspects of Mortuary Variability in the South Indian Iron Age'. Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate & Research Institute 60-61: 253-302. §REF§ As in the preceding Neolithic period, South Indians sustained themselves through bovine and caprine pastoralism as well as the cultivation of millet and pulses - and, increasingly, wheat, barley, and rice. Settlement designs became more complex and labour-intensive, and new social arrangements and mortuary practices emerged. §REF§ (Johansen 2014, 65) Peter G. Johansen. 2014. 'The Politics of Spatial Renovation: Reconfiguring Ritual Practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India'. Journal of Social Archaeology 14 (1): 59-86. §REF§
Population and political organization
Differences in the scale, design and materials of mortuary megalithic structures and associated grave goods point to the growing hierarchization of South Indian societies at this time. §REF§ (Johansen 2014, 65) Peter G. Johansen. 2014. 'The Politics of Spatial Renovation: Reconfiguring Ritual Practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India'. Journal of Social Archaeology 14 (1): 59-86. §REF§ However, there was some variation in terms of the sociopolitical organization of individual communities: for example, it is likely that some chiefs with limited decision-making powers ruled over single settlements, and that more powerful leaders based in large centres exerted some control over surrounding settlements, and that some polities were made up of several settlements ruled by a hierarchy of leaders who answered to a single paramount chief. The first type of polity probably prevailed at the beginning of the Iron Age, while the second and third type likely became more common towards its end. §REF§ (Brubaker 2001-2002, 287-91) Robert Brubaker. 2001-2002. 'Aspects of Mortuary Variability in the South Indian Iron Age'. Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate & Research Institute 60-61: 253-302. §REF§
No population estimates for this period could be found in the specialist literature.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",15.0,Deccan,Central India,76.625407000000,15.386856000000,Kampli,DEC,India,South Asia,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
85,InDecNL,-2700,-1200,Deccan - Neolithic,in_deccan_nl,LEGACY,"The South Indian Neolithic lasted from about 3000 to 1200 BCE. Here we are particularly interested in the northern part of the modern-day Indian state of Karnataka, where Neolithic communities appear to have been small, egalitarian, and reliant on pastoralism (mostly cattle), agriculture (mostly millet and pulses), and hunting and gathering. The prevalence of cattle motifs in rock art, as well as the number of ashmounds (large mounds of burned cattle dung) dotting the landscape, point to the symbolic importance of cattle in South Indian Neolithic ideology as a whole. §REF§ (Johansen 2014, 62-65) Johansen, Peter. 2014. “The Politics of Spatial Renovation: Reconfiguring Ritual Practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India.” Journal of Social Archaeology 14 (1): 59-86. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M4E9T7IR. §REF§
Population and political organization
The presence of only minor variations in house size, design and content, as well as in mortuary practices, suggests an egalitarian society during this period. §REF§ (Johansen 2014, 63) Johansen, Peter. 2014. “The Politics of Spatial Renovation: Reconfiguring Ritual Practices in Iron Age and Early Historic South India.” Journal of Social Archaeology 14 (1): 59-86. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M4E9T7IR. §REF§ No population estimates are provided by the literature.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",15.0,Deccan,Central India,76.625407000000,15.386856000000,Kampli,DEC,India,South Asia,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
135,InDelh*,1206,1526,Delhi Sultanate,in_delhi_sultanate,LEGACY,"The Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526 CE) was created when Muhammad Qutb-ud-din declared his independence from the Ghurids, which in turn followed the defeat of the last Hindu ruler of Delhi in 1192 CE. §REF§ (Wolpert 1997, 110, 212) S A Wolpert. 1997. A new history of India. Oxford: Oxford University Press §REF§ Qutb-ud-din's successor, his son, had his rule as Sultan of Delhi legitimized by a representative of the Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad. §REF§ (Kulke 1990, 157) H Kulke D Rothermund. 1990. A History of India (Revised, Updated Edition). §REF§ The Sultanate lasted 320 years which spanned five successive Turko-Afghan dynasties (Mamluk Dynasty, Khalji Dynasty, Tughlaq Dynasty, Sayyid Dynasty and Lodi Dynasty) that spread Islam and the Persian language of administration in northern India. §REF§ (Wolpert 1997, 110, 212) S A Wolpert. 1997. A new history of India. Oxford: Oxford University Press §REF§ §REF§ (Habib 2005, 37-44) I Habib. 2005. The Delhi Sultanate in The state and society in medieval India. Delhi: Oxford University Press. §REF§
The Delhi Sultanate had a highly-complex central administration but was not a centralized state. In the provinces, much of its power was devolved to local Hindu rulers and landholders. §REF§ (Habib 2005, 37-44) I Habib. 2005. The Delhi Sultanate in The state and society in medieval India. Delhi: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Only the area around Delhi was ruled directly by the Sultan, and here units of land given to military commanders, in return for the right to collect revenue. §REF§ (Habib 2005, 37-44) I Habib. 2005. The Delhi Sultanate in The state and society in medieval India. Delhi: Oxford University Press. §REF§ According to Habib (2005) any centralisation that existed only lasted for a few decades before the polity become much more loosely organised. §REF§ (Habib 2005, 37-44) I Habib. 2005. The Delhi Sultanate in The state and society in medieval India. Delhi: Oxford University Press. §REF§
Ala al-Din (r.1296-1316 CE) reorganized the revenue and administrative systems in order to support a large standing army. A successful army was crucial for maintaining the personal authority of the Delhi Sultan in India and for expanding, or defending, territory. §REF§ (Asher 2006, 39-40) Catherine B Asher. Cynthia Talbot. 2006. India before Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ By the fourteenth century, the vizier of the Sultan became more powerful. Whilst earlier his duties were confined only to the military, they were extended to revenue affairs. The vizier was responsible for fiscal administration, income and expenditure, appointment of officials, and the collection of taxes. §REF§ (Ahmed 2011, 98) Farooqui Salma Ahmed. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India. §REF§
Hindus joined the ranks of the administrative class §REF§ (Habib 2005, 37-44) I Habib. 2005. The Delhi Sultanate in The state and society in medieval India. Delhi: Oxford University Press. §REF§ and ""many elements of the Rajput political system, with or without changes, were incorporated into the Turkish administration in India."" §REF§ (Ahmed 2011, 96) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India. §REF§ Under the later dynasties, revenue collection began to be less efficient, and conflicts between elite power-holders emerged. The Sultanate ended when Ibrahim was defeated by Babur, the Mongol ruler, in 1526 CE. §REF§ Habib, I. (2005). The Delhi Sultanate in The state and society in medieval India. Delhi: Oxford University Press, pp.37-44. §REF§",,,,2024-07-19T07:49:25.120403Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",13.0,Kachi Plain,Indo-Gangetic Plain,67.628836000000,29.377664000000,Mehrgarh,PK,Pakistan,South Asia,64,North India,"Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
735,ko_korean_democratic_peoples_rep,1948,2020,Democratic People's Republic of Korea,ko_korean_democratic_peoples_rep,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,14,Northeast Asia,"Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
764,vt_vietnam_democratic_rep,1954,1975,Democratic Republic of Vietnam,vt_vietnam_democratic_rep,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,41,Mainland Southeast Asia,"Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
724,cg_congo_democratic_rep,1960,2020,Democratic Republic of the Congo,cg_congo_democratic_rep,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,1,Central Africa,Angola and DRC,"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
874,dk_denmark_norway,1524,1814,Denmark-Norway,dk_denmark_norway,OTHER_TAG,,Denmark-Norway,,2024-05-02T14:45:59.021994Z,2024-05-02T14:45:59.022009Z,,,,,,,,,,,17,Northern Europe,"Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
681,se_great_fulo_emp,1490,1776,Denyanke Kingdom,se_great_fulo_emp,POL_AFR_WEST,"The Empire of Great Fulo was established in 1490 CE by the Fula leader Tengella as he rebelled against the Songhay Empire. Tengella was killed in battle by the Songhay and was succeeded by his son Koli Tengella. Koli Tengella along with his troops invaded the Fuuta Tooro region in northern Senegal and established the empire there. Through Koli Tengella all the other Fulo kings were descended, and thus from Koli Tengella’s legacy the Denianke or Denyanke Dynasty was formed. §REF§ (Ba Konare 2021, 32) Ba Konare, Dougoukolo Alpha Oumar. 2021. National Narratives of Mali: Fula Communities in Times of Crisis. Minneapolis: Lexington Books. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/F4IZCXAQ/collection §REF§ The Empire of the Great Fulo was important in the trans-Sahara trade and also the slave trade with Europeans. §REF§ (Fage 2008, 508) Fage, J.D. 2008. ‘Upper and Lower Guinea.’ In The Cambridge History of Africa c. 1050 – c.1600. Edited by Roland Oliver. Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/9V3CTHZ9/collection §REF§ In 1776 CE, the Empire of the Great Fulo and the Danianke Dynasty ended and was taken over by the Imamate of Fuuta Tooro. §REF§ (Klein 1972, 429) Klein, Martin A. 1972. ‘Social and Economic Factors in the Muslim Revolution in Senegambia.’ The Journal of Africa History. Vol. 13:3. Pp 419-441. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZJRN8UJ8/collection §REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
846,gr_epirus_despot,1205,1479,Despotate of Epirus,gr_epirus_despot,OTHER_TAG,,Despotate of Epirus,,2024-04-10T08:45:36.091468Z,2024-04-10T08:45:36.091482Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,19,Southeastern Europe,"Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
779,BdDeva,1150,1300,Deva Dynasty,bd_deva_dyn,OTHER_TAG,,,,,2024-06-05T11:26:17.521369Z,"{'id': 54, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,37,Eastern South Asia,"Bangladesh + Indian states of West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and Sikkim","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
733,ca_canada_dominion,1867,2020,Dominion of Canada,ca_canada_dominion,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,22,East Coast,East Coast of US,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
823,hr_croatia_k,790,1102,Duchy and Kingdom of Croatia,hr_croatia_k,OTHER_TAG,,"Duchy of Croatia, Kingdom of Croatia",,2024-04-09T12:55:31.111187Z,2024-04-09T12:55:31.111201Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,19,Southeastern Europe,"Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
307,FrAquit,602,768,Duchy of Aquitaine I,fr_aquitaine_duc_1,LEGACY,,,"JR: Majid, please change polID to fr_aquitaine_duc_1",,2024-04-10T12:24:54.822753Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
862,fr_aquitania_duc_2,893,1137,Duchy of Aquitaine II,fr_aquitania_duc_2,OTHER_TAG,,Duchy of Aquitaine,,2024-04-10T12:28:00.635343Z,2024-04-10T12:28:00.635360Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
907,cz_bohemian_duc,880,1003,Duchy of Bohemia,cz_bohemian_duc,OTHER_TAG,,,,2024-10-16T09:49:13.311336Z,2024-10-16T09:49:13.311353Z,,,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
839,it_milan_duc_1,1395,1498,Duchy of Milan I,it_milan_duc_1,OTHER_TAG,,Duchy of Milan,,2024-04-10T08:26:26.508919Z,2024-05-19T17:59:21.199522Z,"{'id': 43, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
881,it_milan_duc_2,1499,1796,Duchy of Milan II,it_milan_duc_2,OTHER_TAG,,Duchy of Milan,,2024-05-19T17:58:39.635737Z,2024-05-19T17:58:39.635750Z,,,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
137,AfDurrn,1747,1826,Durrani Empire,af_durrani_emp,LEGACY,"The Duranni Empire (1747-1826 CE) was a political entity that lasted 79 years by plundering its higher populated and wealthier neighbors. §REF§ (Barfield 2010, 97-109) Thomas Barfield. 2010. Afghanistan: a cultural and political history. Princeton University Press. §REF§ Founded by a former soldier of the Afsharid Kingdom named Ahmad Shah Durrani, at its maximum extent it covered over 1.5 million KM2 of territory surrounding modern-day Afganistan. §REF§ (Barfield 2010, 97-109) Thomas Barfield. 2010. Afghanistan: a cultural and political history. Princeton University Press. §REF§
Ahmad Shah Durrani had been elected to the monarchy by an inter-tribal assembly called the Loya Jirga. §REF§ (Barfield 2010, 97-109) Thomas Barfield. 2010. Afghanistan: a cultural and political history. Princeton University Press. §REF§ Following his death in 1772 CE , rebellion and internal strife led to a loss of power so that by 1818 CE, the Durrani controlled a small territory surrounding the capital of Kabul. §REF§ (Runion 2007, 69-73) Meredith L Runion. 2007. The history of Afghanistan. Greenwood Publishing Group. §REF§ The regime was finally extinguished when Afghanistan fell into a period of sustained civil war. The eventual victors were members of the Barkzai dynasty, who came to power in 1837 CE . §REF§ (Runion 2007, 69-73) Meredith L Runion. 2007. The history of Afghanistan. Greenwood Publishing Group. §REF§
The Durrani state was an empire sustained and governed through the maintenance of a large number of armed horseman primarily recruited from the Pashtun peoples, although conquests in the period of 1747-1752 CE added horsemen from the Turkmen, Uzbek, Tajik, and Hazara tribes to the King's army. §REF§ (Runion 2007, 69-73) Meredith L Runion. 2007. The history of Afghanistan. Greenwood Publishing Group. §REF§ The army was organized under a hierarchical tribal confederacy. §REF§ (Barfield 2010, 100) Thomas Barfield. 2010. Afghanistan: a cultural and political history. Princeton University Press. §REF§
As a loose confederation of tribes there was not much in the way of an administration except for that possessed by conquered elites, who were largely left alone if they made their tribute payments. What short term central administrative posts that did exist were given to members of the governing tribes. §REF§ (Saikal 2006, 22-24) Amin Saikal. 2006 Modern Afghanistan: A struggle for Survival. I.B. Tauris. §REF§ Soldiers received almost all the money: paid through generous land grants called Jegeirs, while the remaining revenue was spent on meeting the costs of the large army §REF§ Lothar Brock. Hans-Henrik Holm. Georg Sørensen. Michael Stohl. 2011. Fragile states. polity, 2011 comments on the problems of governing such a loose confederation; for a brief look at the decline, see http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/7798/Afghanistan/21395/Nadir-Shah §REF§ which expanded rapidly from 16,000 in 1747 to about 120,000 in 1761 CE. §REF§ (Barfield 2010, 97-109) Thomas Barfield. 2010. Afghanistan: a cultural and political history. Princeton University Press. §REF§
",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",13.0,Kachi Plain,Indo-Gangetic Plain,67.628836000000,29.377664000000,Mehrgarh,PK,Pakistan,South Asia,8,Afghanistan,Afghanistan,"{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
632,nl_dutch_emp_1,1648,1795,Dutch Empire,nl_dutch_emp_1,POL_SA_SI,,,,,2025-03-11T16:36:59.679428Z,"{'id': 201, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
482,IqDynE*,-979,-732,Dynasty of E,iq_dynasty_e,LEGACY,"There were four main settlement types during this period: the capital city of Babylon, secondary provincial cities, smaller towns, and villages. §REF§ Liverani, M. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge. p.364-370 §REF§ Although the capital city was Babylon, it was the city of Kar-Marduk where the king resided, potentially as this was located in a less vulnerable area. §REF§ Liverani, M. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge. p.364-370 §REF§
Although all settlements were joined under the king, political and economic crisis led to all major cities running their own affairs and so they held some level of autonomy. Temples acted as the centres of resources, policy and activity in each area and the sanga / shangum (chief priest) was an administrative as well as religious role. §REF§ (McIntosh 2005: 206) McIntosh, J. 2005. Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD. §REF§ §REF§ (Liverani 2014, 471) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani. §REF§
Goods were transported by water and traded through exchange, with the main commodities being silver and grains. §REF§ (McIntosh 2005: 132) McIntosh, J. 2005. Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD. §REF§
Written records, scripts, poems, religious texts and ‘scientific’ literature increased during this period. §REF§ (McIntosh 2005: 291) McIntosh, J. 2005. Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",8.0,Southern Mesopotamia,Levant-Mesopotamia,44.420000000000,32.470000000000,Babylon (Hillah),IQ,Iraq,Southwest Asia,62,Mesopotamia,"Iraq, Kuwait","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
821,gb_dal_riata,498,899,Dál Riata,gb_dal_riata,OTHER_TAG,,Dál Riata,,2024-04-09T12:49:11.839283Z,2024-04-09T12:49:11.839295Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
111,InGaroE,1775,1867,Early A'chik,in_achik_1,LEGACY,"The Garo Hills, located in Meghalaya in northeast India, have long been inhabited by the A’chik. The term 'Garo' is of unclear origin, but is believed to have originated with the neighbouring Boro people. §REF§ (Sangma 1995, 37) Sangma, Mihir N., and Milton S. Sangma. 1995. “The Garos: The Name, Meanings, and Its Origin.” In Hill Societies, Their Modernisation: A Study of North East with Special Reference to Garo Hills, 32-41. New Delhi: Omsons Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M5IS3SBN. §REF§ The Garo people refer to themselves as the A'chik ('hill') or A'chik Manderang ('hill people'). §REF§ (Sangma 1995, 33) Sangma, Mihir N., and Milton S. Sangma. 1995. “The Garos: The Name, Meanings, and Its Origin.” In Hill Societies, Their Modernisation: A Study of North East with Special Reference to Garo Hills, 32-41. New Delhi: Omsons Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M5IS3SBN. §REF§
It is unknown precisely when the A’chik settled in their present location, but it is believed that they migrated to the hills from Tibet. §REF§ (Roy 1999, 2) Roy, Sankar Kumar. 1999. “Culture Summary: Garo.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ar05-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TXQNUE8P. §REF§ The A’chik had little contact with their neighbours before 1775, when local zamindars (Indian land-owning nobility) led expeditions into the Garo Hills. §REF§ (Roy 1999, 2) Roy, Sankar Kumar. 1999. “Culture Summary: Garo.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ar05-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TXQNUE8P. §REF§
1788 saw the first contact with the British, who began to occupy the district in 1867. §REF§ (Roy 1999, 2) Roy, Sankar Kumar. 1999. “Culture Summary: Garo.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ar05-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TXQNUE8P. §REF§ Despite their initial resistance, the A’chik were overmatched by British firearms, and the British established full administrative control of the region around 1873. §REF§ (Majumdar 1978, 30) Majumdar, Dhirendra Narayan. 1978. Culture Change in Two Garo Villages. Calcutta: Anthropological Survey of India, Govt. of India. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TZXMWMN5. §REF§ The region remained a part of British India until Indian independence in 1947.
Population and political organization
During the precolonial period, the A’chik lacked elaborate political organization. The most important social unit was the matrilineal clan, the machong. §REF§ (Roy 1999, 6) Roy, Sankar Kumar. 1999. “Culture Summary: Garo.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ar05-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TXQNUE8P. §REF§ The chief (nokma) had relatively little power beyond religious functions and resolving minor disputes under the guidance of the village elders. §REF§ (Majumdar 1978, 22) Majumdar, Dhirendra Narayan. 1978. Culture Change in Two Garo Villages. Calcutta: Anthropological Survey of India, Govt. of India. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TZXMWMN5. §REF§
Once the region was under British control, executive offices were simply superimposed onto A’chik structures. The British created the office of laskar, with limited power over about ten villages. §REF§ (Marak 1997, 52) Marak, Kumie R. 1997. Traditions and Modernity in Matrilineal Tribal Society. New Delhi: Inter-India Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CS3PXEIH. §REF§ The A’chik were still left to settle their own disputes through the nokma, but they gained the right to appeal the nokma's decisions to the court of laskars. §REF§ (Marak 1997, 52) Marak, Kumie R. 1997. Traditions and Modernity in Matrilineal Tribal Society. New Delhi: Inter-India Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CS3PXEIH. §REF§
Population estimates are unavailable for the precolonial period. The British colonial official and statistician W. W. Hunter estimated that the population of the Garo Hills was 80,000 in 1872. §REF§ (Kar 1995, 54) Kar, Biman. 1995. “Changing A’chik-Mande: Need for Further Research.” In Hill Societies, Their Modernisation: A Study of North East with Special Reference to Garo Hills, edited by Milton S. Sangma, 52-58. New Delhi: Omsons Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/W7PJ27C6. §REF§",,"Changing from ""Garo"" to ""A'chik""",,2024-05-30T14:03:13.101175Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",16.0,Garo Hills,Eastern India,90.518539010900,25.444444443900,Tura,ASM,India,South Asia,37,Eastern South Asia,"Bangladesh + Indian states of West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and Sikkim","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
40,KhAngkE,802,1100,Early Angkor,kh_angkor_1,LEGACY,"The Khmer Empire was established in 802 CE, when a ruler known as Jayavarman II had himself proclaimed 'universal monarch' in a ceremony performed by Sanskrit-speaking priests on a mountain close to the Tonlé Sap lake. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ By bringing previously independent polities under their control, Jayavarman II and his successors expanded their realm across mainland Southeast Asia, including parts of modern-day Cambodia, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam. §REF§ (Fletcher 2012, 300) Roland Fletcher. 2012. 'Low-Density, Agrarian-Based Urbanism: Scale, Power, and Ecology', in The Comparative Archaeology of Complex Societies, edited by M. Smith, 285-320. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Our Early Angkor period runs from 802 to 1100 CE, after which a new dynasty ‒ named after their place of origin, Mahidharapura ‒ came to power. §REF§ (Higham 2001, 107-09) Charles Higham. 2001. The Civilization of Angkor. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
Numerous small kingdoms formed in the lower Mekong Basin in the mid-1st millennium CE, but until the conquests of Jayavarman II, most failed to outlive their founders. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Jayavarman II managed to unify previously warring local lords under his aegis, turning independent polities into provinces and laying the foundations for over six centuries of Khmer rule centred on the Siem Reap plain. §REF§ (Higham 2012, 185) Charles Higham. 2012. 'Khmer Civilization and the Empire of Angkor', in The Oxford Companion to Archaeology, edited by Brian M. Fagan, 183-86. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
Like many polities in Southeast Asia at the turn of the 1st millennium CE, the new kingdom, with its growing urban centre on the north shore of the Tonlé Sap, borrowed from Indian religious practices, concepts of divine kingship, language, writing and iconography in order to legitimize royal power. §REF§ (Higham 2001, 8) Charles Higham. 2001. The Civilization of Angkor. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Kulke 1986, 14-15) Hermann Kulke. 1986. 'The Early and the Imperial Kingdom in Southeast Asian History', in Southeast Asia in the 9th to 14th Centuries, edited by David G. Marr and A. C. Milner, 1-22. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. §REF§ Its kings patronized both Hindu and Buddhist institutions, building monasteries and sanctuaries dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and the Buddha that doubled as outposts of royal power throughout the realm. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 160) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lieberman 2003, 33) Victor Lieberman. 2003. Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800‒1830, Vol. 1: Integration on the Mainland. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ However, in this early period, it was the Hindu concepts that were most dominant: the ruler was exalted as a devaraja (god-king) and symbolically linked to Shiva. §REF§ (Hall 2010, 15) Kenneth R. Hall. 2010. A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100‒1500. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. §REF§ Temples built in the kingdom before 1100 CE include Preah Ko, Bakheng, Pre Rup and Baphuon. §REF§ (Higham 2001, xiv) Charles Higham. 2001. The Civilization of Angkor. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§
The riches of Angkor ultimately flowed from wet-rice agriculture, §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and an institutionalized hierarchy of officials developed to funnel surplus rice produced in villages, as well as other goods like honey, spices, cloth and gold, to the royal centre. §REF§ (Higham 2012, 185) Charles Higham. 2012. 'Khmer Civilization and the Empire of Angkor', in The Oxford Companion to Archaeology, edited by Brian M. Fagan, 183-86. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Coe 2003, 141) Michael D. Coe. 2003. Angkor and the Khmer Civilization. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ Angkor kings also used corvée labour to build temples, irrigation infrastructure and other public works. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 141) Michael D. Coe. 2003. Angkor and the Khmer Civilization. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ §REF§ (Higham 2014, 368-70) Charles Higham. 2014. Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§
The Khmer Empire is famous for its sprawling but low-density urban sites. §REF§ (Fletcher 2012, 300) Roland Fletcher. 2012. 'Low-Density, Agrarian-Based Urbanism: Scale, Power, and Ecology', in The Comparative Archaeology of Complex Societies, edited by M. Smith, 285-320. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ It has been claimed that Angkor itself was the 'largest settlement complex of the preindustrial world': §REF§ (Evans et al. 2013, 12595) Damian H. Evans, Roland J. Fletcher, Christophe Pottier, Jean-Baptiste Chevance, Dominique Soutif, Boun Suy Tan, Sokrithy Im, Darith Ea, Tina Tin, Samnang Kim, Christopher Cromarty, Stéphane De Greef, Kasper Hanus, Pierre Bâty, Robert Kuszinger, Ichita Shimoda, and Glenn Boornazian. 2013. 'Uncovering Archaeological Landscapes at Angkor Using Lidar'. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110 (31): 12595-600. §REF§ at its peak in the 12th century (after this period) it covered 1000 square kilometres and may have housed over 750,000 people. §REF§ (Penny et al. 2014, 1) Dan Penny, Jean-Baptiste Chevance, David Tang, and Stéphane De Greef. 2014. 'The Environmental Impact of Cambodia's Ancient City of Mahendraparvata (Phnom Kulen)'. PLoS ONE 9 (1): e84252. §REF§ However, the total population of the empire in this period is still unclear.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",17.0,Cambodian Basin,Siam,103.866700000000,13.412500000000,Angkor Wat,KH,Cambodia,Southeast Asia,41,Mainland Southeast Asia,"Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
882,in_cheras_1,-300,300,Early Cheras,in_cheras_1,OTHER_TAG,"The Early Cheras were a dynasty ruling over the western coast of southern India (modern-day Kerala), and one of the three ruling kingdoms of Early Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas who ruled over Tamilakam in the late last millennium BCE and early first millennium CE. §REF§ (Abraham 2003) Abraham, Shinu A. 2003. ‘Chera, Chola, Pandya: Using Archaeological Evidence to Identify the Tamil Kingdoms of Early Historic South India’. Asian Perspectives 42 (2): 207–23. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MIRRQD2C/ §REF§",,,2024-06-07T13:13:15.836877Z,2024-06-07T13:59:44.822947Z,,,,,,,,,,,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
698,in_cholas_1,-300,300,Early Cholas,in_cholas_1,POL_SA_SI,"The Early Cholas were a northern kingdom in Tamil Nadu and part of the three ruling kingdoms of Early Cholas, Chera and Pandya who ruled over Tamilakam in the late last millennium BCE and early first millennium CE. §REF§ (Abraham 2003) Abraham, Shinu A. 2003. ‘Chera, Chola, Pandya: Using Archaeological Evidence to Identify the Tamil Kingdoms of Early Historic South India’. Asian Perspectives 42 (2): 207–23. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MIRRQD2C/ §REF§ The Early Cholas had their capital at Uraiyur and their main trading port at Kaveripumpattinam. §REF§ (Singh 2008, 384) Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. London: Pearson Education. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UJG2G6MJ/collection §REF§ The Early Cholas practiced Hinduism and it is said that the Chola king Kochchenganan built 70 temples in honour of Shiva. §REF§ (Agnihotri 1988, 350) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection §REF§ §REF§ (Ramachandran 2018, 204) Ramachandran, R. 2018. A History of Hinduism: The Past, Present and Future. New Delhi: Sage. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/XBIURS7C/collection §REF§The Early Cholas had important trade connections that linked through all of Tamil Nadu and coins from this period also reveal trade links with the Romans. §REF§ (Singh 2008, 384) Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. London: Pearson Education. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UJG2G6MJ/collection §REF§ §REF§ (Raman 1976, 55) Raman, K.V. 1976. ‘Archaeology of the Sangam Age’. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol 37. Pp 50-56. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/M3ZPI56I/collection §REF§ Sometime in the 3rd century CE, the three kingdoms of the Early Cholas, Chera and Pandya declined and were succeeded by the Kalabhra dynasty. §REF§ (Srinivansan, 2021) Srinivasan, Raghavan. 2021. Rajaraja Chola: Interplay Between an Imperial Regime and Productive Forces of Society. Mumbai: Leadstart Publishing Pvt Ltd. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UGD5HUFP/collection §REF§",,,,2024-06-07T14:00:19.670742Z,"{'id': 58, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
590,gt_tikal_early_classic,250,554,Early Classic Tikal,gt_tikal_early_classic,LEGACY,,,,,2023-10-18T14:26:00.324202Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
475,IqEDyn*,-2900,-2500,Early Dynastic,iq_early_dynastic,LEGACY,"The Early Dynastic polity was not a single political unit, but rather a conglomeration of various smaller polities which shared most of the features, either cultural, social, political or economic. To cite Hamblin: ""Politically Sumer in the Early Dynastic period was divided into a number of separate and feuding independent city-states engaged in complex pattern of cooperation, alliance, conflict and war. §REF§ Hamblin 2006, 44 §REF§ Most of the cities were ruled by the kings-priests (called lugal or en) which competed with other city-states. The Early Dynastic Period is directly linked to previous polities, especially Jemdet Nasr and most of the urban centres were still occupied and developed. According to Chavrat: ""For the earlier part of the ED period, three types of architectural layout stand out: spacious residences in enclosures (sometimes oval such as those observed on the west mound of Abu Salabikh and elsewhere); regular buildings on ordered plans, comprising most of those currently described as ‘temples’ and ‘palaces’; and, finally, densely packed urban networks such as those of the Abu Salabikh Central Mound or of the ‘Y’ sounding at Kiš."" §REF§ Chavrat 2012, 235 §REF§ The position of temples were very high, and fulfilled not only religious or ceremonial role, but also political and administrative. The temples had their own fields and animals and were independent institutions, but also obtained gifts for god or goddess from people. Moreover, many people, mostly farmers were obligated to render some services and work. §REF§ Gadd 1971, 137-138 §REF§ The recent studies, however, indicated on dominant role of temple as social and economic institution in Early Dynastic Period I, but gradually the palaces gained prominent position. There is assumed that military victory of some rulers played significant role in forming high position of palace and secular power. §REF§ Evans 2012, 121 §REF§ §REF§ Cohen 2005, 3-5 §REF§ The Early Dynastic Period is also described as a time when the first very intensive military campaigns and conflicts happened. The increase of warfare activity was probably caused by a need of new agricultural lands and water rights, and it also reflected the process of cumulation of power and growth of political significance of some individuals. §REF§ McIntosh 2005, 71 §REF§ The main source of information concerning the political history of Sumer in the Early Dynastic Period is the Sumerian king-list, which contained the names of ling ruling in various Mesopotamian cities. The main problem, however, is to reconstruct both the exact time of each ruling and the synchronize the ruling of each king. The list mentioned few royal dynasty such as the first, second and third dynasty of Kish (with kings Enmebarasi, Agga, etc), the first dynasty of Uruk (one of the most known kings were Gilgamesh, Enmerkar, Lugalbanda), the first dynasty of Ur, dynasty of Adab, dynasty of Mari, dynasty of Hamazi, dynasty of Awan, dynasty of Akshak. There is assumed that the supremacy of Uruk dynasty correlates with duration of Early Dynastic Period II (circa 2650-2550 BCE). §REF§ Hamblin 2006, 44-49 §REF§
""What is known is that by the third millennium B.C., the Sumerians had improved the shape of the bricks - loaf-shaped at first - by making them flat on one side and convex on the other. More importantly, they also invented the kiln to harden the bricks. Now harder and waterproof, the bricks were also porous, and absorbed some of the bitumen used as mortar and became strong as rock. Esir was then mixed with straw or clay to make it into a stiff mortar capable of sustaining the heavy load of the superimposed brickwork without sagging. Thus were built, until 2200 B.C., the palaces and temples of distant Sumerian kings in such ancient cities as Kish, Ur and Uruk. (Bilkadi, Z. 1984. Bitumen: A History. Saudi Aramco World. November/December. pp 2-9. https://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198406/bitumen.-.a.history.htm)",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",8.0,Southern Mesopotamia,Levant-Mesopotamia,44.420000000000,32.470000000000,Babylon (Hillah),IQ,Iraq,Southwest Asia,62,Mesopotamia,"Iraq, Kuwait","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
715,tz_east_africa_ia_1,200,499,Early East Africa Iron Age,tz_east_africa_ia_1,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
8,MxFormE,-1200,-801,Early Formative Basin of Mexico,mx_basin_of_mexico_3,LEGACY,"The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Early Formative period (c. 1200-801 BCE). During this period, sociopolitical hierarchies emerged and expanded throughout much of Mesoamerica more broadly, including the southern Valley of Mexico. This is evident, for example, in the establishment of a two-tiered settlement system, §REF§ (Evans 2004: 124) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EWW3Q2TA. §REF§ as well in the emergence of craft specialisation, specifically with regards to the manufacture of obsidian blades at sites such as Coapexco. §REF§ Paul Tolstoy. (1989) ""Coapexco and Tlatilco: sites with Olmec material in the Basin of Mexico"", In Regional Perspectives on the Olmec, Robert J. Sharer & David C. Grove (eds.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 96. §REF§ Moreover, the Early Formative saw the earliest shared style in Mesoamerica, characterised by a standardized set of symbols, typically carved or incised on black, black-and-white, and white or white-slipped ceramics. §REF§ (Pool 2012: 176) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6. §REF§
Sanders et al. (1979) tentatively estimated that there were approximately 5,000 people in the Basin of Mexico around 1150 BC. §REF§ Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Robert S. Santley. (1979) The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization. Academic Press, New York, pg. 183. §REF§ However, no estimates could be found for the population of the average autonomous political unit. The largest known settlement, Tlatilco, may have had a population of as little as 1,000 inhabitants over 40 hectares, §REF§ Paul Tolstoy. (1989) ""Coapexco and Tlatilco: sites with Olmec material in the Basin of Mexico"", In Regional Perspectives on the Olmec, Robert J. Sharer & David C. Grove (eds.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pg. 87-121. §REF§ or between 2,000 and 4,000. §REF§ (Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to G. Nazzaro and E. Cioni) §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",27.0,Basin of Mexico,Mexico,-99.130000000000,19.430000000000,Ciudad de Mexico,MX,Mexico,North America,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
54,PaCocl1,200,700,Early Greater Coclé,pa_cocle_1,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,21,Caribbean,"Caribbean islands, Panama, coastal Columbia-Venezuela","{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}"
30,USIllin,1640,1717,Early Illinois Confederation,us_early_illinois_confederation,LEGACY,"Our early Illinois period refers to the span of time from 1640 CE, the approximate date of the first European written reports of the Illinois (also known as Inoca, Illiniwek, Illini) Indians, §REF§ (Illinois State Museum 2000) Illinois State Museum. 2000. ""The Illinois: History."" MuseumLink Illinois. http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/nat_amer/post/htmls/il_hi.html. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/PT8275IS. §REF§ to 1717, when the Illinois Country was incorporated into the French colony of Louisiane. §REF§ (Walthall and Emerson 1992, 9-10) Walthall, John A., and Thomas E. Emerson. 1992. ""Indians and French in the Midcontinent."" In Calumet and Fleur-De-Lys: French and Indian Interaction in the Midcontinent, edited by John A. Walthall and Thomas E. Emerson, 1-13. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2VQKWPMN. §REF§ From the 1660s and 1670s onwards, France claimed title to the Illinois Country (Pays des Illinois) as part of its North American colonial possessions, but French presence in the region before 1717 was generally limited to small numbers of missionaries and traders. §REF§ (Walthall and Emerson 1992, 8-9) Walthall, John A., and Thomas E. Emerson. 1992. ""Indians and French in the Midcontinent."" In Calumet and Fleur-De-Lys: French and Indian Interaction in the Midcontinent, edited by John A. Walthall and Thomas E. Emerson, 1-13. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2VQKWPMN. §REF§ In this early contact period, the Illinois were theoretically under the 'protection' of the French crown, but in practice maintained their autonomy. §REF§ (Havard 2013, 117) Havard, Gilles. 2013. ""'Protection' and 'Unequal Alliance': The French Conception of Sovereignty over Indians in New France."" In French and Indians in the Heart of North America, 1630-1815, edited by Robert Englebert and Guillaume Teasdale, 113-37. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IDG32ZN9. §REF§ The region referred to as the Illinois Country in both modern and older sources was located to the east of the Middle Mississippi river, bounded to the north by Lake Michigan, to the south by the Ohio river, and to the west by the Wabash. §REF§ (Walthall and Emerson 1991, 5) Walthall, John A., and Thomas E. Emerson. 1991. ""French Colonial Archaeology."" In French Colonial Archaeology: The Illinois Country and the Western Great Lakes, edited by John A. Walthall, 78-84. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XQWPU4VH. §REF§ However, it is likely that the Illinois-speaking groups encountered by Europeans in the 17th century had arrived in this area relatively recently, possibly migrating westwards from the Lake Erie basin. §REF§ (Hall 1997, 173) Hall, Robert L. 1997. An Archaeology of the Soul: North American Indian Belief and Ritual. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8KH357GV. §REF§
Population and political organization
Despite the use of the term 'Illinois Confederacy' to describe Illinois society, there is no indication in the written sources of intertribal political organizations such as those found among Iroquoian groups to the northeast in the same period. §REF§ (Callender 1978, 673) Callender, C. 1978. ""Illinois."" In Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 15: Northeast, edited by B. Trigger. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TD2AIF67. §REF§ Political leadership was provided by both peace chiefs - who played important diplomatic roles, such as conducting calumet (peace pipe) ceremonies for visitors, but had relatively little formal authority - and war chiefs, who organized raids on other settlements. §REF§ (Callender 1978, 676) Callender, C. 1978. ""Illinois."" In Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 15: Northeast, edited by B. Trigger. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TD2AIF67. §REF§ §REF§ (Illinois State Museum 2000) Illinois State Museum. 2000. ""The Illinois Indians: Society: Leaders."" MuseumLink Illinois. http://www.museum.state.il.us/muslink/nat_amer/post/htmls/soc_leaders.html. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/REVSHE82. §REF§
In the post-contact period (specifically in the late 17th century), the Illinois formed large villages close to French forts and trading posts, most notably the Grand Village of the Kaskaskia. §REF§ (Morrissey 2015, 681-82) Morrissey, Robert Michael. 2015. ""The Power of the Ecotone: Bison, Slavery, and the Rise and Fall of the Grand Village of the Kaskaskia."" Journal of American History 102 (3): 667-92. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZDDVHJMV. §REF§ It has traditionally been assumed that these large settlements, which included Illinois speakers from various subgroups as well as Chickasaws, Shawnees and others, functioned almost as refugee centres as the Illinois fled attacks from the Iroquois to the east and clustered together in the wake of disease and depopulation. §REF§ (Morrissey 2015, 681-82) Morrissey, Robert Michael. 2015. ""The Power of the Ecotone: Bison, Slavery, and the Rise and Fall of the Grand Village of the Kaskaskia."" Journal of American History 102 (3): 667-92. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZDDVHJMV. §REF§ §REF§ (Nichols 1998, 36-37) Nichols, Roger L. 1998. Indians in the United States and Canada: A Comparative History. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8H2XHS76. §REF§ Historian Robert Morrissey has offered an alternative interpretation, arguing that the large Illinois villages represented an aggressive 'bid for power' based on bison hunting and slave raiding and strategically positioned between the woodlands to the east and the grasslands of the west. §REF§ (Morrissey 2015, 668-69) Morrissey, Robert Michael. 2015. ""The Power of the Ecotone: Bison, Slavery, and the Rise and Fall of the Grand Village of the Kaskaskia."" Journal of American History 102 (3): 667-92. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZDDVHJMV. §REF§ Nevertheless, what is not in doubt is that the Illinois suffered drastic population losses in the post-contact period, falling from around 12,000 people in 1680 to just 1,900 by 1763. §REF§ (Hauser 2015, 299) Hauser, Raymond E. 2015. ""Illinois."" In Colonial Wars of North America, 1512-1763: An Encyclopedia, edited by Alan Gallay, 299-300. Abingdon: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QS4Z9FFR. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",28.0,Cahokia,Mississippi Basin,-90.062035000000,38.658938000000,St. Louis,USMO,United States,North America,24,Mississippi Basin,From the Great Lakes to Louisiana,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
774,mw_early_maravi,1400,1499,Early Maravi,mw_early_maravi,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,6,Southern Africa,"Namibia, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique and south","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
304,FrMervE,481,543,Early Merovingian,fr_merovingian_emp_1,LEGACY,"In the early Merovingian period (481-543 CE), numerous Frankish kingdoms were united under the nominal leadership of Clovis I, who is traditionally considered to have become king of the Salian Franks in 481 CE. §REF§ (Drew 1991, 5) Drew, Katherine Fischer. 1991. “Introduction.” In The Laws of the Salian Franks: Translated and with an Introduction by Katherine Fischer Drew, 1-56. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BT6A8ZH6. §REF§ Under Clovis, the capital moved from Tournai to Paris. §REF§ (Wood 1994, 41) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35. §REF§ §REF§ (DeVries and Smith 2007, 230) DeVries, Kelly, and Robert D. Smith. 2007. Medieval Weapons: An Illustrated History of Their Impact. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZDQNCFQQ. §REF§
Population and political organization
Merovingian France was a largely decentralized kingdom based on the pre-existing Roman administrative system, in which cities were the basic units. §REF§ (Loseby 1998, 245-49) Loseby, S. T. 1998. “Gregory’s Cities: Urban Functions in Sixth-Century Gaul.” In Franks and Alamanni in the Merovingian Period: An Ethnographic Perspective, edited by I. N. Wood, 239-69. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DT5E5GNS. §REF§ The city rulers, known as counts or grafio, who sent the king his tax revenue and carried out judicial and administrative functions, had access to both administrative officials and city archives (gesta municipalia). §REF§ (Wood 1994, 204) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35. §REF§ §REF§ (Loseby 1998, 245-49) Loseby, S. T. 1998. “Gregory’s Cities: Urban Functions in Sixth-Century Gaul.” In Franks and Alamanni in the Merovingian Period: An Ethnographic Perspective, edited by I. N. Wood, 239-69. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DT5E5GNS. §REF§ Groups of cities and counts could be placed under a duke for military and administrative purposes. §REF§ (Bachrach 1972, 67) Bachrach, Bernard S. 1972. Merovingian Military Organization 481-751. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SG5XNFPG. §REF§
In contrast, there was no elaborate central administration, the highest non-royal official being a figure known as the mayor of the palace. §REF§ (Halsall 2003, 28) Halsall, Guy. 2003. Warfare and Society in the Barbarian West, 450-900. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z5EZBP2R. §REF§ The king's capital and main residence was at Paris, where the population may have reached 30,000 by the 8th century CE, §REF§ (Clark and Henneman, Jr. 1995, 1316) Clark, William W., and John Bell Henneman, Jr. 1995. “Paris.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1314-30. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HS8644XK. §REF§ although the court was always a peripatetic institution. §REF§ (Wood 1994, 150-53) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35. §REF§ The king consulted a group of magnates (obtimates) at an annual gathering around 1 March. Written references to royal edicts are known from 614 CE onwards, but earlier royal legislation has not survived. §REF§ (Fouracre 1998, 286-89) Fouracre, P. J. 1998. “The Nature of Frankish Political Institutions in the Seventh Century.” In Franks and Alamanni in the Merovingian Period: An Ethnographic Perspective, edited by Ian Wood, 285-316. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GT2AINW4. §REF§ Merovingian kings had the authority to appoint dukes and counts as well as bishops, who were often 'royal servants with no known connections with their sees'. §REF§ (Wood 1994, 78) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35. §REF§
From 622 CE onwards the basic territorial divisions of the Merovingian Kingdom were Neustria (centred on the Seine and Oise rivers and associated with the Pactus Legis Salicae law code), §REF§ (Wood 1994, 112-15) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35. §REF§ Burgundy (where the Liber Constitutionum was developed), and Austrasia (by the Rhine and Meuse, which came to possess its own mayor of the palace §REF§ (Fanning 1995, 157) Fanning, Steven. 1995. “Austrasia.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 156-57. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR2MKFDX. §REF§ and followed the Lex Ribvaria). §REF§ (Wood 1994, 112-15) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35. §REF§ A fourth area, Aquitaine, had a special status due to its distance from the royal centres and was under less direct Merovingian control. §REF§ (Wood 1994, 100, 146) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35. §REF§ In the earliest times, Merovingian administration beyond the Rhine (in modern-day Germany) was less elaborate than that imposed further to the west: counts sent to rule in the east did not attempt to introduce literacy, currency or Christianity to their domains. §REF§ (Anderson 2013, 126-27) Anderson, Perry. 2013. Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism. London: Verso. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/K6F5NBFF. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",2.0,Paris Basin,Western Europe,2.312458000000,48.866111000000,Paris,FR,France,Europe,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
607,si_early_modern_interior,1650,1896,Early Modern Sierra Leone,si_early_modern_interior,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,2024-01-11T13:46:08.183001Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
442,MnMongE,1000,1206,Early Mongols,mn_mongol_early,LEGACY,"According to Chinese records from the Tang dynasty (618-906), one of the nomadic Shiwei tribe was known as the Mengwu. This might be the earliest known reference to the Mongols. few centuries later, another Chinese document, this time dating to 1084, describes the ""Menggu"" as a remote tribe that paid tribute to the Khitan; they lived on a mixture of hunting and pastoralism, they were believed to wear fish skins, and their technology was largely made out of wood and bone because of the Khitans' (and, subsequently, the Jurchens') ban on the exportation of iron. With time, more clans joined the Mongols, such as the Jajirad and the Qonggirad. In the twelfth century, under Jurchen rule, the Mongols became one of the leading steppe tribes, and indeed they rebelled against the Jurchen. At first, the Mongols managed to score a number of victories, and for some time the Jurchen had no choice but to appease them through gifts such as cattle, grains, and silks. However, the Jurchen eventually gained the upper hand, capturing Mongol slaves through regular military expeditions between the 1160s and the 1190s, and forcing the Mongol rulers to pay frequent tribute. Chinggis Khan stopped the tributes in 1210. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 389-390) §REF§
Population and political organization
At this time, the Mongols were divided into clans, and each clan belonged to either the Niru'un or the Dürlükin moiety. The Niru'un clans ruled the Dürlükin ones, though, due to traditional rules of exogamy, the Niru'un had to marry among the Dürlükin and vice versa. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 390-391) §REF§
The overall population of Mongolia was 600,000-1,000,000. §REF§ (Kradin 2002) §REF§ Between 80,000 and 120,000 seems like a reasonable estimate for just the Mongols, who inhabited the region alongside similarly sized peoples, such as the Naimans, Kereids, Tatars, and Merkids.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",24.0,Orkhon Valley,Mongolia,102.845486000000,47.200757000000,Karakorum,MN,Mongolia,Central Eurasia,9,Mongolia,"Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
525,MxAlb1E,-500,-300,Early Monte Alban I,mx_monte_alban_1_early,LEGACY,"The Monte Albán Early I phase runs from 500 to 300 BCE. The settlement at Monte Albán was founded at the beginning of this period and located in what was previously a 'buffer zone' between the three competing chiefdoms in the Valley of Oaxaca during the Rosario phase. It was built on a hill 400 metres above the valley floor, §REF§ (Flannery and Marcus 1976, 375) Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus. 1976. 'Formative Oaxaca and the Zapotec Cosmos'. American Scientist 64 (4): 374-83. §REF§ with limited access to farmland and water, §REF§ (Marcus and Flannery 1983, 81) Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery. 1983. 'The Origins of the State in Oaxaca: Editors' Introduction', in The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations, edited by Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery, 79-83. New York: Academic Press. §REF§ which suggests other reasons for the founding of the settlement. One suggestion is that the location was intentionally chosen in the 'neutral' zone between the three competing chiefdoms as a political manoeuvre. §REF§ (Blanton 1983, 84) Richard E. Blanton. 1983. 'The Founding of Monte Albán', in The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations, edited by Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery, 83-87. New York: Academic Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
The establishment of a confederation (although not yet a state) at the beginning of this period is suggested by the simultaneous abandonment of settlements and founding of Monte Albán, which itself was internally divided into different groupings of people (as shown by distinct pottery assemblages). §REF§ (Blanton 1983, 84) Richard E. Blanton. 1983. 'The Founding of Monte Albán', in The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations, edited by Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery, 83-87. New York: Academic Press. §REF§
Although there is evidence for the presence of inherited social status and mortuary and residential elaboration during this period, the method of political organization is still unclear. §REF§ (Joyce 2009, 141-42) Arthur A. Joyce. 2009. Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico. Malden, MA: Wiley‐Blackwell. §REF§ Archaeologist Arthur Joyce outlines possible power dynamics: 'The authority of the nobility may have been simultaneously couched in, but in dynamic tension with, traditional forms of authority that were more communal, egalitarian, and locally based.' §REF§ (Joyce 2009, 141-42) Arthur A. Joyce. 2009. Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico. Malden, MA: Wiley‐Blackwell. §REF§
There is a large range of population estimates for the valley during this period, from roughly 8000 to 15,000. §REF§ (Flannery and Marcus 2003, 11804) Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus. 2003. 'The Origin of War: New C-14 Dates from Ancient Mexico'. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100 (20): 11801-05. §REF§ §REF§ (Feinman et al. 1985, 346) Gary M. Feinman, Stephen A. Kowalewski, Laura Finsten, Richard E. Blanton and Linda Nicholas. 1985. 'Long-Term Demographic Change: A Perspective from the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico'. Journal of Field Archaeology 12 (3): 333-62. §REF§ Monte Albán was the largest settlement in the Valley of Oaxaca during this period, although it was founded in a previously unoccupied location. The settlement began with around 2,000 people §REF§ (Flannery and Marcus 2003, 11804) Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus. 2003. 'The Origin of War: New C-14 Dates from Ancient Mexico'. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100 (20): 11801-05. §REF§ and increased to over 5,000 towards the end of this period. §REF§ (Marcus and Flannery 1996, 139) Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery. 1996. Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ Much of the population of the valley moved to the newly founded settlement, which left sites such as San José Mogote abandoned. §REF§ (Spencer and Redmond 2004, 176) Charles S. Spencer and Elsa M. Redmond. 2004. 'Primary State Formation in Mesoamerica'. Annual Review of Anthropology 33: 173-99. §REF§ Monte Albán became the largest settlement by far (324 ha in size towards the end of this period), but there were two other main settlements in the other arms of the valley (Yegüih and San Martin Tilcajete, the latter covering 52.8 ha by the end of the period). §REF§ (Spencer and Redmond 2004, 176) Charles S. Spencer and Elsa M. Redmond. 2004. 'Primary State Formation in Mesoamerica'. Annual Review of Anthropology 33: 173-99. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",26.0,Valley of Oaxaca,Mexico,-96.761022000000,17.041135000000,Monte Alban,OAX,Mexico,North America,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
533,UgEarlyNyoro,900,1449,Early Nyoro,ug_early_nyoro,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,1,Central Africa,Angola and DRC,"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
700,in_pandya_emp_1,-300,300,Early Pandyas,in_pandya_emp_1,POL_SA_SI,"The Early Pandyas were a southern kingdom in Tamil Nadu and part of the three ruling kingdoms of Early Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas who ruled over Tamilakam in the late last millennium BCE and early first millennium CE. §REF§ (Abraham 2003) Abraham, Shinu A. 2003. ‘Chera, Chola, Pandya: Using Archaeological Evidence to Identify the Tamil Kingdoms of Early Historic South India’. Asian Perspectives 42 (2): 207–23. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MIRRQD2C/ §REF§ The Early Pandyas had their capital at Madurai and their main port at Korkai. §REF§ (Agnihotri 1988, 351) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection §REF§
The Early Pandyas were founders and supporters of the great Tamil literary and educational academies called ‘Sangam’ which is where the Sangam Age or Period originates from. §REF§ (Dikshitar 1941, 152-153) Dikshitar, Ranachandra. 1941. ‘The Sangam Age’ Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 5. Pp 152-161. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FG8Q2SFG/collection §REF§ The Early Pandyas were Hindu Shiavists but Jainism and Buddhism were also present within the kingdom. §REF§ (Danielou, 2003) Danielou, Alain. 2003. A Brief History of India. New York: Simon and Schuster. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/WFMTGQJ8/collection §REF§ §REF§ (Agnihotri 1988, 361) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PNX9XBJQ/collection §REF§
By the 3rd century CE, all three ruling Sangam kingdoms become feudatories to the Kalabhra Dynasty.",,,,2024-06-07T14:00:03.654946Z,"{'id': 61, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
712,gt_tikal_early_postclassic,951,1250,Early Postclassic Tikal,gt_tikal_early_postclassic,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
1,CnQingE,1644,1796,Early Qing,cn_qing_dyn_1,LEGACY,"The Qing Dynasty (or Empire of the Great Qing, Great Qing, Manchu Dynasty, Manchus, Jin, Jurchens, Ch'ing Dynasty) was China's last imperial dynasty. The founders of the Qing were descendants of Jurchen Jin rulers. The dynasty was founded by Nurhaci and then led by his son Huang Taiji, but did not become an imperial Chinese dynasty until after Huang Taiji's death. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ In 1644 CE, Qing forces captured the Ming capital at Beijing from rebels and held a funeral for the last Ming emperor to symbolize Qing inheritance of the Mandate of Heaven. §REF§ (San 2014, 338) Tan Koon San. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§
The Qing faced conflict with rebels and loyalist Ming forces for the next two decades. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ Ming generals who surrendered were given power over large territories in southern China in exchange for loyalty to the Qing. In 1673 CE, leaders from three major southern feudatories led by Wu Sangui rebelled against Emperor Kangxi when he tried to reduce their power. §REF§ (San 2014, 385) Tan Koon San. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ The Revolt of the Three Feudatories, as this episode is known, lasted eight years.
We divide the Qing Dynasty into two, an Early period (1644-1796 CE) and a Late period (1796-1912 CE). The division is marked by a period of internal turmoil as well as foreign incursions into its territory and economic sphere. In the Early Qing period, China had been prosperous under Kangxi and Qing rule, but by the time of the Opium Wars in the Late Qing, Western technology and industry had surpassed that of China. §REF§ (Mao 2005, 8) Haijin Mao. 2005. The Qing Empire and the Opium War: The Collapse of the Heavenly Dynasty. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911 gave rise to the Republic of China.
Population and political organization
The Qing ruled over an expansive empire, and its bureaucracy was more efficient than that of previous periods. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 1) William T. Rowe. 2009. China's Last Empire: The Great Qing. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Qing rulers adopted the Chinese bureaucratic system first used in the Han and Tang Dynasties. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Dynasty Government, Administration and Law'. Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-admin.html. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ Before conquering the Ming, the Qing managed its population through a system of hereditary military organizations called the Eight Banners. §REF§ (Elliot 2011, 39) Mark C. Elliot. 2001. The Manchu Way. Stanford: Stanford University Press. §REF§ These became part of the administrative structure of the Qing Dynasty and were only open to those of Manchu descent. §REF§ (Elliot 2011, 39) Mark C. Elliot. 2001. The Manchu Way. Stanford: Stanford University Press. §REF§ In the later Qing period, however, the Eight Banners lost some of their political functions and served to enhance the prestige of the top Qing nobility. §REF§ (Elliot 2011, 40) Mark C. Elliot. 2001. The Manchu Way. Stanford: Stanford University Press. §REF§
The central government was headed by the emperor and included a 'Grand Council', created by the Yongzheng emperor and expanded by the Qianlong emperor. §REF§ (Lorge 2005, 173) Peter Lorge. 2005. War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China, 900-1795. London: Routledge. §REF§ The Grand Council ruled over the central ministries and provided a way for the emperor to circumvent the official bureaucracy for many decisions. §REF§ (Lorge 2005, 173) Peter Lorge. 2005. War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China, 900-1795. London: Routledge. §REF§
The Qing provincial government consisted of governors who controlled a hierarchical system of officials, prefects, county chiefs, country magistrates, and clerks. §REF§ (Zhang 2011, 63) Wei-Bin Zhang. 2011. The Rise and Fall of China's Last Dynasty: The Deepening of the Chinese Servility. Hauppage, NY: Nova Science Publishers. §REF§ In the early Qing years, provinces were ruled by high ranking officials who were typically of Manchu descent. §REF§ (Hsu 2006, 415) Cho-yun Hsu. 2006. China: A New Cultural History. New York: Columbia University Press. §REF§
The territory of the Qing empire was more than double that of the Ming. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 1) William T. Rowe. 2009. China's Last Empire: The Great Qing. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Tibetans, Uighurs, Muslims, a number of Mongol groups, Burmese, Thais, and indigenous Taiwanese were incorporated into the Chinese empire. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 1) William T. Rowe. 2009. China's Last Empire: The Great Qing. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§
Three Qing emperors - Kangxi (1662-1722 CE), Yongzheng (1723-1735 CE), and Qianlong (1736-1795 CE) - are historically known as great rulers. During their reigns, China was extremely prosperous. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ Qianlong is famous for leading ten military expeditions, including campaigns in Taiwan, Burma, Vietnam and Nepal. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§
Based on Chinese census and registration counts, the population of China in 1749 CE was about 177.5 million. §REF§ (Banister 1987, 4) Judith Banister. 1987. China's Changing Population. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. §REF§ The following century was one of extremely rapid population growth, and by 1851 the population had reached 431.9 million people. §REF§ (Banister 1987, 3-4) Judith Banister. 1987. China's Changing Population. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. §REF§ Historian James Z. Gao writes that the area within the Qing court's 'sphere of influence' at its peak was 13.1 million square kilometres'. §REF§ (Gao 2009, xxxvi) James Z. Gao. 2009. Historical Dictionary of Modern China (1800-1949). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. §REF§
While the Qing period is not well known for poetry, painting and porcelain as previous periods are, print journalism, theatre and novels flourished under the Qing emperors. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 2) William T. Rowe. 2009. China's Last Empire: The Great Qing. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§",,,,2024-01-17T15:40:34.789180Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",20.0,Middle Yellow River Valley,North China,112.517587000000,34.701825000000,Luoyang,CN,China,East Asia,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
182,ItRomER,-509,-264,Early Roman Republic,it_roman_rep_1,LEGACY,"The last of the Roman kings, the tyrannical Lucius Tarquinius Superbus ('the Arrogant'), was expelled by a revolt of some of the leading Roman aristocrats in 509 BCE. Vowing never again to allow a single person to amass so much authority, the revolutionaries established in place of the monarchy a republican system of governance, featuring a senate composed of aristocratic men and a series of elected political and military officials. The Roman Republic was a remarkably stable and successful polity, lasting from 509 BCE until it was transformed into an imperial state under Augustus in 31 BCE (though the exact date is debated, as this was not a formal transformation). We divide the Republic into an early (509-264 BCE), a middle (264-133 BCE), and a late (133-31 BCE) period. The early period is notable for the establishment of the governing institutions of the new Republic, a lingering tension between the wealthy, senatorial elites and poorer members of society (the 'plebeians'), and the establishment of Rome as the preeminent power in the Western Mediterranean.
In 390 BCE, just over a century after the establishment of the Republic, Rome suffered a near-fatal defeat at the hands of Gallic tribes, who invaded Italy from southern France and breached the city walls. Rome quickly recovered, however, and throughout the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE proceeded to conquer all of their neighbours in Italy, notably the larger and more populous Sabine, Etruscan, Samnite, and Graeco-Italian peoples. §REF§ (Cornell 1995) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§ Over the course of this dramatic expansion, Rome established colonies of Roman citizens throughout Italy and gained access to important sources of natural wealth in the process. §REF§ (Bispham 2006) Edward Bispham. 2006. 'Coloniam Deducere: How Roman Was Roman Colonization during the Middle Republic?', in Greek and Roman Colonization: Origins, Ideologies and Interactions, edited by Guy Bradley, John-Paul Wilson, and Edward Bispham, 73-160. Swansea: Classical Press of Wales. §REF§ The rise of Rome in the west eventually caught the attention of other Mediterranean powers, notably the Punic peoples of North Africa. Indeed, the central narrative of the Middle Republic period is the continued expansion of Roman hegemony into the eastern Mediterranean.
Population and political organization
Rome during the Republican period possessed no written constitution, but was governed largely through the power and prestige of the Senate, with a clear respect for precedent and for maintaining Rome's traditions. §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 31) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican ""Constitution""', in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ A primary goal of the early Republic was to establish clear checks on the power of any single ruler - the military office of chief commander was in fact split between two generals (consuls), while the chief priestly and legislative posts were split among different people (individuals were restricted from holding multiple offices at once) - and popular assemblies voted on new laws. The first codification of Roman law was laid down in this period (mid-4th century BCE) in the form of the Twelve Tables, a series of legal proclamations establishing certain penalties and procedures for enforcing ritual and customary practices. §REF§ (Adkins and Adkins 1998, 46) Lesley Adkins and Roy A. Adkins. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
Consuls were drawn from the senatorial elite - Rome's wealthy aristocratic families - until 367 BCE, when plebeians were first entitled to stand for this prestigious office. §REF§ (Adkins and Adkins 1998, 42) Lesley Adkins and Roy A. Adkins. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ This change followed a period known as the 'Conflict of the Orders', a time which poses intractable problems for historians because most sources date from after 367 BCE. §REF§ (Beck et al. 2011, 5) Hans Beck, Antonio Duplá, Martin Jehne and Francisco Pina Polo. 2011. 'The Republic and Its Highest Office: Some Introductory Remarks on the Roman Consulate', in Consuls and Res Publica: Holding High Office in the Roman Republic, edited by Hans Beck, Antonio Duplá, Martin Jehne and Francisco Pina Polo, 1-16. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The conflict essentially pitted Rome's wealthy elite, who enjoyed nearly all of the prestige and power of political office as well as controlling most of the city's agricultural land, against the poorer members of society (plebeians), mainly small-scale or tenant farmers who had contributed to Roman territorial expansion by serving as soldiers during the wars of the early Republic. §REF§ (Raaflaub 2005) Kurt A. Raaflaub. 2005. 'The Conflict of the Orders in Archaic Rome: A Comprehensive and Comparative Approach', in Social Struggles in Archaic Rome, edited by Kurt A. Raaflaub, 1-46. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ Early on in the Republican period, in 494 BCE, the plebeians essentially went on strike, refusing to march to war against a coalition of tribes from central Italy. §REF§ (Raaflaub 2005) Kurt A. Raaflaub. 2005. 'The Conflict of the Orders in Archaic Rome: A Comprehensive and Comparative Approach', in Social Struggles in Archaic Rome, edited by Kurt A. Raaflaub, 1-46. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ A settlement was reached when Rome's aristocrats extended to the plebeians the right to vote for certain magistrates, known as the Tribunes of the Plebs (essentially the 'people's magistrates'). This was an important office charged with looking after the needs of Rome's poorer citizens, who held veto powers against decisions made in the Senate. Nevertheless, tensions between the aristocrats and the plebeians lingered throughout the 4th century BCE.
Romans of this period did not distinguish between what is today termed 'secular' and 'sacred' authority; although individual magistracies had distinct functions, the same person often held both religious and political offices over the course of their lifetime, as they were thought to be part of essentially the same sphere of governance. The Republic featured a substantial array of religious offices and institutions intended to determine the will of the gods or to please them through the proper performance of rituals and the maintenance of large public temples. §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 37) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican ""Constitution""', in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ These public auspices were the basis of magisterial power in the Republic. §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 37) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican ""Constitution""', in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Auspices were sometimes taken by consuls and other officials, for example before important military engagements, §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 37) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican ""Constitution""', in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ but were mainly managed by specialist elected priests and full-time priestesses (such as the Vestal Virgins) and other priestly offices supported by the state. §REF§ (Culham 2004, 131) Phyllis Culham. 2004. 'Women in the Roman Republic, in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 139-59. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
As Rome defeated nearly all other powers in the region during this period, establishing colonies and turning many former enemies into new allies and confederates, the territory it claimed increased dramatically until it included nearly all of central and southern Italy. This amplified its agricultural wealth and access to other natural resources, leading to a period of economic and demographic expansion. Rome grew from around 100,000-200,000 people at the beginning of the period to perhaps as many as 1,000,000 by the start of the Middle Republic. §REF§ (Scheidel 2008) Walter Scheidel. 2008. 'Roman Population Size: The Logic of the Debate', in People, Land, and Politics: Demographic Developments and the Transformation of Roman Italy, 300 BC-AD 14, edited by L. de Ligt and S. J. Northwood, 17-70. Leiden: Brill. §REF§",,,,2023-11-17T10:57:08.973779Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",1.0,Latium,Southern Europe,12.486948000000,41.890407000000,Rome,IT,Italy,Europe,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
653,et_aussa_sultanate,1734,1895,Early Sultanate of Aussa,et_aussa_sultanate,POL_AFR_EAST,"The Aussa Sultanate succeeded the Imamate of Aussa during the first half of the eighteenth century. The Aussa Sultanate was established by the Mudaito Dynasty of the Asaimara (Redhouse) branch of the Danakil clan. According to Abir, the Sultanate’s peak phase was during the eighteenth century with a decline in the first year of the nineteenth century. Tensions between local raiding groups also put a strain on the Sultanate sometime in the early-nineteenth century when the Adoimara (Whitehouse) Danakil forced the Mudaito Sultan to share revenues with their clan. §REF§ (Abir 2008, 554) Abir, M. 2008. ‘Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa’ In The Cambridge History of Africa c. 1600 – c. 1790. Edited by Richard Gray. Vol 4. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JHH9VH96/library §REF§
The Sultanate of Aussa also fought off foreign invasions in the nineteenth century, particularly against the Egyptian invading army in 1875 when the Sultan of Aussa killed Werner Munzinger in battle. During the mid-nineteenth century, the Sultanate of Aussa was forced to make pacts with the Italian colonists as Italy expanded its territory in the Horn of Africa. These agreements with Italy and the Sultanate of Aussa brought mistrust as the Ethiopian government was suspicious of the sultanate especially during the First Italo-Ethiopian War.
In 1935/36 during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, the Sultan of Ausa, Mahammad Yayyo agreed to cooperate with the Italian invaders. After World War II the Sultanate still controlled a moderate amount of influence in the Awash Valley of the Afar region. To this day there is a Sultan of Aussa. §REF§ (Mekonnen 2013, 48) Mekonnen, Yohannes K. 2013. Ethiopia: The Land, Its People, History and Culture. New Africa Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QQ9ZECMI/collection §REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
716,tz_early_tana_1,500,749,Early Tana 1,tz_early_tana_1,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
717,tz_early_tana_2,750,1099,Early Tana 2,tz_early_tana_2,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
714,bo_tiwanaku_1,500,799,Early Tiwanaku,bo_tiwanaku_1,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,32,Andes,From Ecuador to Chile,"{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}"
569,mx_mexico_1,1810,1920,Early United Mexican States,mx_mexico_1,LEGACY,"
'''General'''
This tumultuous and violent period marked by revolution and war begins following the downfall of the rule of ‘New Spain’ and the Spanish monarchy, and the Mexican Wars of Independence. “In April 1808, as French forces marched into Madrid, a sequel at Aranjuez seemed to succeed. By May, Napoleon held both Spanish Bourbons captive in Bayonne. The fall of the Spanish monarchy to its invasive ally set the stage for Mexico City’s summer of politics. Spain’s empire and New Spain would never be the same.”§REF§(Tutino 2018: 150) Tutino, John. 2018. Mexico City, 1808: Power Sovereignty, and Silver in an Age of War and Revolution. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z5SZU2AP§REF§ “Then escalating conflicts exploded in insurgencies in September of 1810. Authorities set in power by armed force faced a people in arms. Unprecedented violence drove political conflicts begun by provincial elites while tens of thousands took arms to claim the necessities of survival in the core regions of silver capitalism. The regime of mediation disabled by the coup of 1808 dissolved in political and social violence beginning in 1810. Silver capitalism broke quickly. As conflicts continued, Spain’s empire fell as New Spain became Mexico in 1821.”§REF§(Tutino 2018: 230) Tutino, John. 2018. Mexico City, 1808: Power Sovereignty, and Silver in an Age of War and Revolution. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z5SZU2AP§REF§ “Mexico was born in political and social violence, every faction proclaiming a vision of popular sovereignty backed by armed power. In that conflictive process, the silver economy and regime of mediation that for centuries had made New Spain wealthy, stable, and central to global capitalism were destroyed. The Mexican nation that emerged would be plagued by violence and instability unknown in New Spain before the crises and transformations of 1808–1810.”§REF§(Tutino 2018: 248) Tutino, John. 2018. Mexico City, 1808: Power Sovereignty, and Silver in an Age of War and Revolution. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z5SZU2AP§REF§ “The new nation that came out of the conflicts of 1808 to 1821, briefly a Mexican monarchy, then a republic from 1824, searched simultaneously for a new polity and a new economy.”§REF§(Tutino 2018: 252) Tutino, John. 2018. Mexico City, 1808: Power Sovereignty, and Silver in an Age of War and Revolution. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z5SZU2AP§REF§
This polity is bookend by the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920)
'''Politics'''
“Political instability continued for decades after independence. From 1821 to 1867, Mexico had 56 administrations (Ponzio, 2005), and in the 55 years between independence and the Porfi riato, the presidency changed hands 75 times as a result of the continuous struggle between the conservative and liberal factions (Haber, 1989). In contrast, the United States had 13 administrations in the 52 years between 1817 and 1869 (Ponzio, 2005). Between 1824 and 1867, the average term of a president in Mexico was 15 months, 7 months for both the ministers of war and justice, and less than 5 months for the ministers of finance and foreign relations (Ponzio, 2005). The generalized episodes of civil unrest and violence reduced the population, disrupted mining and agricultural production, and severely curtailed trade and communications, thus further fragmenting the linkages among different regions. In addition, the struggle for independence brought about a temporary dismantling of the monetary union. A particularly disastrous consequence of the prolonged civil strife was the loss to the United States of half of Mexico’s national territory in the mid-19th century.”§REF§(Moreno-Brid and Ros 2009: 31-32) Moreno-Brid, Juan Carlos and Ros, Jaime. 2009. Development and Growth in the Mexican Economy: A Historical Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PZXKGTTV§REF§
“Porfirio Díaz’s [r. 1884-1910] first re-election to the presidency in 1884 marked a significant watershed in the political evolution of the regime. As a foretaste of what was to come, Díaz was unopposed in the election. Thereafter, a dual process of consolidation and transformation took place in the regime. While many of the mechanisms and tactics of political pragmatism continued to be employed in the attempt to mediate and manage factional divisions, the personal and patriarchal authority of the president at the apex of the hierarchy of power became gradually consolidated, and increasingly uncontested… Although the regime became increasingly centralized and authoritarian, nevertheless important constraints existed on presidential authority. In other words, Díaz never enjoyed the absolute political control that his critics have argued, because the process of centralization and consolidation was always contested, challenged and resisted at a variety of levels. Political factionalism, dissidence, and rebellion remained constant during the era.”§REF§(Garner 2011: 297-298) Garner, Paul. 2011. “The Civilian and the General, 1867–1911,” in A Companion to Mexican History and Culture, ed. William H. Beezley. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. 288–301. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EMSG558V§REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
429,MrWagdE,250,700,Early Wagadu Empire,mr_wagadu_1,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
424,CnWeiWS,-445,-225,Early Wei Dynasty,cn_wei_dyn_warring_states,LEGACY,"The span of time between the mid-5th and mid-3rd centuries BCE in China is known as the Warring States period because it was dominated by conflicts between the seven independent states of Qin, Qi, Chu, Yan, Han, Zhao, and Wei. §REF§ (Encyclopedia Britannica n.d.) “Warring States.” Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Warring-States. Accessed June 6, 2017. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UFB8K653. §REF§ The period was marked by the development of authoritarian leadership, the creation of standing armies, and the mass conscription of peasants into military service. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 14) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9. §REF§ New weapons included the crossbow, an improved iron sword, and armour. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 14) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9. §REF§ The first appearance of military specialists such as Sunzi, author of The Art of War, dates to the Warring States period. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 14) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9. §REF§
The Warring States period was also a time of economic growth. The development of trade, occupational complexity, and markets created a class of merchants and private landlords. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 14-15) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9. §REF§ Iron tools were used for agriculture and the use of irrigation and fertilizer became more widespread. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 14) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9. §REF§ Intellectualism flourished, with the rise of Confucian philosophers Mengzi and Xunzi. §REF§ (Encyclopedia Britannica n.d.) “Warring States.” Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Warring-States. Accessed June 6, 2017. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UFB8K653. §REF§
In the 5th century BCE, the state of Jin was divided into three states: Wei, Han and Zhao. Wei was one of the largest states of the period, ruling parts of modern Shanxi and later expanding to cover western Shandong and northern and western Henan. §REF§ (Theobald 2010) Theobald, Ulrich. 2017. “The Feudal State of Wei 魏 (www.chinaknowledge.de).” Accessed June 6. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/rulers-wei.html. Seshat URL: http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/rulers-wei.html. §REF§ During the Warring States period, Wei mounted a number of successful military campaigns against neighbouring states, but fell into decline after a loss to Qi in 341 BCE. §REF§ (Encyclopedia Britannica n.d.) “Wei.” Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Wei-ancient-kingdom-China. Accessed June 6, 2017. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTXFRJWS. §REF§
The Warring States period ended with the rise of the Qin state and its defeat of the imperial Zhou court. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 22) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9. §REF§ Qin conquered the state of Wei in 225 BCE. §REF§ (Encyclopedia Britannica n.d.) “Wei.” Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Wei-ancient-kingdom-China. Accessed June 6, 2017. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTXFRJWS. §REF§
Population and political organization
Several of China's major political institutions were created during the Warring States Period. §REF§ (Lewis 1999, 587) Lewis, M.E. 1999b. “Warring States Political History,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 587-650. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW. §REF§ Zhou rulers were replaced by strong authoritarian rulers who governed independent territorial states. §REF§ (Lewis 1999, 587) Lewis, M.E. 1999b. “Warring States Political History,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 587-650. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW. §REF§ These territorial rulers commanded dependent officials, who were responsible for registering and mobilizing peasant households for military service. §REF§ (Lewis 1999, 587) Lewis, M.E. 1999b. “Warring States Political History,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 587-650. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW. §REF§
It is difficult to find substantiated estimates for the population of the Wei state.",,,,2024-01-04T15:40:00.776345Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",20.0,Middle Yellow River Valley,North China,112.517587000000,34.701825000000,Luoyang,CN,China,East Asia,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
437,MnXngnE,-1400,-300,Early Xiongnu,mn_hunnu_early,LEGACY,"The Orkhon Valley is located on either side of the Orkhon River, in north-central Mongolia. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory in the millennium preceding the establishment of the Xiongnu empire, that is, 1400-300 BCE. Unfortunately, very little is known about this period, §REF§ (Yu 1990, 118) §REF§ though Chinese historians note that at the very end of this period the Xiongnu were one of three major steppe confederations in Mongolia more widely. §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 220) §REF§
No population estimates could be found specifically for the an average independent political unit in the Orkhon Valley at this time, though it is worth noting that, according to McEvedy and Jones (1978), the total population of Siberia and Mongolia in this period did not exceed 400,000. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 160-156) McEvedy, Colin. Jones, Richard. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd. London. §REF§ Similarly, no information could be found on political organization at this time.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",24.0,Orkhon Valley,Mongolia,102.845486000000,47.200757000000,Karakorum,MN,Mongolia,Central Eurasia,9,Mongolia,"Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
798,de_east_francia,842,919,East Francia,de_east_francia,OTHER_TAG,"The Treaty of Verdun in 843, which divided the Carolingian Empire among Charlemagne's grandsons, marked the beginning of East Francia as a distinct entity, comprising the lands that are now Germany, along with parts of Austria and Italy.§REF§Carlrichard Brühl et al., Die Geburt zweier Völker: Deutsche und Franzosen (9. - 11. Jahrhundert) (Köln Weimar Wien: Böhlau, 2001). Zotero link: JNUIX7CZ§REF§
Louis the German, one of Charlemagne's grandsons, became the first ruler of East Francia. His reign was characterized by efforts to consolidate his rule and manage the diverse and often fractious duchies within his kingdom. The Carolingian legacy of centralized rule faced challenges in East Francia due to the strong local powers of the dukes and the ongoing threat of external invasions, particularly from the Vikings and Slavic tribes.§REF§Biographie, “Ludwig - Deutsche Biographie.” Zotero link: HHAVIEKX§REF§
The Carolingian influence in East Francia was evident in its administrative and cultural institutions, which were inherited from the unified Carolingian Empire. The use of the Carolingian minuscule in writing, the promotion of Christian monasticism, and the Carolingian Renaissance's intellectual and artistic endeavors continued to shape East Francian society.§REF§Carlrichard Brühl et al., Die Geburt zweier Völker: Deutsche und Franzosen (9. - 11. Jahrhundert) (Köln Weimar Wien: Böhlau, 2001). Zotero link: JNUIX7CZ§REF§However, the Carolingian grip on East Francia began to weaken towards the end of the 9th century, as internal divisions, succession disputes, and external pressures strained the kingdom's unity and governance. The death of Louis the Child in 911, the last Carolingian ruler of East Francia, marked the end of Carolingian rule in the region and led to the election of Conrad I of the Franconian dynasty as king, signaling a shift in the political landscape.§REF§Carlrichard Brühl et al., Die Geburt zweier Völker: Deutsche und Franzosen (9. - 11. Jahrhundert) (Köln Weimar Wien: Böhlau, 2001). Zotero link: JNUIX7CZ§REF§",,,2024-01-26T14:08:05.263763Z,2024-12-04T13:49:09.682157Z,"{'id': 153, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
72,TrERom*,395,631,East Roman Empire,tr_east_roman_emp,LEGACY,"We begin our Eastern Roman Empire period in 395 CE, when it was permanently divided from what became the Western Roman Empire §REF§ (Morgan 2012) James F. Morgan. 2012. The Roman Empire: Fall of the West, Survival of the East. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse. §REF§ §REF§ (Barnwell 1992, 1) P. S. Barnwell. 1992. Emperor, Prefects, & Kings: The Roman West, 395‒565. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. §REF§ and end it in 631 CE as the Arab expansion and other developments led to a dramatic social transformations in Byzantium.
A phase of 'stagflation' spanned the century between c. 450 and 541 CE, during which large estates became more influential, elites grew in number and formed mutually hostile factions, and 'sociopolitical instability increased'. §REF§ (Baker 2011, 245-46) David Baker. 2011. 'The Roman Dominate from the Perspective of Demographic-Structural Theory'. Cliodynamics 2 (2): 217-51. §REF§ Matters were made worse by an outbreak of plague in 541 CE, and further usurpations and civil wars in the 7th century made the staggering empire a ripe target for the Arab conquests. §REF§ (Baker 2011, 245-46) David Baker. 2011. 'The Roman Dominate from the Perspective of Demographic-Structural Theory'. Cliodynamics 2 (2): 217-51. §REF§
Population and political organization
The Christian emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire was the chief lawmaker and military commander but not the most important religious official - instead, in the pagan tradition of Byzantine ceremony, he himself was treated as divine. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 54-55) Hans Wilhelm Haussig. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization, translated by J. M. Hussey. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ When he entered his consistorium (council), several curtains were raised to herald his arrival in the style of the eastern mystery religions. Meetings of the emperor's council were infused with an atmosphere of sanctity, and the historian H. W. Haussig has pointed out that many important decisions were in fact 'discussed and settled outside this body'. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 54-55) Hans Wilhelm Haussig. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization, translated by J. M. Hussey. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ The most important religious official in Constantinople was the patriarch, who was chosen by the emperor; §REF§ (Cunningham 2008, 529) Jeffreys E, Haldon J and Cormack R eds. 2008. The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ the pope in Rome was the most important of the five patriarchs of the Roman Empire as a whole. §REF§ Johannes Preiser-Kapeller 2015, personal communication. §REF§
Based in the palatial city of Constantinople, the emperor presided over a large professional bureaucracy that sought to intervene in most aspects of its citizens' lives. Departing from the old pattern of relative Roman disinterest in the formal codification of Roman law, the East Roman emperors in the 395‒631 CE period twice brought together and promulgated official legal codes that were sourced from the empire's Christian era (that is, since the time of Constantine the Great). The first of these was the Codex Theodosianus (439 CE), which was followed by the Codex Justinianus (534 CE). The Eastern Roman Empire also maintained a formal alliance with the Western Roman Empire, meaning that laws promulgated in one half of the empire had to be communicated to the other half and applied in both East and West. §REF§ (Millar 2006, 1) Fergus Millar. 2006. A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief Under Theodosius II 408-450. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§
Below the god-emperor was the office of praetorian prefect, which came with considerable temporal powers. The governmental reforms of 395 CE gave this official 'unlimited jurisdiction' on economic matters, §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 52) Hans Wilhelm Haussig. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization, translated by J. M. Hussey. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ which he used to plan the Roman economy in a similar way to that of Egypt, which had been functioning well for six centuries. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 52) Hans Wilhelm Haussig. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization, translated by J. M. Hussey. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ The praetorian prefect also supervised the postal system and public works, managed the guilds, and ran the production of arms and other manufactured goods as a state monopoly. He was responsible for the annona (food distribution) to the cities and army, and was given license to control prices in the cities and order new industrial production. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 52) Hans Wilhelm Haussig. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization, translated by J. M. Hussey. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ The government had numerous other officials and departments, including a magister officiorum who, in addition to running the departments of protocol and foreign affairs and the palace guard, was also head of the 'political police (schola agentium in rebus)'. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 53) Hans Wilhelm Haussig. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization, translated by J. M. Hussey. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§
In the 6th century, desperate economic times led to the payment of high officials and soldiers in luxury clothes, while manufactured goods and food were used as currency. Coinage was still in circulation but the proportion used as payment for salaries shrank considerably. §REF§ (Haussig 1971, 100) Hans Wilhelm Haussig. 1971. History of Byzantine Civilization, translated by J. M. Hussey. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ The number of residents in Constantinople grew from about 300,000 in 400 CE to 500,000 a century later, but then fell back sharply to about 200,000 due to the troubles of the 6th century. The baseline population of the empire was about 15 million, which peaked at 20 million when times were still good in 500 CE.
Fifth-century Constantinople was a monumental city of great splendour and wealth: it possessed five imperial palaces, six domus divinae Augustarum ('mansions of the divine Augustae') belonging to empresses, three domus nobilissimae (mansions for the top nobility) and 4,388 domus mansions. §REF§ (Diehl 1923, 748) Charles Diehl. 1923. 'Byzantine Civilization', in The Cambridge Medieval History, Volume IV: The Eastern Roman Empire (717-1453), edited by J. R. Tanner, C. W. Previte-Orton and Z. N. Brooke, 745-77. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Angelova 2015, 153-55) Diliana N. Angelova. 2015. Sacred Founders: Women, Men, and Gods in the Discourse of Imperial Founding, Rome through Early Byzantium. Oakland, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ The contemporary source (the 5th-century Notitia urbis Constantinopolitanae) also records 322 streets with 153 private baths. §REF§ (Diehl 1923, 748) Charles Diehl. 1923. 'Byzantine Civilization', in The Cambridge Medieval History, Volume IV: The Eastern Roman Empire (717-1453), edited by J. R. Tanner, C. W. Previte-Orton and Z. N. Brooke, 745-77. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Angelova 2015, 153-155) Diliana N Angelova. 2015. Sacred Founders: Women, Men, and Gods in the Discourse of Imperial Founding, Rome through Early Byzantium. Oakland: University of California Press. §REF§ Public buildings included squares, baths, underground cisterns, aqueducts, shops, and entertainment buildings including theatres and hippodromes. §REF§ (Diehl 1923, 748) Charles Diehl. 1923. 'Byzantine Civilization', in The Cambridge Medieval History, Volume IV: The Eastern Roman Empire (717-1453), edited by J. R. Tanner, C. W. Previte-Orton and Z. N. Brooke, 745-77. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
Gladiatorial combat was banned as part of Constantine's programme of Christian moral reforms in 325 CE and disappeared sometime in the 5th century. The traditional Greek gymnasium, once a central institution in every Graeco-Roman city, where young men trained in athletics, had also fallen out of use but acrobatics was a profession and the nobility enjoyed various sports. §REF§ (Roueché 2008, 679) Charlotte Roueché. 2008. 'Entertainments, Theatre, and Hippodrome', in The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies, edited by E. Jeffreys, J. Haldon and R. Cormack, 677-84. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The most impressive large-scale public entertainments, provided by the state, were chariot races. These were held in Constantinople and other cities of the empire. §REF§ (Roueché 2008, 680) Charlotte Roueché. 2008. 'Entertainments, Theatre, and Hippodrome', in The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies, edited by E. Jeffreys, J. Haldon and R. Cormack, 677-84. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ At some point during this era, the government decreed that drinking booths should close at 7 pm to reduce alcohol-related disorder. §REF§ (Diehl 1923, 760) Charles Diehl. 1923. 'Byzantine Civilization', in The Cambridge Medieval History, Volume IV: The Eastern Roman Empire (717-1453), edited by J. R. Tanner, C. W. Previte-Orton and Z. N. Brooke, 745-77. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",11.0,Konya Plain,Anatolia-Caucasus,32.521164000000,37.877845000000,Konya,TR,Turkey,Southwest Asia,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
253,CnEHan*,25,220,Eastern Han Empire,cn_eastern_han_dyn,LEGACY,"China’s Han dynasty is divided into two periods: Western Han or Former Han (202 BCE-9 CE), and Eastern Han or Later Han (25-220 CE). The period between the two Han dynasties was an interregnum ruled by Wang Mang who overthrow the Han and founded the short-lived Xin dynasty.§REF§ (San 2014, 98) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F) §REF§ Rulers of the Western and Eastern Han are descended from Han founder Liu Bang.§REF§ (San 2014, 98) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F) §REF§ The Han dynasty was reinstated when military troops revolted against Wang Mang and attacked the capital of Chang’an in 23 CE.§REF§ (San 2014, 100) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F) §REF§ The first recognized Eastern Han emperor Emperor Guangwudi moved the capital to Luoyang in 25 CE.§REF§ (San 2014, 100) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F) §REF§
Buddhism spread into China during the Eastern Han period. The religion soon began to influence Chinese morals and ethics.§REF§ (San 2014, 103) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F) §REF§ Han innovation continued into the Eastern Han period. The eunuch Cai Lun invented paper made from mulberry bark in 105 CE.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010b) Theobald, Ulrich, 2010. “Han Period Science, Technology, and Inventions.” Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/ §REF§
The decline of the Eastern Han was marked by series of natural disasters including floods and plagues beginning in 168 CE.§REF§ (Roberts 1999, 38) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9 §REF§ The disasters were accompanied by two large peasant uprisings: the Yellow Turban Rebellion and the Five Pecks of Rice rebellion.§REF§ -- “Han Dynasty.” Ancient History Encyclopedia.http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/ Accessed June 12, 2017. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW §REF§ The Eastern Han also faced constant rebellions from Qiang ethnic minorities.§REF§ (San 2014, 108) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F) §REF§ Provincial warlords aided the central government in suppressing these major rebellions. These warlords eventually became rulers of the provinces.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH §REF§ Warlord Dong Zhou seized Luoyang in 190 CE but was defeated by the warlord Cao Cao.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH §REF§ Eastern Han emperors stayed on the throne but the Han empire was split between three generals, ushering in the Three Kingdoms period.§REF§ (Roberts 1999, 39) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9 §REF§
Eastern Han territory covered 6.5 million square kilometers in 100 CE, but only 2.5 million square kilometers by 200 CE.§REF§(Chase-Dunn Spreadsheet)§REF§ At its peak, the Han dynasty encompassed modern China, northern Vietnam, Inner Mongolia, southern Manchuria, and parts of modern Korea.§REF§ -- “Han Dynasty.” Ancient History Encyclopedia.http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/ Accessed June 12, 2017. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW §REF§
Population and political organization
The Eastern Han continued many of the administrative practices of the Western Han.§REF§ (Roberts 1999, 37) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9 §REF§ However, the dynasty was marked by bloody political infighting including succession conflicts, and attempts to grab power by consort clans and eunuch cliques.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH §REF§ Eunuchs had a strong influence in the Eastern Han government and competed with Confucian officials and the imperial clan. §REF§ (San 2014, 117) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F) §REF§ The decline of the Eastern Han was marked by the rise of strong provincial rulers with independent armies, or warlords, and a weakening of the corrupt central government.
The population of the Eastern Han was between 48 and 50 million people in 140 CE.§REF§(Roberts 2003, 56-60) Roberts, J A G (2003) The Complete History of China, Sutton Publishing, Stroud. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZZV3ITUI §REF§. Luoyang was home to 420,000 people in 100 CE, but only 100,000 by 200 CE.§REF§(Modelski 2003, 44) Modelski, G. 2003. World Cities -3000 to 2000. FAROS 2000. Washington D.C. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IVFNX9HJ §REF§§REF§(Chase-Dunn Spreadsheet)§REF§",,,,2024-01-04T15:41:22.175902Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",20.0,Middle Yellow River Valley,North China,112.517587000000,34.701825000000,Luoyang,CN,China,East Asia,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
255,cn_eastern_jin_dyn,317,420,Eastern Jin Dynasty,cn_eastern_jin_dyn,LEGACY,,,,,2024-01-04T15:45:00.775830Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
283,MnETurk,583,630,Eastern Turk Khaganate,mn_turk_khaganate_1,LEGACY,"The Orkhon Valley lies either side of the Orkhon River, in north-central Mongolia. For just under a century, between about 550 and 630 CE, it was under the control of a Turkic Khaganate, which split between a Western Khaganate and an Eastern one around 580; §REF§ (Hosszú 2012, 285) §REF§ the Eastern Khaganate included the Orkhon Valley, though it lasted only a few decades, between succumbing to a combination of internal rebellions and an invasion from Tang China, around 630 CE. §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 226) §REF§ Like many of their predecessors in the region, the Turks were nomads: indeed, the Turkic general and counselor, Tonyukhukh, is believed to have once said, ""If we build castles and give up our old customs, we shall be vanquished"". §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 226) §REF§ Both Western and Eastern khaganates were characterised by a four-tiered administrative hierarchy, whose members largely came from the ruling clan. §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 225) §REF§ In the East, Sogdian was the language used for administrative purposes. §REF§ (Hosszú 2012, 285) Hosszú, G. 2012. Heritage of Scribes: The Relation of Rovas Scripts to Eurasian Writing Systems. Rovas Foundation. §REF§
No population estimates specific to this polity could be found in the literature, though, according to McEvedy and Jones, at that time Mongolia and Siberia together likely had a population of no more than 500,000. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978) McEvedy, Colin. Jones, Richard. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd. London. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",24.0,Orkhon Valley,Mongolia,102.845486000000,47.200757000000,Karakorum,MN,Mongolia,Central Eurasia,9,Mongolia,"Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
423,CnZhuWS,-475,-256,Eastern Zhou,cn_eastern_zhou_warring_states,LEGACY,,,,,2024-01-04T15:39:11.663335Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
516,EgOldK1,-2650,-2350,Egypt - Classic Old Kingdom,eg_old_k_1,LEGACY,"The Old Kingdom period of Egypt covers the Third to Sixth ruling Dynasties, a period stretching from about 2650 to 2150 BCE. Seshat divides this period into two groups, the 'Classic' Old Kingdom period, covering the First through Fifth Dynasties (roughly 2650-2350 BCE), and the 'Late' Old Kingdom, comprising the turbulent Sixth Dynasty (2350-2150 BCE). The Fifth Dynasty, with its complex and effective administrative systems, is considered to be the high point for the centralization of the Old Kingdom government.
Population and political organization
During the Old Kingdom of Egypt, a god-king based in Memphis extended his reach along the Nile river through a network of royal centres, military towers and agricultural domains. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 196) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§ Few documents survive from the period; what evidence there is suggests that Egypt had become a centrally planned and administered state. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 95) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ During the Third Dynasty, high positions within the central administration were characteristically ‒ but not exclusively ‒ the preserve of the king's family. A notable exception was the chancellor and high priest Imhotep, the architect of Djoser's famous funerary complex which housed (among other buildings) the Step Pyramid. During the Fourth Dynasty, the number of officials from outside the king's family increased within the Egyptian administration, a trend which peaked in the Fifth Dynasty when the vizier became a powerful figure in his own right. The vizier oversaw the palace government's granaries and treasuries, within which there were specialized departments and hierarchies of scribes. §REF§ (Papazian 2013, 46, 78) Hratch Papazian. 2013. 'Departments, Treasuries, Granaries and Work Centers', in Ancient Egyptian Adminstration, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 41-83. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ One of the best known literary works of the Old Kingdom, The Maxims of Ptahhotep ‒ an invaluable source on Egyptian officialdom ‒ was written by a vizier at the end of the Fifth Dynasty. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 102) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ According to Egyptologist Hratch Papazian, however, a true hierarchical bureaucracy emerged only in the Late Old Kingdom. §REF§ (Papazian 2013, 67-68) Hratch Papazian. 2013. 'Departments, Treasuries, Granaries and Work Centers', in Ancient Egyptian Adminstration, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 41-83. Leiden: Brill. §REF§
Initially, control over the approximately 300,000 square kilometres of Egyptian territory outside of Memphis was exercised through royal centres called hwt, run by directly-appointed state officials. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 198) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§ At first there were no formal provincial boundaries; the hwt, a royal possession, might extend over several villages, large amounts of royal agricultural land, labourers, fields and cattle. The governor and staff of the hwt were responsible for irrigation works. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 198) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 80) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. A History of Ancient Egypt. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Chichester. §REF§ §REF§ (Malek 2000, 94) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ One notable change that occurred between the Fifth to Sixth Dynasties was that control over the hwt gradually passed from the royal administration to a provincial nobility. §REF§ (Kemp 1983, 108) Barry J. Kemp. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in Ancient Egypt: A Social History, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 71-182. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
A religious network of temples, mortuary complexes and local cults spread over the landscape of Egypt between 2650 and 2350 BCE. Long viewed as an incarnation of an ancient sky and falcon god called Horus, from the Fourth Dynasty onward the Egyptian king also was considered the son of a sun god, Ra. §REF§ (Kemp 1983, 71-72) Barry J. Kemp. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in Ancient Egypt: A Social History, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 71-182. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Ra grew in importance during the Old Kingdom and, around the beginning of the Fifth Dynasty, had essentially become an Egyptian state god. Although a common religious-ideological system prevailed throughout Old Kingdom Egypt centred on the divine authority of the king and a pantheon of deities and spirits, in general religious beliefs at this time were 'locally diverse and socially stratified'. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 101) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ independent mortuary priests served cults at tombs dedicated to the afterlives of important individuals and local variation in the focus of worship remained an integral part of Egyptian religion. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 101) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ On the burial chamber walls of King Unas, who reigned c. 2375-2345 BCE, we find the first Pyramid Texts, 'the earliest large religious composition known from ancient Egypt'. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 102) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",5.0,Upper Egypt,Northeastern Africa,32.714706000000,25.725715000000,Luxor,EG,Egypt,Africa,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
513,EgNaqa3,-3300,-3100,Egypt - Dynasty 0,eg_naqada_3,LEGACY,"The Naqada is a Predynastic archaeological culture located in Upper Egypt, the strip of land flanking the Nile river south of the Faiyum region and north of the First Cataract. Named after the site where British archaeologist Flinders Petrie uncovered a necropolis of over 3000 graves in the late 19th century, §REF§ (Midant-Reynes 2000, 41) Béatrix Midant-Reynes. 2000. 'The Naqada Period (c. 4000-3200 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 41-56. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ the Naqada culture is dated from around 3800 to 3100 BCE. §REF§ (Dee et al. 2013, 5) Michael Dee, David Wengrow, Andrew Shortland, Alice Stevenson, Fiona Brock, Linus Girdland Flink and Christopher Bronk Ramsey. 2013. 'An Absolute Chronology for Early Egypt Using Radiocarbon Dating and Bayesian Statistical Modelling'. Proceedings of the Royal Society A 469 (2159). DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2013.0395. §REF§ The Naqada has been subdivided into three periods ‒ the Amratian, Gerzean, and Semainean ‒ as well as, more recently, into Naqada IA-C, IIA-D, and IIIA-D. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 424) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. Journal of Archaeological Research 24: 421-68. §REF§ §REF§ (Dee et al. 2013, 2) Michael Dee, David Wengrow, Andrew Shortland, Alice Stevenson, Fiona Brock, Linus Girdland Flink and Christopher Bronk Ramsey. 2013. 'An Absolute Chronology for Early Egypt Using Radiocarbon Dating and Bayesian Statistical Modelling'. Proceedings of the Royal Society A 469 (2159). DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2013.0395. §REF§ Seshat's 'Naqada 1' (3800-3550 BCE) corresponds to the Naqada IA-IIB phases; Naqada 2 (3550-3300 BCE) to IIC-IID; and Naqada 3 (3300-3100 BCE) to IIIA-IIIB. We end Naqada 3 with the IIIB-C transition, because the First Dynasty of the Egyptian state is considered to begin with the accession of King Aha in Naqada IIIC. §REF§ (Dee et al. 2013, 2) Michael Dee, David Wengrow, Andrew Shortland, Alice Stevenson, Fiona Brock, Linus Girdland Flink and Christopher Bronk Ramsey. 2013. 'An Absolute Chronology for Early Egypt Using Radiocarbon Dating and Bayesian Statistical Modelling'. Proceedings of the Royal Society A 469 (2159). DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2013.0395. §REF§ Naqada III is also sometimes referred to as the Protodynastic period or 'Dynasty 0'.
Early Naqada archaeological material is clustered around the key sites of Naqada itself, Abydos, and Hierakonpolis (ancient Nekhen) in the fertile land nestled around the 'Qena bend' of the Nile. §REF§ (Bard 1994, 267) Kathryn A. Bard. 1994. 'The Egyptian Predynastic: A Review of the Evidence'. Journal of Field Archaeology 21 (3): 265-88. §REF§ However, from the late Naqada II onwards, there is an archaeologically visible expansion of the culture both southwards along the Nile and northwards into Lower Egypt (the Delta), eventually reaching as far north as the Levant in Naqada IIIA-B. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 442-43) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. Journal of Archaeological Research 24: 421-68. §REF§
Population and Political Organization
The 4th millennium BCE was a crucial period for Egyptian state formation. Prior to roughly 3800 BCE, Upper Egypt was inhabited by seasonally mobile farmers and herders, constituting an archaeological culture known as the Badarian. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 422, 428-29) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. Journal of Archaeological Research 24: 421-68. §REF§ However, the Naqada periods brought a series of key social transformations to the region, including increasing inequality, a greater commitment to sedentary settlement and cereal farming, the emergence of full-time craft specialists, and, towards the end of the millennium, the invention of writing. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 431-32, 434) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. Journal of Archaeological Research 24: 421-68. §REF§ §REF§ (Hendrickx 2011, 93) Stan Hendrickx. 2011. 'Crafts and Craft Specialization', in Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization, edited by Emily Teeter, 93-98. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ §REF§ (Wengrow 2011, 99) David Wengrow. 2011. 'The Invention of Writing in Egypt', in Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization, edited by Emily Teeter, 99-103. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ The growth of hierarchical social structures and the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt laid the foundations for the divine kings and complex bureaucracy of the Old Kingdom and beyond.
During Naqada I, new forms of political organization appeared ‒ relatively swiftly compared to other prehistoric cultures ‒ in the upper Nile Valley. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 431-32) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. Journal of Archaeological Research 24: 421-68. §REF§ According to the Egyptologist Branislav Anđelković, previously autonomous agricultural villages began to band together to form 'chiefdoms' or 'proto-nomes' between Naqada IA and IB (a 'nome' was an administrative division in the later Egyptian state). §REF§ (Anđelković 2011, 28) Branislav Anđelković. 2011. 'Political Organization of Egypt in the Predynastic Period', in Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization, edited by Emily Teeter, 25-32. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ In Naqada IC, even larger political entities ‒ 'nome pre-states' ‒ started to form, centred on Naqada, Abydos and Hierakonpolis. It has been suggested that a 'primitive chiefdom' centred around a 'royal' authority based at Hierakonpolis, had formed by around 3700 BCE. §REF§ (García 2013, 187-88) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the Third Millennium BCE', in Experiencing Power, Generating Authority: Cosmos, Politics, and the Ideology of Kingship in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, edited by Jane A. Hill, Philip Jones, and Antonio J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§ Not all researchers agree with this terminology, believing that it creates the impression of an inexorable march towards state formation, and some prefer to stress the fragile and experimental nature of early complex social formations in Upper Egypt. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 422, 427) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. Journal of Archaeological Research 24: 421-68. §REF§ However, the term chiefdom remains in common usage as a label for the new ranked societies of the early 4th millennium. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 422) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. Journal of Archaeological Research 24: 421-68. §REF§ §REF§ (Bard 2017, 2) Kathryn A. Bard. 2017. 'Political Economies of Predynastic Egypt and the Formation of the Early State'. Journal of Archaeological Research 25: 1-36. §REF§ §REF§ (Koehler 2010, 32) E. Christiana Koehler. 2010. 'Prehistory', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 25-47. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ In the Naqada II period, 'proto-states' formed, and by the Naqada III we can speak of kings and a centralized government ruling over a unified Upper and Lower Egypt. §REF§ (Anđelković 2011, 29-30) Branislav Anđelković. 2011. 'Political Organization of Egypt in the Predynastic Period', in Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization, edited by Emily Teeter, 25-32. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§
We lack firm figures for the population of Egypt during the Naqada. At the beginning of the period, most inhabitants of Upper Egypt were living in small villages. §REF§ (Anđelković 2011, 28) Branislav Anđelković. 2011. 'Political Organization of Egypt in the Predynastic Period', in Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization, edited by Emily Teeter, 25-32. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ However, as the 4th millennium progressed, archaeologists can discern a process of urbanization and aggregation into larger political units. The largest known settlement, Hierakonpolis, grew into a regional centre of power in the 3800‒3500 BCE period §REF§ (Friedman 2011, 34) Renée Friedman. 2011. 'Hierakonpolis', in Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization, edited by Emily Teeter, 33-44. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ and may have reached a population of between 5,000 and 10,000 people in the late Naqada I. §REF§ (Hoffman, Hamroush and Allen 1986, 181) Michael Allen Hoffman, Hany A. Hamroush and Ralph O. Allen. 1986. 'A Model of Urban Development for the Hierakonpolis Region from Predynastic through Old Kingdom Times'. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 23: 175-87. §REF§ Other researchers consider this figure 'inflated' §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 436) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. Journal of Archaeological Research 24: 421-68. §REF§ and point to recent evidence from the Abydos region for low population numbers throughout the Predynastic period. §REF§ (Patch 2004, 914) Diana Craig Patch. 2004. 'Settlement Patterns and Cultural Change in the Predynastic Period', in Egypt at Its Origins: Studies in Memory of Barbara Adams, edited by S. Hendrickx, R. F. Friedman, K. M. Ciałowicz and M. Chłodnicki, 905-18. Leuven: Uitgeverij Peeters en Departement Oosterse Studies. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",5.0,Upper Egypt,Northeastern Africa,32.714706000000,25.725715000000,Luxor,EG,Egypt,Africa,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
514,EgDyn1*,-3100,-2900,Egypt - Dynasty I,eg_dynasty_1,LEGACY,"The First Dynasty of Egypt (c. 3100‒2900 BCE) was a relatively geographically constricted ancient state located near the Nile delta of Egypt, which was first unified under a ruler called Menes. §REF§ (David and David 2002, 86) R. David and A. E. David. 2002. Biographical Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. London: Routledge. §REF§
Population and political organization
Kings of the First Dynasty were buried in the royal cemetery in the Umm el-Qa'ab area at Abydos in Upper Egypt, where funerary enclosures and a mortuary cult supported an ideology of divine kingship. §REF§ (Bard 2000, 41) Kathryn A. Bard. 2000. 'The Emergence of the Egyptian State (c. 3200-2686 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 57-82. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ However, it is believed that Memphis, downriver at the neck of the delta, was the main administrative centre because tombs of administrative officials have been discovered nearby. §REF§ (Bard 2000, 64-65) Kathryn A. Bard. 2000. 'The Emergence of the Egyptian State (c. 3200-2686 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 57-82. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Also known as the White Walls, §REF§ (Malek 2000, 104) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ apparently after the colour of the palace enclosure walls, §REF§ (Thompson 2012, 1) Dorothy J. Thompson. 2012. Memphis under the Ptolemies. 2nd ed. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. §REF§ Memphis probably had at least 6,000 residents at a population density of 193 per hectare. §REF§ (Mumford 2010, 331) Gregory D. Mumford. 2010. 'Settlements - Distribution, Structure, Architecture: Pharaonic', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B Lloyd, 326-49. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ The government of the Early Dynasties is thought to have developed significant divisions of labour and a more hierarchical structure under King Djer, who introduced permanent institutions, §REF§ (Engel 2013, 20-38) Eva-Maria Engel. 2013. 'The Organisation of a Nascent State: Egypt until the Beginning of the 4th Dynasty', in Ancient Egyptian Adminstration, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 19-40. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ although Egyptologist Hratch Papazian stresses that a true hierarchical bureaucracy emerged 'only during the latter parts of the Old Kingdom'. §REF§ (Papazian 2013, 67-68) Hratch Papazian. 2013. 'Departments, Treasuries, Granaries and Work Centers', in Ancient Egyptian Adminstration, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 41-83. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Writing had been in use since the Protodynastic period ('Dynasty 0', or the later Naqada periods), §REF§ (Bard 2000, 75) Kathryn A. Bard. 2000. 'The Emergence of the Egyptian State (c. 3200-2686 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 57-82. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ when hieroglyphs were used for labels such as those found in the tomb of U-j at Abydos, dating to around 3150 BCE. §REF§ (Bard 2000, 60) Kathryn A. Bard. 2000. 'The Emergence of the Egyptian State (c. 3200-2686 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 57-82. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
Regional centres of the First Dynasty included Hierakonpolis, Abydos, and minor centres further south at Naga-el-Deir and Aswan. First-Dynasty Egypt was likely not yet divided into the clearly demarcated provinces, controlled by local governors, that we find in later periods. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§ There is no clear evidence for professional priests or large-scale religious organization, but there may have been temple compounds within settlements, serving different ritual functions from the funerary complexes located outside the towns. §REF§ (Bard 2000, 78) Kathryn A Bard. 2000. 'The Emergence of the Egyptian State (c.3200-2686 BC)' in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt edited by Ian Shaw. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
The Egyptian population during the Early Dynastic period is difficult to determine, but the archaeologist Bruce Trigger estimated that there could have been over 2 million people living in the Nile Valley at this time. §REF§ (Trigger 1983, 51) Bruce G. Trigger. 1983. 'The Rise of Egyptian Civilization', in Ancient Egypt: A Social History edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B Lloyd, 1-70. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",5.0,Upper Egypt,Northeastern Africa,32.714706000000,25.725715000000,Luxor,EG,Egypt,Africa,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
515,EgDyn2*,-2900,-2687,Egypt - Dynasty II,eg_dynasty_2,LEGACY,"The Second Dynasty of Egypt (c. 2900‒2687 BCE) was a relatively geographically constricted state, centred near the Nile delta of Egypt and extending as far south as Aswan and the First Cataract of the Nile. Founded by Hotepsekhemwy, the kings of the Second Dynasty initially ruled over a centralized state, but as the period progressed they had to contend with disorder and civil war that lasted until the last ruler, Khasekhemwy (c. 2714‒2687 BCE). §REF§ (El-Shahawy 2005, 31) A El-Shahawy. 2005. The Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Dodson 2016, 9) Aidan Dodson. 2016. 'Go West: On the Ancient Means of Approach to the Saqqara Necropolis', in Mummies, Magic and Medicine in Ancient Egypt: Multidisciplinary Essays for Rosalie David, edited by Campbell Price, Roger Forshaw, Andrew Chamberlain and Paul Nicholson, 3-18. Manchester: Manchester University Press. §REF§ The restoration of central authority after this period ushered in the classic Old Kingdom period, widely considered a high point of ancient civilization.
Population and political organization
Controlled by a god-king who presided over an administration with specialized overseers, §REF§ (Moreno García 2014) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2014. 'Invaders or Just Herders? Libyans in Egypt in the Third and Second Millennia BCE'. World Archaeology 46: 610-23. §REF§ Memphis is considered the main administrative centre of the Early Dynastic period because tombs of administrative officials are located nearby. §REF§ (Bard 2000, 64-65) Kathryn A. Bard. 2000. 'The Emergence of the Egyptian State (c. 3200-2686 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 57-82. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Also known as the White Walls, §REF§ (Malek 2000, 104) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ apparently after the colour of the palace enclosure walls, §REF§ (Thompson 2012, 1) Dorothy J. Thompson. 2012. Memphis under the Ptolemies. 2nd ed. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. §REF§ Memphis probably had at least 6,000 residents at a population density of 193 per hectare. §REF§ (Mumford 2010, 331) Gregory D. Mumford. 2010. 'Settlements - Distribution, Structure, Architecture: Pharaonic', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B Lloyd, 326-49. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ The government of the Early Dynasties is thought to have developed significant divisions of labour and a more hierarchical structure under King Djer, who introduced permanent institutions, §REF§ (Engel 2013, 20-38) Eva-Maria Engel. 2013. 'The Organisation of a Nascent State: Egypt until the Beginning of the 4th Dynasty', in Ancient Egyptian Administration, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 19-40. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ although Egyptologist Hratch Papazian stresses that a true hierarchical bureaucracy emerged 'only during the latter parts of the Old Kingdom'. §REF§ (Papazian 2013, 67-68) Hratch Papazian. 2013. 'Departments, Treasuries, Granaries and Work Centers', in Ancient Egyptian Administration, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 41-83. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Writing in this period was now well established; it had been present since the late Predynastic period ('Dynasty 0'), §REF§ (Bard 2000, 75) Kathryn A. Bard. 2000. 'The Emergence of the Egyptian State (c. 3200-2686 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 57-82. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ when hieroglyphs were used for labels such as those found in the tomb of U-j at Abydos, dating to around 3150 BCE. §REF§ (Bard 2000, 60) Kathryn A. Bard. 2000. 'The Emergence of the Egyptian State (c. 3200-2686 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 57-82. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
Regional centres of the Second Dynasty included Hierakonpolis, Abydos, and minor centres further south at Naga-el-Deir and Aswan. Evidence for a system of territorial organization comes from thousands of seal stamps discovered in the tomb of Khasekhemwy, the last king of the dynasty; they mention some historical provinces along with 'administrative titles and the names of the king'. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 190) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§ However, Second-Dynasty Egypt was likely not yet divided into the clearly demarcated provinces, controlled by local governors, that we find in later periods. §REF§ (Moreno Garcia 2013, 190-192) Juan Carlos Moreno Garcia. 'Building the Pharaonic state: Territory, elite, and power in ancient Egypt in the 3rd millennium BCE' in Ancient Egyptian Administration edited by Juan Carlos Moreno Garcia. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Abydos appears to have been the most significant cult centre. Its royal cemetery reveals the increasing elaboration of the ideology of kingship through the mortuary cult, and its monumental architecture has been interpreted as the expression of a 'state religion' on a grander scale than in previous periods. §REF§ (Bard 2000, 66-67) Kathryn A. Bard. 2000. 'The Emergence of the Egyptian State (c. 3200-2686 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 57-82. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
The Egyptian population during the Early Dynastic period is difficult to determine, but the archaeologist Bruce Trigger estimated that there could have been over 2 million people living in the Nile Valley at this time. §REF§ (Trigger 1983, 51) Bruce G. Trigger. 1983. 'The Rise of Egyptian Civilization', in Ancient Egypt: A Social History edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B Lloyd, 1-70. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",5.0,Upper Egypt,Northeastern Africa,32.714706000000,25.725715000000,Luxor,EG,Egypt,Africa,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
205,EgIntOc,-404,-342,Egypt - Inter-Occupation Period,eg_inter_occupation,LEGACY,"The Inter-Occupation Dynasties (Twenty-eighth, Twenty-ninth and Thirtieth Dynasties, 404‒343/2 BCE) §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 17) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 377) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Late Period (664-332 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 364-87. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ refers to the last period during which Egypt was governed by indigenous rulers, at a time when Egypt's external relationships with Greeks and Persians overshadowed attempts to maintain internal political stability. Forming part of the the 'Late Period' of Egyptian history, it spanned only about six decades in between phases of Persian domination. §REF§ (Lichtheim [1980] 2006, ix-x) Miriam Lichtheim. [1980] 2006. Ancient Egyptian Literature, Volume III: The Late Period. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§
The Twenty-eighth Dynasty was established after a number of revolts against Persian rule in 404 BCE, and Amyrtaeus II, who ruled from Memphis, may have adopted the regnal name of Psamtik (after the first Saite king) to lend his rule legitimacy. §REF§ (Perdu 2010, 152-53) Olivier Perdu. 2010. 'Saites and Persians (664‒332)', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 140-58. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Although Amyrtaeus succeeded in extending his control as far south as Aswan in 400 BCE, where his rule was accepted by the Jewish community at Elephantine, §REF§ (Grimal 1994, 371) N. Grimal. 1994. A History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ his reign was challenged and overthrown by one of his generals. An Aramaic papyrus at the Brooklyn museum describes a violent coup that unseated Amyrtaeus; according to the document, Nepherites I captured Amyrtaeus and executed him at Memphis. §REF§ (Grimal 1994, 372) N. Grimal. 1994. A History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§
Nepherites I is considered the founder of a new dynasty (the Twenty-ninth). His new capital was probably at Mendes, where he carried out building projects, as revealed by excavations in the 1980s by the Brooklyn Museum and the University of New York. §REF§ (Grimal 1994, 372) N. Grimal. 1994. A History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ Nectanebo I, founder of the Thirtieth and final native Egyptian pharaonic Dynasty, seems to have overthrown the last ruler of the Twenty-ninth Dynasty with the assistance of a Greek general called Chabrias, whose mercenaries are known to have subsequently helped prevent a Persian invasion of Egypt. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 17) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
The most powerful elements in Egyptian society in this period were members of the the warrior class and priesthood. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 377) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Late Period (664-332 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 364-87. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The men who established the Twenty-ninth and Thirtieth Dynasties ‒ Nepherites I and Nectanebo I respectively ‒ were both generals, while Amyrtaeus II was most likely the grandson of another Amyrtaeus from Sais, who had rebelled against the Achaemenid occupation. §REF§ (Perdu 2010, 152) Olivier Perdu. 2010. 'Saites and Persians (664‒332)', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 140-58. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ One of the first priorities of Nectanebo II when he came to power was to control the Egyptian army; to achieve this end he promoted his oldest son to the position of 'First Generalissimo of His Majesty'. §REF§ (Perdu 2010, 156) Olivier Perdu. 2010. 'Saites and Persians (664‒332)', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 140-58. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ The 340s BCE were a time of insurrection, when Egyptians were fomenting rebellions against Persian authority across the eastern Mediterranean and Aegean. §REF§ (Ruzicka 2012) Stephen Ruzicka. 2012. Trouble in the West: Egypt and the Persian Empire, 525-332 BCE. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
There are few sources to tell us of the workings of the Egyptian administration of this time, but historians agree that when the Persian Achaemenids conquered territories - including Egypt - they were generally happy to leave indigenous governance structures intact and did not seek to make wholesale changes to them. Egypt was made a satrapy, and the main task of the satrap in Memphis was to keep up the regular shipment of tribute to Persia. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 16-17) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ It therefore seems likely that the Inter-Occupation Dynasties retained the administrative structures of the preceding Saite Period: a centralized court government with a warrior pharaoh and a vizier who ran his civil administration. This was the last period in which regional rulers called nomarchs formed part of the provincial administration.
The Late Period of Egypt saw an elaboration of debt and credit structures, to the extent that merchants could issue loans to individuals. §REF§ (Allam 1990, 2) S. Allam. 1990. 'Women as Holders of Rights in Ancient Egypt (During the Late Period)'. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 33 (1): 1-34. §REF§ Though Persian coins were used under the Achaemenids, an innovation of the post-Achaemenid period of rule was the state minting of silver coins, §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 25) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ perhaps from the reign of Teos onwards. Priests were required to pay a tax in silver in order to secure donations to their temples; temples were forced to drastically reduce their expenses and use the savings to make loans to the king, who used it to mint coins to pay his armies. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 25) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt. New York: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Pharaoh Teos evidently had enough resources to launch an attack on the Persians in the late 360s BCE. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 24) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
Egypt at this time was a diverse, cosmopolitan state. Foreign mercenary forces recruited to defend the Egyptian homeland, a practice popular since the Third Intermediate Period, brought great ethnic and cultural diversity. The presence of garrisoned Greeks, Carians, Phoenicians, Cypriots, Aramaeans and Jews had been an important influence on Egypt since the Saite Dynasty and these groups had retained the languages and culture of their home communities. §REF§ (Kaplan 2003) Philip Kaplan. 2003. 'Cross-Cultural Contacts among Mercenary Communities in Saite and Persian Egypt'. Mediterranean Historical Review 18 (1): 1-31. §REF§
A significant innovation of the period was the widespread adoption of the qanat water supply technology, brought in by the occupying Persians in the 5th century BCE. §REF§ (Van de Mieroop 2011, 307) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. A History of Ancient Egypt. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Qanats were sloping subterranean tunnels that conducted groundwater over long distances, creating a reliable supply of water for drinking, bathing and irrigation. §REF§ (Van de Mieroop 2011, 307) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. A History of Ancient Egypt. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ In about 400 BCE, the Egyptian population is likely to have risen to slightly over three million. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 227) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. London: Allen Lane. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",5.0,Upper Egypt,Northeastern Africa,32.714706000000,25.725715000000,Luxor,EG,Egypt,Africa,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
521,SdKusht,-747,-656,Egypt - Kushite Period,eg_kushite,LEGACY,"Towards the end of the preceding Thebes-Libyan period, the northern reaches of the Nile River were invaded by Amun-worshipping Kushites from the south who had built up a strong state based in Napata, in the Sudan, at the foot of Gebel Barkal mountain. §REF§ (Leclant 1981, 285) J. Leclant. 1981. 'The Empire of Kush: Napata and Meroe', in General History of Africa, Vol II: Ancient Civilizations of Africa, edited by G. Mokhtar, 278-97. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The first Kushite ruler of Egypt, Piye, was crowned in Napata; §REF§ (Török 1997, 154) László Török. 1997. The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meriotic Civilization Handbook of Oriental Studies, No. 31. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ this remained the capital of the Kushite Empire until c. 716 BCE, when the entire Nile Valley up to the delta was acquired under Shabaka, §REF§ (Leclant 1981, 280) J. Leclant. 1981. 'The Empire of Kush: Napata and Meroe', in General History of Africa, Vol II: Ancient Civilizations of Africa, edited by G. Mokhtar, 278-97. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ who then moved the capital and royal residence from Napata to Memphis in order to emphasize the foreign dynasty's respect for traditional Egyptian customs. §REF§ (Török 1997, 167) László Török. 1997. The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meriotic Civilization Handbook of Oriental Studies, No. 31. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 349) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Kushite rule of Egypt (the Twenty-fifth Dynasty) occurred within an extremely complex political climate that has been the cause of much debate among historians. The Twenty-third Dynasty of the preceding Thebes-Libyan Period survived throughout this period, only to be toppled by the first ruler of the Saite Kingdom, Psamtek I (r. 664-610; Twenty-sixth Dynasty). The Egyptologist Jeremy Pope concludes that the 'Double Kingdom' (Kushite and Libyo-Egyptian) had some form of 'nominal unity' across a large territory. §REF§ (Pope 2014, 280) Jeremy Pope. 2014. The Double Kingdom Under Taharqo. Leiden: Brill. §REF§
Population and political organization
Scholars debate the extent to which there was a centralized bureaucracy in Egypt under Kushite rule. In Lower Nubia, the Kushite king may have exercised power through 'invisible elites' such as merchants, pastoralists, and local potentates - 'a striking contrast with the bureaucratic formalization of Upper Egypt'. §REF§ (Pope 2014, 191) Jeremy Pope. 2014. The Double Kingdom Under Taharqo. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Archaeologist Robert Morkot has argued that the Twenty-fifth Dynasty kept the Egyptian administrative system largely unchanged, making only relatively minor alterations such as appointing new individuals or families to official positions. §REF§ (Morkot 2013, 963) Robert G. Morkot. 2014. 'Thebes under the Kushites', in Tombs of the South Asasif Necropolis: Thebes, Karakhamun (TT 223), and Karabasken (TT 391) in the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, edited by Elena Pischikova, 5-22. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press. §REF§ However, Jeremy Pope believes that we cannot use New Kingdom analogies to draw conclusions about Kushite governing principles, and that 'central authority and administration had disappeared' in this period. §REF§ (Pope 2014, 203) Jeremy Pope. 2014. The Double Kingdom Under Taharqo. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The Egyptian position of vizier probably continued but was 'deprived of effective power'. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 348) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
What is not in doubt is that the Kushite king was a powerful military ruler and, in the Libyan tradition, likely made marriage alliances with the elite throughout Egypt. §REF§ (Morkot 2013, 961) Robert G. Morkot. 2014. 'Thebes under the Kushites', in Tombs of the South Asasif Necropolis: Thebes, Karakhamun (TT 223), and Karabasken (TT 391) in the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, edited by Elena Pischikova, 5-22. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press. §REF§ In general, Kushite rule drew its power from military capacity and the day-to-day workings of local government were left in the hands of the Egyptian dynasts. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 243) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in Ancient Egypt: A Social History, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Nubians and Egyptians also shared a common set of religious practices. King Piye, who successfully invaded Egypt, boasted of his divine legitimacy on a stele: 'Amon of Napata has made me sovereign over every people', §REF§ (Leclant 1981, 280) J. Leclant. 1981. 'The Empire of Kush: Napata and Meroe', in General History of Africa, Vol II: Ancient Civilizations of Africa, edited by G. Mokhtar, 278-97. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ and established an official cult of Amun around 780-760 BCE; his sister became priestess. §REF§ (Török 1997, 144) László Török. 1997. The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meriotic Civilization Handbook of Oriental Studies, No. 31. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The existing powerful religious offices in Upper Egypt were also important for Kushite rule: the position of God's Wife (or Divine Adoratrice) at Thebes was maintained due to its political utility, and Kushite royals were installed as high priests. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 243) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in Ancient Egypt: A Social History, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In earlier times, the high priest at Thebes had exercised both civil and military authority, but the Kushites maintained their own Kushite military commanders, while civil authority was given initially to Kushite governors and later to 'Theban bureaucrats'. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 208) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in Ancient Egypt: A Social History, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The end of Kushite rule in Egypt and the beginning of the Saite Dynasty furnishes a rare example of a peaceful transition, involving the adoption of the Saite princess Nitocris by the last Kushite Divine Adoratrice of Amun, Amenirdis II, in 656 BC. §REF§ (Morkot 2013) Robert G. Morkot. 2014. 'Thebes under the Kushites', in Tombs of the South Asasif Necropolis: Thebes, Karakhamun (TT 223), and Karabasken (TT 391) in the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, edited by Elena Pischikova, 5-22. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press. §REF§
Kushite-period Memphis, where the chief royal residence was based, §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 349) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ is thought to have had a population of perhaps 65,000; the first capital, Napata, about 43,000. The Kushite Empire spanned roughly 600,000-700,000 square kilometres, but it is difficult to find reliable estimates for its population.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",5.0,Upper Egypt,Northeastern Africa,32.714706000000,25.725715000000,Luxor,EG,Egypt,Africa,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
517,EgOldK2,-2350,-2150,Egypt - Late Old Kingdom,eg_old_k_2,LEGACY,"The Old Kingdom period of Egypt covers the Third to Sixth ruling Dynasties, a period stretching from about 2650 to 2150 BCE. Seshat divides this period into two groups, the 'Classic' Old Kingdom period, covering the First through Fifth Dynasties (roughly 2650-2350 BCE), and the 'Late' Old Kingdom, comprising turbulent Sixth Dynasty (2350-2150 BCE). This dynasty witnessed a decentralization of the king's authority, leading to the First Intermediate Period, or Period of the Regions.
Population and political organization
The kings of the Sixth Dynasty were still based at the capital in Memphis. Lower Nubia, over 1000 km away from the Egyptian centre, was organized into six small chiefdoms under the Sixth Dynasty. §REF§ (Spalinger 2013, 463) A. Spalinger. 2013. 'The Organization of the Pharaonic Army (Old to New Kingdom)', in Ancient Egyptian Adminstration, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 393-478. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The hwt, once a royal possession and conveyor of central authority, was now dominated by a powerful provincial nobility that viewed their area of control as hereditary property §REF§ (Hassan 1993, 567) Kekri Hassan. 1993. 'Town and Village in Ancient Egypt: Ecology, Society and Urbanization', in The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns, edited by Thurstan Shaw, Paul Sinclair, Bassey Andah and Alex Okpoko, 551-69. London: Routledge. §REF§ - a development enshrined in the governor's new title, 'great chief of the nome'. §REF§ (Kemp 1983, 108) Barry J. Kemp. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in Ancient Egypt: A Social History, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 71-182. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ It appears that military institutions did not change significantly from the Early to the Late Old Kingdom: there was still no permanent, state-run standing army. §REF§ (Spalinger 2013, 468-70) A. Spalinger. 2013. 'The Organization of the Pharaonic Army (Old to New Kingdom)', in Ancient Egyptian Adminstration, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 393-478. Leiden: Brill. §REF§
Long viewed as an incarnation of an ancient sky and falcon god called Horus, from the Fourth Dynasty onward the Egyptian king also was considered the son of a sun god, Ra. §REF§ (Kemp 1983, 71-72) Barry J. Kemp. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in Ancient Egypt: A Social History, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 71-182. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Ra grew in importance during the Old Kingdom and, around the beginning of the Fifth Dynasty, had essentially become an Egyptian state god. During the Sixth Dynasty the sun temples in which Ra was worshipped became large institutions maintained by donations and landed property. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 99) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ In contrast to the earlier age, during the Sixth Dynasty it was promotion within the sun temples that became the route to high office within the palatial bureaucracy. §REF§ (Moreno García 2013, 201) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the 3rd Millennium BCE', in Experiencing Power - Generating Authority: Cosmos and Politics in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, edited by J. A. Hill, Ph. H. Jones, A. J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§ Priests would not become full-time professionals until the New Kingdom: at this time, they worked rotating shifts. §REF§ (Doxey 2001, 69-70) D. M. Doxey. 2001. 'Priesthood', in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 3, edited by D. B. Redford, 69-70. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Nevertheless, large-scale temple building for a wide range of local gods, including Khenti-amentiu at Abydos; Min at Koptos; Hathor at Dendera; Horus at Hierankonpolis; and Satet at Elephantine, underlines the florescence of religious expression as well as the command of a large labour pool by the king and local elites more generally during the Sixth Dynasty. §REF§ (Malek 2000, 105) Jaromir Malek. 2000. 'The Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 83-107. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
The growing power of local elites, commanding religious and administrative authority as well as great agricultural wealth and control over labour in the form of corvée dues, undermined the central power of Sixth-Dynasty rulers. After the death of King Pepi II (r. 2278-2184 BCE), there were repeated contests over the succession. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. A History of Ancient Egypt. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Chichester. §REF§ Eventually, these conflicts, coupled with the declining authority of the kings and possibly periods of famine caused by successive harvest failures due to poor Nile flooding, led to the collapse of centralized authority and the onset of the First Intermediate Period, or Period of the Regions.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",5.0,Upper Egypt,Northeastern Africa,32.714706000000,25.725715000000,Luxor,EG,Egypt,Africa,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
232,EgMamBh,1260,1348,Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate I,eg_mamluk_sultanate_1,LEGACY,"The Mamluk Sultanate has two possible start dates: 1250 CE, when the last Ayyubid ruler in Egypt was deposed, or ten years later, once a period of disorder that included an attack from the Mongols had ended. Baybars (sultan from 1260 to 1277 CE) killed the first two Mamluk sultans after victories on the battlefield and, as a statesman and organizer, was 'the real founder of the Mamluk state'. §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 39-67) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The sultans of the Bahri Dynasty or 'Dawlat al-Atrak' (Empire of the Turks) §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 41) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ - so-called because the rulers were of Turkish origin - oversaw a new climax of sociopolitical development, wealth and splendour in Egypt, which peaked under the reign of Sultan Nasiri §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 137) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ before plague arrived in Alexandria in 1347 CE. §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 39-67) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ We end our early Mamluk Sultanate period in 1348 CE, a year when crisis struck Egypt.
The traditional chronological division of the Mamluk Sultanate into Bahri (Turkish) and Burji (Circassian) periods is not followed here because, according to the historian André Raymond, these periods 'correspond to no fundamental changes in the organization of the Mamluk state'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 116-17) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ We have chosen to split the sultanate in 1348 and 1412 CE instead in recognition of the crisis period following the Bahri period of prosperity. After the 'great plague epidemic' of 1348, Mamluk troops were defeated by the Turco-Mongol conqueror Tamerlane (Timur) at the end of the 14th century, and, in 1403, the sultanate faced another political crisis and the 'disastrous reign of Faraj'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 116-17) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The final Burji period began in 1412 CE and, while known for 'a return to normality and periods of brilliance', was marked by demographic decline. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 116-17) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
Since the children of mamluks could by law never become mamluks, §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 16) Roland Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. Medieval Africa, 1250-1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ the Mamluk Sultanate was in every generation ruled by a foreign 'slave-elite' that had to be constantly replaced by new 'slave' recruits imported, educated, promoted, and manumitted specifically for the role. Manumission was essential because under Islamic law no slave could be sovereign. The sultan performed a ritual manumission at his inaugural ceremony but the legal manumission would usually have occurred when he was about 18 years old, following the mamluk training. §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 39-67) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In the Bahri period the Mamluks were of Turkish origin (like those recruited by the last Ayyubid sultan), but later sultans recruited mostly Circassians from the Caucasus. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 112) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Mamluk recruits were employed in the central government, the military and as governors in the provinces. While promotion to the highest echelons of the government and military was 'granted according to precise rules', succession to the highest position - the Sultanate itself - was often a chaotic contest in which 'seniority, merit, cabal, intrigue, or violence' all jostled for prominence. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 113-14) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Nevertheless, the deck was stacked such that from 1290 to 1382 CE, the sultanate was inherited by 17 different descendants of Sultan Qalawun. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 114) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§
The Mamluk sultan ruled from Cairo and during his absence from the capital, Egypt was governed by his viceroy, the na'ib al-saltana. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 152) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The bureaucracy did not tightly control the countryside. Rather, influence was projected informally through 'iqta holdings (allotments of land along with the right to their tax revenue) - first used in Egypt during the preceding Ayyubid Dynasty period. These were assigned as a way to remunerate the slave soldiers of the centrally organized professional military, §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 250) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ as well as more formally through the na'ib, governor of a mamlaka administrative district. §REF§ (Drory 2004, 169) Joseph Drory. 2004. 'Some Remarks Concerning Safed and the Organization of the Region in the Mamluk period', in The Mamluks in Egyptian and Syrian Politics and Society, edited by Michael Winter and Amalia Levanoni, 163-90. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The Mamluk elite controlled the appointment of 'judges, legal administrators, professors, Sufi shaykhs, prayer leaders, and other Muslim officials. They paid the salaries of religious personnel, endowed their schools, and thus brought the religious establishment into a state bureaucracy'. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 249) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In Cairo, Islamic law was kept by three traditional magistracies called qadi (pl. qudah), whose courts had a wide remit over civil law. A law-enforcement official called the chief of the sergeant of the watch oversaw wulah (sg. wali) policemen who kept watch at night and also fought fires. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 153) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§
Revenue and Resources
The Bahri Dynasty was highly effective at drawing revenue. In the 14th century CE, the annual revenue was 9.5 million dinars, which was 'higher than at almost any other time since the Arab conquest'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 116) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ This paid for the Al-Barid postal system initiated by Baybars (1260‒1277 CE), which was extremely expensive to set up. Horses were used for first time on routes such as Cairo to Qus in Upper Egypt; and Cairo to Alexandria, Damietta and Syria. §REF§ (Silverstein 2007, 173) A. J. Silverstein. 2007. Postal Systems in the Pre-Modern Islamic World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The Syrian region of the Mamluk Sultanate was run by a chief governor, who had governors below him. §REF§ (Drory 2004, 169) Joseph Drory. 2004. 'Some Remarks Concerning Safed and the Organization of the Region in the Mamluk period', in The Mamluks in Egyptian and Syrian Politics and Society, edited by Michael Winter and Amalia Levanoni, 163-90. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Imperial communications via Palestine were reportedly so efficient that 'Baybars boasted that he could play polo in Cairo and Damascus in the same week, while an even more rapid carrier-pigeon post was maintained between the two cities'. §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 17) Roland Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. Medieval Africa, 1250-1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
The Mamluk rulers continued the tradition of dedicating much effort and resources to what might be termed public works projects, for which they largely used corvée labour. §REF§ (Dols 1977, 152) M. W. Dols. 1977. The Black Death In The Middle East. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 39-67) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In addition to a permanent medical staff, lecture halls and laboratories, a hospital established by Sultan Qalaun (1279‒1290 CE) included a library stocked with books on medicine, theology and law. §REF§ (Dols 1977, 177) M. W. Dols. 1977. The Black Death In The Middle East. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. §REF§ The Mamluks followed Ayyubid precedents when they embarked on an 'intense period of construction' in the first century of their rule, with building projects initiated by governors, generals, generals, rich merchants and judges. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 248) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ André Raymond has identified 54 mosques and madrasas built in the 1293‒1340 CE period alone. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 120) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The Mamluks also built many 'tombs for venerated Muslim ancestors and for deceased rulers'. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 249) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
Private wealth was extensive at this time and the Karimi merchant and banking families operated fleets and agencies from China to Africa. §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 19) Roland Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. Medieval Africa, 1250-1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Cairo's population was probably under 200,000 in the mid-14th century (only Constantinople could claim a great population in Western Eurasia), §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 136-37) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ and the sultanate as a whole reached about 6-7 million people. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones, 1978, 138-47, 227) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. London: Allen Lane. §REF§ This would have fluctuated, however, as severe bouts of famine struck Egypt in 1284, 1295, 1296 and 1335 CE. §REF§ (Nicolle 2014, 11-12) David Nicolle. 2014. Mamluk 'Askari 1250-1517. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",5.0,Upper Egypt,Northeastern Africa,32.714706000000,25.725715000000,Luxor,EG,Egypt,Africa,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
236,EgMamCP,1348,1412,Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate II,eg_mamluk_sultanate_2,LEGACY,"Between 1348 and 1412 CE, a 'great crisis' struck Mamluk Egypt and Syria under the Bahri Dynasty sultan, precipitating the rise of the Burji (Circassian) Dynasty from 1382 CE. Instead of the traditional chronological division of the Mamluk Sultanate into two dynasties, we have therefore included a crisis period encapsulating the end of the Bahri and beginning of the Burji periods. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 116-17) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Indeed, the crisis period persisted until the assassination of Sultan Faraj in Damascus in 1412 CE. In addition to the plague of 1348 CE, which for many Egyptians brought a period of spectacular prosperity to an end, other natural disasters in this period included an abnormally high Nile flood in 1354, famine in 1375, the return of the plague between 1379 and 1381, a low Nile flood and grain shortage in 1394 and again in 1403 CE, followed by yet another famine between 1403 and 1404 CE. In the midst of these environmental crises, and perhaps sparked by them, the region also experienced civil war in 1389 CE, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 116-17, 138-46) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ effectively ending the period of Turkish rule in Egypt.
Population and political organization
Since the children of mamluks could by law never become mamluks, §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 16) Roland Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. Medieval Africa, 1250-1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ the Mamluk Sultanate was in every generation ruled by a foreign 'slave-elite' that had to be constantly replaced by new 'slave' recruits imported, educated, promoted, and manumitted specifically for the role. Manumission was essential because under Islamic law no slave could be sovereign. The sultan performed a ritual manumission at his inaugural ceremony but the legal manumission would usually have occurred when he was about 18 years old, following the mamluk training. §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 39-67) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In the Bahri period the Mamluks were of Turkish origin (like those recruited by the last Ayyubid sultan), but later sultans recruited mostly Circassians from the Caucasus. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 112) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Mamluk recruits were employed in the central government, the military and as governors in the provinces. While promotion to the highest echelons of the government and military was 'granted according to precise rules', succession to the highest position - the Sultanate itself - was often a chaotic contest in which 'seniority, merit, cabal, intrigue, or violence' all jostled for prominence. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 113-14) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Nevertheless, the deck was stacked such that from 1290 to 1382 CE, the sultanate was inherited by 17 different descendants of Sultan Qalawun. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 114) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§
The Mamluk sultan ruled from Cairo and during his absence from the capital, Egypt was governed by his viceroy, the na'ib al-saltana. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 152) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The bureaucracy did not tightly control the countryside. Rather, influence was projected informally through 'iqta holdings (allotments of land along with the right to their tax revenue) - first used in Egypt during the preceding Ayyubid Dynasty period. These were assigned as a way to remunerate the slave soldiers of the centrally organized professional military, §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 250) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ as well as more formally through the na'ib, governor of a mamlaka administrative district. §REF§ (Drory 2004, 169) Joseph Drory. 2004. 'Some Remarks Concerning Safed and the Organization of the Region in the Mamluk period', in The Mamluks in Egyptian and Syrian Politics and Society, edited by Michael Winter and Amalia Levanoni, 163-90. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The Mamluk elite controlled the appointment of 'judges, legal administrators, professors, Sufi shaykhs, prayer leaders, and other Muslim officials. They paid the salaries of religious personnel, endowed their schools, and thus brought the religious establishment into a state bureaucracy'. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 249) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In Cairo, Islamic law was kept by three traditional magistracies called qadi (pl. qudah), whose courts had a wide remit over civil law. A law-enforcement official called the chief of the sergeant of the watch oversaw wulah (sg. wali) policemen who kept watch at night and also fought fires. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 153) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§
Revenue and Public Services
The Bahri Dynasty was highly effective at drawing revenue. In the 14th century CE, the annual revenue was 9.5 million dinars, which was 'higher than at almost any other time since the Arab conquest'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 116) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ This paid for the Al-Barid postal system initiated by Baybars (1260‒1277 CE), which was extremely expensive to set up. Horses were used for first time on routes such as Cairo to Qus in Upper Egypt; and Cairo to Alexandria, Damietta and Syria. §REF§ (Silverstein 2007, 173) A. J. Silverstein. 2007. Postal Systems in the Pre-Modern Islamic World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The Syrian region of the Mamluk Sultanate was run by a chief governor, who had governors below him. §REF§ (Drory 2004, 169) Joseph Drory. 2004. 'Some Remarks Concerning Safed and the Organization of the Region in the Mamluk period', in The Mamluks in Egyptian and Syrian Politics and Society, edited by Michael Winter and Amalia Levanoni, 163-90. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Imperial communications via Palestine were reportedly so efficient that 'Baybars boasted that he could play polo in Cairo and Damascus in the same week, while an even more rapid carrier-pigeon post was maintained between the two cities'. §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 17) Roland Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. Medieval Africa, 1250-1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
The Black Death reached Alexandria in Egypt, probably from the Crimea, in the autumn of 1347 CE before slowly spreading throughout northern Egypt in 1348 and peaking in the autumn and winter of that year. §REF§ (Dols 1977, 154-55) M. W. Dols. 1977. The Black Death In The Middle East. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. §REF§ As a result of the epidemic, the Egyptian population, previously between 4.2 and 8 million, 'may have declined by about one-quarter to one-third' by the mid- to late 14th century. §REF§ (Dols 1977, 218) M. W. Dols. 1977. The Black Death In The Middle East. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. §REF§ The total population of the sultanate fell from perhaps 6-7 million to 4.8 million during this period. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 227) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. London: Allen Lane. §REF§
The troubled times did little to prevent the Mamluk ruling class from carrying out extravagant construction projects, for which they mostly used corvée labour. §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 39-67) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Between 1341 and 1412 CE, 49 mosques were built in the southern zone of Cairo. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 145) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ One of them was the 'gigantic' Sultan Hasan Mosque (built 1356‒1361 CE), which cost an astonishing 20 million dirhams and has been called 'one of the most remarkable monuments of the Islamic world'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 141) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Sultan Sha'ban Mosque, built in 1375 but destroyed in 1411, may have been comparable. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 144) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The Mamluk-period mosques added to a city already studded with public baths, §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 65) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ caravanserais, §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 65) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ libraries, §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 248) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ madrasas §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 39-67) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and hospitals. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 52) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",5.0,Upper Egypt,Northeastern Africa,32.714706000000,25.725715000000,Luxor,EG,Egypt,Africa,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
239,EgMamBu,1412,1517,Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III,eg_mamluk_sultanate_3,LEGACY,"During the Burji period of the Mamluk Sultanate, Egypt was ruled by an elite 'slave' military caste of Circassian origin. These rulers had replaced the earlier Bahri Dynasty, of Turkish origin, in 1382 CE during the preceding 'crisis phase'. With the assassination of Sultan Faraj in 1412 CE, Mamluk Egypt entered a 'relative recovery' with 'periods of brilliance', although problems such as demographic stagnation did not disappear. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 116-17) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The most renowned of the rulers were the Sultans Barsbay and Qaytbay, but they did little to prevent the deterioration of the Mamluk institutions and the economic collapse and disorder that preceded the Ottoman takeover. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 165) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ We begin our Burji Mamluk period in 1412 and end it with the fall of the dynasty to Ottoman forces in 1517. §REF§ (Winter 1992, xiii) Michael Winter. 1992. Egyptian Society under Ottoman Rule, 1517‒1798. London: Routledge. §REF§
Population and political organization
Since the children of mamluks could by law never become mamluks, §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 16) Roland Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. Medieval Africa, 1250-1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ the Mamluk Sultanate was in every generation ruled by a foreign 'slave-elite' that had to be constantly replaced by new 'slave' recruits imported, educated, promoted, and manumitted specifically for the role. Manumission was essential because under Islamic law no slave could be sovereign. The sultan performed a ritual manumission at his inaugural ceremony but the legal manumission would usually have occurred when he was about 18 years old, following the mamluk training. §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 39-67) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In the Bahri period the Mamluks were of Turkish origin (like those recruited by the last Ayyubid sultan), but later sultans recruited mostly Circassians from the Caucasus. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 112) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Mamluk recruits were employed in the central government, the military and as governors in the provinces. While promotion to the highest echelons of the government and military was 'granted according to precise rules', succession to the highest position - the Sultanate itself - was often a chaotic contest in which 'seniority, merit, cabal, intrigue, or violence' all jostled for prominence. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 113-14) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Nevertheless, the deck was stacked such that from 1290 to 1382 CE, the sultanate was inherited by 17 different descendants of Sultan Qalawun. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 114) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§
The Mamluk sultan ruled from Cairo and during his absence from the capital, Egypt was governed by his viceroy, the na'ib al-saltana. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 152) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The bureaucracy did not tightly control the countryside. Rather, influence was projected informally through 'iqta holdings (allotments of land along with the right to their tax revenue) - first used in Egypt during the preceding Ayyubid Dynasty period. These were assigned as a way to remunerate the slave soldiers of the centrally organized professional military, §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 250) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ as well as more formally through the na'ib, governor of a mamlaka administrative district. §REF§ (Drory 2004, 169) Joseph Drory. 2004. 'Some Remarks Concerning Safed and the Organization of the Region in the Mamluk period', in The Mamluks in Egyptian and Syrian Politics and Society, edited by Michael Winter and Amalia Levanoni, 163-90. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The Mamluk elite controlled the appointment of 'judges, legal administrators, professors, Sufi shaykhs, prayer leaders, and other Muslim officials. They paid the salaries of religious personnel, endowed their schools, and thus brought the religious establishment into a state bureaucracy'. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 249) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In Cairo, Islamic law was kept by three traditional magistracies called qadi (pl. qudah), whose courts had a wide remit over civil law. A law-enforcement official called the chief of the sergeant of the watch oversaw wulah (sg. wali) policemen who kept watch at night and also fought fires. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 153) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§
Although struck by plague and famines during the crisis period, Cairo was never short of people: a lower-bound estimate of its resident population places it at about 150,000 people. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 152) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The population of the sultanate perhaps recovered slightly in this period, reaching about 6 million in 1500 CE. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones, 1978, 138-47, 227) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. London: Allen Lane. §REF§
Infrastructure and Public Services
Like previous Mamluk rulers, the Burji Sultans expended considerable resources on public works projects - both directly and indirectly via patronage. They built and restored schools, hostels, bathhouses and mosques, and, under Sultan Qayt Bey (reigned 1468‒1496) in particular, arts and architecture flourished. §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 21) Roland Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. Medieval Africa, 1250-1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The El Muayyad Mosque (1420 CE), the Mosque of Barsbay (1425 CE), §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 173-74) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ and the mausoleum complex of Sultan Qaitbay (1468‒1496 CE) all date from this period. Cairo also had a water supply system, paid for by its users, that conducted water from the Nile to the city's streets and houses. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 154) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Waqf (religious foundations) were set up through initial endowments in property with the intention that they would become self-funding. Many public baths, caravanserais and shops were built by charitable and religious foundations, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 174) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ often in combination with initial patronage from the sultan or other Mamluk aristocrats. Sultan Qaytbay built many urbu (multi-storey apartments) and used the revenues to fund a charitable foundation for the inhabitants of Medina. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 174) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ However, despite the continued financing of elaborate construction projects, increasingly the government could not afford the upkeep of essential infrastructure such as canals, dams and irrigation systems. §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 39-67) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
These public works were matched by lavish private buildings for the sultan and his retainers. Sultan Ghuri notably built an ornate palace and garden, with soil and trees imported from Syria and an aqueduct to water it. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 180) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Mamluks treated themselves and foreign dignitaries to entertainment in hippodromes and to polo tournaments on the maydan (public square). §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 112) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ In the royal pavilion (maqad), 'incense burned and wine flowed, while musicians played and poets recited to a court society clad in silk and sprinkled with rosewater, the beards of its male luminaries perfumed with the musk of civet'. §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 21, 24) Roland Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. Medieval Africa, 1250-1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",5.0,Upper Egypt,Northeastern Africa,32.714706000000,25.725715000000,Luxor,EG,Egypt,Africa,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
519,EgMidKg,-2016,-1700,Egypt - Middle Kingdom,eg_middle_k,LEGACY,"After a phase of decentralized state power during the Period of the Regions (or First Intermediate Period), Egypt became unified once again during the Middle Kingdom (Eleventh, Twelfth and Thirteenth Dynasties, 2016‒1700 BCE), experiencing a 'golden age'. §REF§ (Callender 2000, 171) Gae Callender. 2000. 'The Middle Kingdom Renaissance (c. 2055-1650 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 137-71. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Achievements in art, architecture, writing and religion ‒ coupled with a growing 'middle class' and the increased importance of scribes ‒ reached their peak during this period, particularly under Amenemhat III (r. 1831‒1786 BCE). §REF§ (Callender 2000, 156) Gae Callender. 2000. 'The Middle Kingdom Renaissance (c. 2055-1650 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 137-71. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
The Middle Kingdom king ruled via royal decree, §REF§ (Ezzamel 2004, 502) Mahmoud Ezzamel. 2004. 'Work Organization in the Middle Kingdom, Ancient Egypt'. Organization 11 (4): 497-537. §REF§ but he and his officials were responsive to petitions from the people. We lack detailed information about the royal palace, although Stephen Quirke suggests that the terms k3p and hnty might refer to an inner and outer palace respectively. §REF§ (Pagliari 2012, 267-269) Giulia Pagliari. 2012. 'Function and Significance of Ancient Egyptian Royal Palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite Period: A Lexicographical Study and Its Possible Connection with the Archaeological Evidence'. PhD thesis, University of Birmingham. §REF§ The first Middle Kingdom capital was at Thebes in Upper Egypt, but was moved during the Twelfth Dynasty to El-Lisht at the neck of the Delta in Lower Egypt. From this new location, the monarchy exerted more centralized control over the country and expanded the bureaucratic system. §REF§ (Callender 2000, 146-47) Gae Callender. 2000. 'The Middle Kingdom Renaissance (c. 2055-1650 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 137-71. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Administrative reforms under Senusret III (r. 1878-1839 BCE) resulted in the reorganization of the provinces around 1860 BCE: 'the old system of hereditary nomarchs was destroyed and replaced by a bureaucratic machinery, the operators of which owed their allegiance to the king'. §REF§ (Ezzamel 2004, 502) Mahmoud Ezzamel. 2004. 'Work Organization in the Middle Kingdom, Ancient Egypt'. Organization 11 (4): 497-537. §REF§ §REF§ (Callender 2000, 163-64) Gae Callender. 2000. 'The Middle Kingdom Renaissance (c. 2055-1650 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 137-71. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ For the first time since the Classic Old Kingdom, the central state had become powerful enough to directly command all the regions of Egypt.
During the Middle Kingdom, the nome (province) of the Old Kingdom was replaced by a 'city district' centred on an urban complex and headed by a hat-ya ('mayor'). §REF§ (Haring 2010, 225) Ben Haring. 2010. 'Administration and Law: Pharaonic', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 218-36. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ The mayors received orders from the central government, specifically the vizier, and were responsible for tax collection and supervising the royal domains. §REF§ (Haring 2010, 225) Ben Haring. 2010. 'Administration and Law: Pharaonic', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 218-36. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Thebes was the administrative centre for southern Upper Egypt and Lower Nubia. §REF§ (Quirke 2001, 16) Stephen G. J. Quirke. 2001. 'Administration: State Administration', in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, edited by D. B. Redford, 12-16. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The army was professional in the Middle Kingdom. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 105) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. A History of Ancient Egypt. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ The king remained a divine ruler, legitimated as the guarantor and preserver of maat, the principle of harmony and cosmic order. §REF§ (Pu 2005, 86) Muzhou Pu. 2005. Enemies of Civilization: Attitudes towards Foreigners in Ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Szpakowska 2010, 521) Kasia Szpakowska. 2010. 'Religion in Society: Pharaonic', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 507-25. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§
Amenemhat III laid the foundations for a much larger Egyptian population (in his time, the country still had under two million inhabitants). §REF§ (Willems 2013, 343) Harco Willems. 2013. 'Nomarchs and Local Potentates: The Provincial Administration in the Middle Kingdom', in Ancient Egyptian Adminstration, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 341-92. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Using giant waterwheels and a canal from the Faiyum to the Nile, the Egyptians managed to improve irrigation in this fertile region and control flooding: a measure of sophisticated technology, strong central control, and a good deal of foresight. Another indication of the sophistication of Middle Kingdom technology is that the scribe responsible for the famed Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, dating to the Second Intermediate Period, noted that the work was copied from a Middle Kingdom original. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 134) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. A History of Ancient Egypt. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Literacy and a culture of storytelling were widespread: the Tale of the Eloquent Peasant, Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor, Story of Sinuhe, Account of the Sporting King, and many others represent the birth of written fiction in Egypt. §REF§ (Van Blerk 2006) N. J. Van Blerk. 2006. 'The Concept of Law and Justice in Ancient Egypt, with Specific Reference to The Tale of The Eloquent Peasant'. Master's dissertation, University of South Africa. Available online at http://uir.unisa.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10500/2447/dissertation.pdf. §REF§ The Tale of King Cheops' Court reveals a lively interest at this time in the history of Classic Old Kingdom Egypt. §REF§ (Enmarch 2010) Roland Enmarch. 2010. 'Middle Kingdom Literature', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 2, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 663-85. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",5.0,Upper Egypt,Northeastern Africa,32.714706000000,25.725715000000,Luxor,EG,Egypt,Africa,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
199,EgNKRam,-1293,-1070,Egypt - New Kingdom Ramesside Period,eg_new_k_2,LEGACY,"The Ramesside era of the New Kingdom (1293-1070 BCE) is known as the last of the great native Egyptian states, when Egypt lost its foreign territories and the system of centralized government broke down once again. In contrast to the Thutmosid Period, which was dominated by an administration located in Upper Egypt, the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties (known as the Rammeside period) were based in the Nile Delta region of Lower Egypt - first at Memphis, then at a new grand capital at Per-Ramesses.
Population and political organization
The New Kingdom had a centralized administration that split the country under two viziers, who oversaw the Northern Tchety and Southern Tchety. Within these large units were nomarchs of nomes, village chiefs and local constables. §REF§ (Brier and Hobbs 2008, 72) Bob Brier and A. Hoyt Hobbs. 2008. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians. 2nd ed. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group. §REF§ The important local officials were directly responsible to the bureau of the vizier, and they had to travel back and forth between the vizier's seat and their local posts in the course of their duties. §REF§ (van den Boorn 1988, 115-16) G. P. F. van den Boorn. 1988. The Duties of the Vizier: Civil Administration in the Early New Kingdom. London: Kegan Paul International. §REF§ The draw of the centre both indicates the degree of power of the centralized administration and shows that the regions had the necessary administrative complexity to run themselves without the presence of their local ruler. §REF§ (van den Boorn 1988, 115-16) G. P. F. van den Boorn. 1988. The Duties of the Vizier: Civil Administration in the Early New Kingdom. London: Kegan Paul International. §REF§
Governmental administration during the later New Kingdom Dynasties was 'characterized by the growing strength of hereditary office', and the position of provincial nobles grew more secure. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 192, 229) David O'Connor. 1983. 'New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period, 1552-664 BC', in Ancient Egypt: A Social History, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ During this period, the god Amun, the central deity of the priests at Thebes, became merged with the sun-god Ra and as Amun-Ra was worshipped throughout Egypt, including at Memphis. Rites connected with this 'king of gods' served to legitimize the rule of the Egyptian king on earth, who was believed to be the 'bodily son of Amun'. §REF§ (Van Dijk 2000, 298-99) Jacobus Van Dijk. 2003. 'The Amarna Period and the Later New Kingdom', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 265-307. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Doxey 2001, 69-70) D. M. Doxey. 2001. 'Priesthood', in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, Volume 3, edited by D. B. Redford, 69-70. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Government grants were bestowed on temples in return for 'formal blessings' for state activities. §REF§ (Abu Bakr 1981, 102) A. Abu Bakr. 1981. 'Pharaonic Egypt', in General History of Africa, Vol II: Ancient Civilizations of Africa, edited by G. Mokhtar, 84-111. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ However, the pharaoh's power to appoint the high priest was 'nominal', especially from the time of Ramesses III onwards, §REF§ (Van Dijk 2000, 298-300) Jacobus Van Dijk. 2003. 'The Amarna Period and the Later New Kingdom', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 265-307. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ and the priests of Karnak in Upper Egypt became powerful hereditary rulers who acted independently of the administration at Per-Ramesses in the delta. §REF§ (Hassan 1993, 568) Fekri Hassan. 1993. 'Town and Village in Ancient Egypt: Ecology, Society and Urbanization', in The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns, edited by Thurstan Shaw, Paul Sinclair, Bassey Andah and Alex Okpoko, 551-69. London: Routledge. §REF§
The city of Per-Ramesses, established around 1270 CE, had an immense population of about 250,000, §REF§ (Moreno García 2014, 11) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2014. 'Invaders or Just Herders? Libyans in Egypt in the Third and Second Millennia BCE'. World Archaeology 46: 610-23. §REF§ while the kingdom supported a peak total population of more than three million. §REF§ (Eyre 2010, 303) Christopher Eyre. 2010. 'The Economy: Pharaonic', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 291-308. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",5.0,Upper Egypt,Northeastern Africa,32.714706000000,25.725715000000,Luxor,EG,Egypt,Africa,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
198,EgNKThu,-1550,-1293,Egypt - New Kingdom Thutmosid Period,eg_new_k_1,LEGACY,"During the New Kingdom, the Egyptian king acquired the title of 'pharaoh', meaning 'great house'. In the Thutmosid Period, or Eighteenth Dynasty (1550-1293 BCE), the pharaohs turned the Egyptian 'home' into a great empire stretching from Kush in northern Sudan (conquered by Thutmose I) to the south to Palestine and Syria in the northeast (taken by Thutmose III). §REF§ (Sherif 1981, 265) N. M. Sherif. 1981. 'Nubia before Napata (-3100 to -750)', in General History of Africa, Vol II: Ancient Civilizations of Africa, edited by G. Mokhtar, 245-77. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ §REF§ (Dupuy and Dupuy 2007, 5) R. Ernest Dupuy and Trevor N. Dupuy. 2007. The Collins Encyclopedia of Military History: From 3500 B.C. to the Present. 4th ed. London: BCA. §REF§ For the first time, the capital of a great Egyptian state was in Upper Egypt, at Thebes (although in 1373 BCE Akhenaten briefly had the capital moved to El Amarna in Middle Egypt).
Population and political organization
The pharaoh, a living god-king, was also the chief priest, highest judge and top military commander; he usually fought in battle, as Thutmose III apparently did at the famous Bronze Age battle of Megiddo in the 15th century BCE. §REF§ (Morenz and Popko 2010, 111) Ludwig D. Morenz and Lutz Popko. 2010. 'The Second Intermediate Period and the New Kingdom', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 101-19. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ The professional army was augmented by troops from conquered places such as Nubia and Libya. §REF§ (Spalinger 2005, 6-7) Anthony J. Spalinger. 2005. War in Ancient Egypt: The New Kingdom. Malden, MA: Blackwell. §REF§
During the New Kingdom, labyrinthine networks of imperial power and wage-earning agents we know as scribes §REF§ (Van Dijk 2000, 298-99) Jacobus Van Dijk. 2003. 'The Amarna Period and the Later New Kingdom', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 265-307. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ were overseen by two viziers: one for the north and one for the south of Egypt. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 208) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in Ancient Egypt: A Social History, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The Egyptian vizier was the second-highest judge; §REF§ (Brewer and Teeter 1999, 73) Douglas J. Brewer and Emily Teeter. 1999. Egypt and the Egyptians. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ he supervised the activities of the state bureaucracy and served as a representative of the pharaoh's interests. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 180) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. A History of Ancient Egypt. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Most of the viziers' duties seem to have been judicial, involving dispute settlement, answering petitions, and authorizing transfers of property. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 180) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. A History of Ancient Egypt. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ For most of the two to three million people who occupied New Kingdom Egypt, however, the law was usually administered at the local level, §REF§ (Brewer and Teeter 1999, 73) Douglas J. Brewer and Emily Teeter. 1999. Egypt and the Egyptians. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ under chiefs of towns (the capitals of nomes) and mayors of villages.
The resources commanded by the New Kingdom Egyptian state enabled the pharaohs to carry out grand architectural and tomb-building projects. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 182) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. A History of Ancient Egypt. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ The most prolific builder of the Thutmosid Period was a female pharaoh called Hatshepsut. §REF§ (Bryan 2000, 229) Betsy M. Bryan. 2000. 'The 18th Dynasty before The Amarna Period (c. 1550-1352 BC)' in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 207-64. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ At Deir el-Medina, in the Valley of the Kings, opposite Thebes, a workers' village was created at the start of the Eighteenth Dynasty to house craftsmen dedicated to building royal tombs. §REF§ (Bryan 2000, 213) Betsy M. Bryan. 2000. 'The 18th Dynasty before The Amarna Period (c. 1550-1352 BC)' in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 207-64. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The community was managed by a palace scribe appointed by the vizier. The scribe oversaw supervisors, who managed two teams of five workers on ten-day shifts. §REF§ (Ziskind and Halioua 2007) Bernard Ziskind and Bruno Halioua. 2007. 'Occupational Medicine in Ancient Egypt'. Medical Hypotheses 69 (4): 942-45. §REF§ In the village, oracle statues attended by priests served as the 'highest local voice of authority'. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 235) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. A History of Ancient Egypt. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§
Although not a typical town, documents written by skilled workers at Deir el-Medina reveal that writing was not confined to the elite, but had become important in wider society. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 156) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. A History of Ancient Egypt. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Major temples across Egypt included libraries and archives, most likely managed by scribes educated in local schools. §REF§ (Lazaridis 2016) Nikolaos Lazaridis. 2016. 'Education and Apprenticeship', in UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology. Accessible online at https://uee.cdh.ucla.edu/articles/education_and_apprenticeship/?x=87&y=5. §REF§ Documents attesting to the sophistication of this Late Bronze Age state include government archives, wills, title deeds, census lists, conscription lists, orders, memos, tax lists, letters, journals, inventories, regulations, and transcripts of trials. §REF§ (Brewer and Teeter 1999, 73) Douglas J. Brewer and Emily Teeter. 1999. Egypt and the Egyptians. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",5.0,Upper Egypt,Northeastern Africa,32.714706000000,25.725715000000,Luxor,EG,Egypt,Africa,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
518,EgRegns,-2150,-2016,Egypt - Period of the Regions,eg_regions,LEGACY,"The Period of the Regions, or the First Intermediate Period of Egypt, refers to the interval between the Old and the Middle Kingdoms. There was no single capital at this time. Instead, there were several powerful hereditary rulers scattered throughout the region, including the Herakleopolitan kings in the north and the Theban Eleventh Dynasty in the south. §REF§ (Lloyd 2010, xl) Alan B. Lloyd. 2010. 'Chronology', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, xxxii-xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ §REF§ (Seidlmayer 2000, 127) Stephan Seidlmayer. 2000. 'The First Intermediate Period (c. 2160-2055 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 108-36. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
During the Period of the Regions, different local rulers vied for control of the former provinces (the nomes of the Late Old Kingdom). In Upper Egypt, around Thebes, the Eleventh Dynasty was able to establish a centralized system of regional administration. Interestingly, this dynasty lacked the powerful provincial nomarchs that characterized the Late Old Kingdom, which perhaps presages the unitary state of the Middle Kingdom. §REF§ (Seidlmayer 2000, 127) Stephan Seidlmayer. 2000. 'The First Intermediate Period (c. 2160-2055 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 108-36. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Willems 2010, 84) Harco Willems. 2010. 'The First Intermediate Period and the Middle Kingdom', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 81-100. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ §REF§ (Seidlmayer 2000, 126) Stephan Seidlmayer. 2000. 'The First Intermediate Period (c. 2160-2055 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 108-36. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
At this early date, however, the Theban Kingdom was relatively unimportant and removed from developments elsewhere in Egypt. §REF§ (Seidlmayer 2000, 127) Stephan Seidlmayer. 2000. 'The First Intermediate Period (c. 2160-2055 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 108-36. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Further south along the Nile river, a local governor at Mo'alla, Ankhtifi, waged war on his own behalf without deferring to royal power and claimed authority over multiple southern nomes. §REF§ (Seidlmayer 2003, 118-21) §REF§ The political fragmentation of the period is further illustrated by the 'glaring gap' in monument-building across Egypt. §REF§ (Seidlmayer 2000, 110) Stephan Seidlmayer. 2000. 'The First Intermediate Period (c. 2160-2055 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 108-36. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Nevertheless, provincial rulers did command sufficient resources to build monumental mastaba tombs and the Theban Kingdom is notable for its rock-cut saff tombs. §REF§ (Seidlmayer 2000, 116, 124) Stephan Seidlmayer. 2000. 'The First Intermediate Period (c. 2160-2055 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 108-36. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
Although the Intermediate Periods of Egypt are popularly thought of as being synonymous with disruption and a downturn in fortunes for the Egyptian people, several Egyptologists now argue that this assumption is misleading, at least for the First period: they instead contend that economic productivity was generally high during the late Old Kingdom and remained so through the Period of the Regions. §REF§ (Seidlmayer 2000, 113) Stephan Seidlmayer. 2000. 'The First Intermediate Period (c. 2160-2055 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 108-36. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The main difference was that the king and his court lost power and access to much of this wealth, as the power of local rulers grew vis-à-vis the central state. In fact, despite its portrayal in Middle Kingdom literature as a time of depression, the First Intermediate Period was characterized by dynamism and creativity. §REF§ (Seidlmayer 2000, 136) Stephan Seidlmayer. 2000. 'The First Intermediate Period (c. 2160-2055 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 108-36. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Popular culture flourished and evidence from burials shows that local populations enjoyed 'conspicuous, if modest, wealth'. §REF§ (Seidlmayer 2000, 136) Stephan Seidlmayer. 2000. 'The First Intermediate Period (c. 2160-2055 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 108-36. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Morris 2010, 66-69) Ellen Morris. 2010. '""Lo, Nobles Lament, the Poor Rejoice"": State Formation in the Wake of Social Flux', in After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies, edited by G. M. Schwartz and J. J. Nichols, 58-71. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",5.0,Upper Egypt,Northeastern Africa,32.714706000000,25.725715000000,Luxor,EG,Egypt,Africa,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
203,EgSaite,-664,-525,Egypt - Saite Period,eg_saite,LEGACY,"If scholars are in disagreement over whether Egypt of the Kushite Empire experienced a period of centralized rule, this undoubtedly did occur during the Twenty-sixth Dynasty (664-525 BCE), §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 364) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Late Period (664-332 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 364-87. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ which has been called the 'Saite Renaissance'. The Saite kings, from their palace at Memphis, §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 965-69) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in Ancient Egyptian Administration, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ gradually managed to construct a considerably more centralized state than that of the preceding period. §REF§ Joseph G. Manning 2015, personal communication. §REF§ The high point of Saite power was the reign of Amasis II, whose administration commanded sufficient revenues to enable him to build a fleet to conquer Cyprus. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 986) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in Ancient Egyptian Administration, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ An important phenomenon of this period was the development of the Demotic script (from the Greek word demos, 'the people'), which originated in the delta but spread throughout Lower and Upper Egypt under Psamtik I and his successors. §REF§ (Donker van Heel 2012, 25-26) Konrad Donker van Heel. 2012. Djekhy & Son: Doing Business in Ancient Egypt. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press. §REF§ Based on Hieratic, a cursive script using simplified Egyptian hieroglyphics, Demotic was useful in everyday contexts such as accounting, letter-writing and non-religious literature, which grew in importance during the period.
Population and political organization
Upper Egypt, which before the Kushites had long been ruled by a militarized priesthood, was always a difficult nut for the central administration in the Nile Delta to crack. At first, the main influence the Saites had over the Twenty-fifth Dynasty aristocracy at Thebes was through the priestly position of the God's Wife of Amun. This was held by a Saite priestess at the Amun temple, and an observer (rsw) based in Thebes who was often called 'governor'. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 978) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in Ancient Egyptian Administration, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ §REF§ Joseph G. Manning 2015, personal communication. §REF§ Established in the Kushite Period, the God's Wife of Amun role was of 'very great and publicly acknowledged' political importance. §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 275) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. A History of Ancient Egypt. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§
To increase their hold over Egypt, Saite strategy, under the first ruler Psamtik I, sought the removal of the nome system of administration; instead a military official was directly appointed to oversee the whole Southern Land (covering the region from Aswan to Memphis). §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 981) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in Ancient Egyptian Administration, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Named leader of the fleet and based in Herakleopolis, this official also acted as the 'revenue accountant for Middle and Upper Egypt'. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 981-83) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in Ancient Egyptian Administration, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The Saite king ruled from Memphis, where there was a High Council of aristocrats who reported directly to him. §REF§ Joseph G. Manning 2015, personal communication. §REF§ The vizier acted as the supreme judge of the realm. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 974) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in Ancient Egyptian Administration, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ In the Late Period, almost all officials were also priests §REF§ (Baines 1991, 198) John Baines. 1991. 'Society, Morality, and Religious Practice', in Religion in Ancient Egypt: Gods, Myths, and Personal Practice, edited by Byron Esely Shafer, John Baines, Leonard H. Lesko, David P. Silverman, 123-200. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ and oracles featured in the elections of officials and even of kings. §REF§ (Gee 2002, 83) John Gee. 2002. 'Oracle by Image: Coffin Text 103 in Context', in Magic and Divination in the Ancient World, edited by Leda Jean Ciraolo and Jonathan Lee Seidel, 83-88. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The military was usually led by the supreme chief of the expedition, §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 29) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ but under Amasis II the chief physician also occupied important military roles such as 'leader of the Aegean foreign (troops)' and 'admiral of the royal fleet'. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 972) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in Ancient Egyptian Administration, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§
Theban Egypt was not brought under the effective control of the Memphite kings until Psamtik II's campaign against the Kingdom of Napata between 592 and 591, which ended what had essentially been a 'period of compromise' in Upper Egypt. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 979-81) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in Ancient Egyptian Administration, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Before that time, Saite authority was so weak that they were forced to acknowledge the legitimacy of the Kushite pharaohs of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. After Psamtik II's military successes of the 590s, however, their policies changed and they began to portray the Nubian kings as usurpers. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 979) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in Ancient Egyptian Administration, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ With the Saite Dynasty now in a more powerful position, there was a return to the nome system of provincial organization, with governors once again stationed in the regions. §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 979) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in Ancient Egyptian Administration, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The title of leader of the fleet seems to disappear around this time, §REF§ (Agut-Labordère 2013, 981-83) Damien Agut-Labordère. 2013. 'The Saite Period: The Emergence of A Mediterranean Power', in Ancient Egyptian Administration, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 965-1028. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ and by 592 BCE Herakleopolis had a 'governor'.
Unfortunately, again, reliable population estimates at this time are difficult to find, but every indication suggests that the total population remained fairly steady at roughly three million people. §REF§ (Eyre 2010, 303) Christopher Eyre. 2010. 'The Economy: Pharaonic', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 291-308. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",5.0,Upper Egypt,Northeastern Africa,32.714706000000,25.725715000000,Luxor,EG,Egypt,Africa,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
520,EgThebH,-1720,-1567,Egypt - Thebes-Hyksos Period,eg_thebes_hyksos,LEGACY,"During the Second Intermediate Period (c. 1720‒1567 BCE), or alternatively 'the Hyksos period and the Era of the Second Theban Petty State', §REF§ (Morenz and Popko 2010, 102) Ludwig D. Morenz and Lutz Popko. 2010. 'The Second Intermediate Period and the New Kingdom', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 101-19. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Egypt as a whole once again experienced a phase of political decentralization, split into regions controlled by competing dynasties. The Hyksos (Fifteenth Dynasty) occupied the north. The Hyksos were a non-native Egyptian ruling clan who invaded Egypt from the Levant, establishing a military and bureaucratic stronghold at Avaris in the Nile Delta. §REF§ (Bourriau 2003, 173) Janine Bourriau. 2003. 'The Second Intermediate Period (c. 1650-1550 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 172-206. Oxford. Oxford University Press. §REF§ The area subject to Hyksos authority spread west and east across the delta and, at the polity's peak in the mid-16th century BCE, probably reached as far south as Middle Egypt. §REF§ (Bourriau 2003, 182) Janine Bourriau. 2003. 'The Second Intermediate Period (c. 1650-1550 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 172-206. Oxford. Oxford University Press. §REF§ The Nile Valley south of Hermopolis was dominated by a rival power, the Theban kings of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Dynasties. §REF§ (Lloyd 2010, xxxv) Alan B. Lloyd. 2010. 'Chronology', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, xxxii-xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ §REF§ (Bourriau 2003, 172-73) Janine Bourriau. 2003. 'The Second Intermediate Period (c. 1650-1550 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 172-206. Oxford. Oxford University Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
Political fragmentation characterizes Egypt after the Middle Kingdom and the Hyksos invasion. In Upper Egypt, the Theban kingdom ruled by Egyptians (the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Dynasties) claimed a continuity with the Middle Kingdom, lasting about 100 years up to the end of the period. §REF§ (Wegner 2015, 68) Josef Wegner. 2015. 'A Royal Necropolis at South Abydos: New Light on Egypt's Second Intermediate Period'. Near Eastern Archaeology 78 (2): 68-78. §REF§ §REF§ (Morenz and Popko 2010, 106-08) Ludwig D. Morenz and Lutz Popko. 2010. 'The Second Intermediate Period and the New Kingdom', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 101-19. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Egyptian archaeologist Josef Wegner has proposed based on finds near Abydos that a short-lived independent kingdom, an 'Abydos Dynasty', existed alongside the Theban Sixteenth Dynasty but 'lost their independence as part of political events that led up to the Theban ascendancy' of the Seventeenth Dynasty. §REF§ (Wegner 2015, 73) Josef Wegner. 2015. 'A Royal Necropolis at South Abydos: New Light on Egypt's Second Intermediate Period'. Near Eastern Archaeology 78 (2): 68-78. §REF§
Unfortunately, due to the disjointed nature of Egyptian politics at the time and the inconsistent material, §REF§ (Bourriau 2003, 172-73) Janine Bourriau. 2003. 'The Second Intermediate Period (c. 1650-1550 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 172-206. Oxford. Oxford University Press. §REF§ very little can be said about the population of the region during this period. The provincial organization of Theban Egypt at this time saw the king employ garrison commanders side-by-side with governors, or sometimes combined into one office. This may suggest 'a general militarization of the provinces'. §REF§ (Shirley 2013, 557) J. J. Shirley. 2013. 'Crisis and Restructuring of the State: From the Second Intermediate Period to the Advent of the Ramesses', in Ancient Egyptian Adminstration, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 521-606. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The governors of the provinces were often married directly into the family of the Upper Egyptian king. §REF§ (Shirley 2013, 557) J. J. Shirley. 2013. 'Crisis and Restructuring of the State: From the Second Intermediate Period to the Advent of the Ramesses', in Ancient Egyptian Adminstration, edited by Juan Carlos Moreno García, 521-606. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ At this time Upper Egypt was relatively poor and weak in relation to Lower Egypt. Among the achievements of the Hyksos administration at Avaris was the copying of the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, which required a scribe trained to the highest degree of skill and with access to a specialized mathematical archive, most likely at the Temple of Ptah at Memphis. §REF§ (Bourriau 2003, 181) Janine Bourriau. 2003. 'The Second Intermediate Period (c. 1650-1550 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 172-206. Oxford. Oxford University Press. §REF§ By contrast, although they carried out renovations of ancient Egyptian temples and portrayed themselves as restorers of order and harmony in the old pharaonic style, the Theban rulers and elite were cut off from the scholarly legacy of the Middle Kingdom because they lacked access to the centres of scribal learning at Memphis. §REF§ (Bourriau 2003, 188, 193) Janine Bourriau. 2003. 'The Second Intermediate Period (c. 1650-1550 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 172-206. Oxford. Oxford University Press. §REF§ In order to maintain the crucial funerary rituals, they were obliged to create new compilations of texts (including one of the earliest known examples of the spell book we know as the Book of the Dead. §REF§ (Bourriau 2003, 193) Janine Bourriau. 2003. 'The Second Intermediate Period (c. 1650-1550 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 172-206. Oxford. Oxford University Press. §REF§ ",,,,2022-11-18T11:31:24.624816Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",5.0,Upper Egypt,Northeastern Africa,32.714706000000,25.725715000000,Luxor,EG,Egypt,Africa,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
200,EgThebL,-1069,-747,Egypt - Thebes-Libyan Period,eg_thebes_libyan,LEGACY,"The Theban-Libyan Period in Egypt (Twenty-first, Twenty-second and Twenty-third Dynasties, 1069-747 BCE) §REF§ (Baines 2017) John Baines. January 2017. Seshat workshop. Oxford. §REF§ represents another time of decentralization in Egypt and, together with the subsequent Kushite period, makes up the Third Intermediate Period. §REF§ (Pagliari 2012, 183) Giulia Pagliari. 2012. 'Function and Significance of Ancient Egyptian Royal Palaces from the Middle Kingdom to the Saite Period: A Lexicographical Study and Its Possible Connection with the Archaeological Evidence'. PhD thesis, University of Birmingham. §REF§
Population and political organization
The governments at Memphis and Thebes followed the traditional 'intermediate period' pattern of rulers (pharaoh at Memphis, high priest at Thebes) who ran a bureaucratic system managed by a vizier and overseers of departments. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 337) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ However, the vizier and overseers of the treasury and granaries were unable to project their influence over the regions §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 337) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ and Egypt in this period is best characterised as 'a federation of semi-autonomous rulers, nominally subject (and often related) to an overlord-king'. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 338) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
The Egyptian pharaohs of the Twenty-first Dynasty (1077-943 BCE), based at Memphis near the Nile Delta, §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 327) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ served only as nominal heads of state for the whole of Egypt; §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 270) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. A History of Ancient Egypt. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ a formal agreement ceded control of Middle and Upper Egypt to priest-rulers at Thebes. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 232) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in Ancient Egypt: A Social History, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Van De Mieroop 2011, 270) Marc Van De Mieroop. 2011. A History of Ancient Egypt. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ The priests, who doubled as military commanders, derived their right to rule from the oracles of the 'Theban triad' of gods, Amun, Mut and Khons. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 327-28) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
The Twenty-first Dynasty pharaohs, perhaps in an effort to provide greater legitimacy for their rule over Upper Egypt, turned Tanis in the delta into a 'holy city', building royal tombs within temples built for the Theban triad. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 327) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The most powerful pharaoh of this period, however, was the first Libyan ruler and founder of the Twenty-second Dynasty, Shoshenq I (r. 945-924 BCE). He embarked on an 'ambitious royal building programme' and attempted to regain control of the entirety of Egypt, curtail Thebes' independence, and expand into the Levant. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 329) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The high point did not last long. The perennial problem of Upper Egyptian independence eventually led to the formal division of the state, an imaginative if drastic solution that created a parallel Twenty-third Dynasty based in Leontopolis, or perhaps Herakleopolis. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 233) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in Ancient Egypt: A Social History, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The new dynasty was enjoined to reassert control of the south, allowing the Twenty-second Dynasty rulers to concentrate on Lower Egypt. §REF§ (O'Connor 1983, 233) David O'Connor. 1983. 'Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period c. 2686-1552 BC', in Ancient Egypt: A Social History, edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B. Lloyd, 183-278. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ This did not work: by the time of Shoshenq III (r. 827-773 CE), the Twenty-second Dynasty pharaohs could barely even control the north: 'numerous local rulers - particularly in the Delta - became virtually autonomous and several declared themselves kings'. §REF§ (Taylor 2000, 330) John Taylor. 2000. 'The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 324-63. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
Unfortunately, due to scant evidence, there are no reliable population estimates for this time.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",5.0,Upper Egypt,Northeastern Africa,32.714706000000,25.725715000000,Luxor,EG,Egypt,Africa,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
361,EgTulIk,868,969,Egypt - Tulunid-Ikhshidid Period,eg_thulunid_ikhshidid,LEGACY,"Egypt in the years between 868 and 969 CE is notable for frequent changes in rulers, including three separate regimes in just over a century: the Tulunid Dynasty, the Abbasid Restoration Period, and the Ikshidid Dynasty, which eventually gave way to the Fatimid Caliphate. The Tulunids were a Turkic Dynasty who established an independent rule over Egypt and parts of Syria during a time of instability caused by infighting in the Abbasid court in Damascus. There was a notable 'flowering' of the arts under the Tulunid rulers, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 26) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ but the highs and lows of this era of instability are best encapsulated by the reign of Khumarawayh. Although Egypt saw 'peace and prosperity' under his rule, it has been argued that his extravagant lifestyle and 'lavish' spending on building projects and the maintenance of a large standing army 'overtaxed the state's resources'. §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in Encyclopedia of African History, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ 'When Khumarawayh was murdered by one of his slaves in 896, the treasury was reportedly empty'. §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in Encyclopedia of African History, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§
Population and political organization
Egypt during the Tulunid-Ikshidid period has been described as 'an autonomous state, albeit under Abbasid suzerainty'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 26) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ When Ahmad ibn Tulun was appointed prefect or governor of Egypt in 868 CE, it was a province of the Abbasid Caliphate. Tulun, who was of Turkish ancestry, was recruited from the military §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 24) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Middleton, ed. 2015, 966) J. Middleton, ed. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. London: Routledge. §REF§ and 'never formally repudiated Abbasid authority'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 24) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ He took advantage of a revolt in Palestine and Syria to build up a new Egyptian army of Turkish, Nubian, and Greek mercenaries and slaves, which he paid for by seizing control of the revenue of Egypt from the Abbasid-appointed financial director in 871 CE. §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in Encyclopedia of African History, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ Ibn Tulun also annexed Syria. §REF§ (Esposito, ed. 2003, 130) John L. Esposito, ed. 2003. The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
With his new army and the Abbasids distracted by unrest in the Levant, Ibn Tulun worked to increase Egyptian autonomy from the caliph in Baghdad; §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in Encyclopedia of African History, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ he stopped sending taxes to the Abbasids and established a new capital at al-Qatai, at the neck of the Nile Delta near Fustat. §REF§ (Middleton, ed. 2015, 966) J. Middleton, ed. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. London: Routledge. §REF§ This de facto arrangement became official in 886 CE, when a treaty with the Abbasid Dynasty decreed that Khumarawayh and his successors would govern Egypt for a term of three decades §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in Encyclopedia of African History, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ - although Egypt would in fact be under Abbasid control again from 905 to 935 CE. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 34) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ After the Ikshidids gained control of Egypt under Muhammad ibn Tughj (935‒946 CE), §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in Encyclopedia of African History, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ the Abbasids, in a similar treaty in 939 CE, granted the governorship of Egypt and Syria to 'the Ikshid and his heirs' for 30 years. §REF§ (Sundelin 2004) Lennart Sundelin. 2004. 'Egypt: Tulunids and Ikhshidids, 850-969', in Encyclopedia of African History, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§
The Tulunid governing apparatus included a vizier, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 35) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ who, after the administrative reforms of Ibn Tulun, §REF§ (Esposito, ed. 2003, 130) John L. Esposito, ed. 2003. The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ apparently ran a competent bureaucracy that oversaw huge spending projects. Ibn Tulun built an aqueduct and a maristan (hospital), which cost 60,000 dinars. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 26) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Founded in 873 CE, the hospital was the first of its kind in Egypt. There was probably a functioning postal system (the Egyptian section of the Abbasid barid). Luxuries were never far away for the affluent elites, who spent their riches freely: Khumarawayh converted the maydan (city square) into a lush garden in the Mesopotamian tradition, while in the Ikshidid period Kafur's palace near the Birkat Qarun cost a monumental 100,000 dinars. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 27, 34) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§
The population of Egypt and the Levant at this time may have totalled 6.5 million, §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 138, 229) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. London: Allen Lane. §REF§ and the largest city, Fustat in Egypt, had perhaps 150,000 residents. §REF§ (Modelski 2003, 55) George Modelski. 2003. World Cities -3000 to 2000. Washington, DC: Faros. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",5.0,Upper Egypt,Northeastern Africa,32.714706000000,25.725715000000,Luxor,EG,Egypt,Africa,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
495,IrAwanE,-2675,-2100,Elam - Awan Dynasty I,ir_elam_1,LEGACY,"Women in Elam
""with the rise of the nuclear family by the end of the third millennium ... daughters attained equal inheritance rights with sons. Sometimes fathers even preferred to pass on their entire estates to their daughters rather than to their sons. A wide's share of her husband's estate also increased considerably in the later Elamite period."" §REF§ (Nashat 2003, 14-15) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana. §REF§
Succession ""sometimes passed from a man to his sister's son. Succession through the sister suggests that royal women had greater political power than did royal women in Mesopotamia."" §REF§ (Nashat 2003, 15) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana. §REF§
queen Nahhunte-utu of Elam ""married two of her own brothers"" and passed her claim to the throne to her eldest son. Also evidence for next-of-kin marriage within the royal family."" §REF§ (Nashat 2003, 15) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana. §REF§
""Hinz argues that even after the sister's son was no longer the major heir to the throne, brother-sister marriage did not disappear but continued until the end of the Elamite period, when 'even provincial rulers followed the ""family custom"" of Elamite kings in marrying their sisters."" §REF§ (Nashat 2003, 15) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana. §REF§
",,,,2024-04-25T12:05:10.194050Z,"{'id': 33, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",9.0,Susiana,Levant-Mesopotamia,48.235564000000,32.382851000000,Susa (Shush),IR,Iran,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
502,IrElmCP,-1100,-900,Elam - Crisis Period,ir_elam_8,LEGACY,"The period between c. 1100 and the mid-8th century BCE has been seen as one of decline for the Elamite civilization, §REF§ (Liverani 2014, 461) Liverani, Marco. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. Translated by Soraia Tabatabai. Abingdon: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q. §REF§ §REF§ (Diakonoff 1985, 18) Diakonoff, I. M. 1985. ""Elam."" In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. II: The Median and Achaemenian Periods, edited by I. Gershevitch, 1-24. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IIDGFEPA. §REF§ which had by that time occupied the highlands of the south-western Iranian plateau and the fertile lowlands of the Susiana plain for over a millennium. These historically obscure centuries represent a transitional phase between the Middle Elamite and Neo-Elamite Kingdoms. Following M.-J. Steve, we have split the period at 900 BCE, resulting in a 'crisis phase' between 1100 and 900 and an early Neo-Elamite period between 900 and 744 BCE. §REF§ (Steve 1992, 21-22) Steve, M.-J. 1992. Syllabaire élamite: Histoire et Paléographie. Civilisations Du Proche-Orient 2. Neuchâtel: Recherches et Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NVMM9G55. §REF§
In his 'Elamite war' of 1125-1104 BCE, the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar I invaded Elam and forced the Elamite king Hutelutush-Inshushinak to abandon Susa. §REF§ (Carter and Stolper 1984, 43) Carter, Elizabeth, and Matthew W. Stolper. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SDF8S3B. §REF§ §REF§ (Vallat 1998) Vallat, F. 1998. ""Elam I: The History of Elam."" Encyclopaedia Iranica. London: Mazda Publishers. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/elam-i. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3ACKKUDJ. §REF§ After this date, there is a drastic reduction in written sources for the history of Elam, both in Mesopotamian documents (either Babylonian or Assyrian) and in inscriptions and tablets from Elam itself. §REF§ (Diakonoff 1985, 18) Diakonoff, I. M. 1985. ""Elam."" In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. II: The Median and Achaemenian Periods, edited by I. Gershevitch, 1-24. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IIDGFEPA. §REF§ The traditional interpretation has been that there was a disintegration of centralized authority in Elam between the Babylonian invasion and the reemergence of well-attested Elamite kings in the 8th century BCE. §REF§ (Liverani 2014, 527-28) Liverani, Marco. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. Translated by Soraia Tabatabai. Abingdon: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q. §REF§ However, some scholars question this, pointing out that systematic archaeological excavation of many Elamite sites has yet to be carried out. §REF§ Wouter Henkelman 2016, personal communication. §REF§ Further, the gaps in the Mesopotamian historical sources, instead of reflecting the disappearance of Elam as a political entity, may be a function of the political crises and famine that affected Assyria and Babylonia during this period. §REF§ (Diakonoff 1985, 18) Diakonoff, I. M. 1985. ""Elam."" In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. II: The Median and Achaemenian Periods, edited by I. Gershevitch, 1-24. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IIDGFEPA. §REF§
Population and political organization
Due to a scarcity of evidence, the political organization of Elam in the centuries between c. 1100 and 744 BCE remain unclear. Some archaeologists and historians argue that Elam split into multiple autonomous chiefdoms after the Babylonian invasion, §REF§ (Hansman 1985, 30) Hansman, J. 1985. ""Anshan in the Median and Achaemenian Periods."" In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol II: The Median and Achaemenian Periods, edited by I. Gershevitch, 25-35. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IXD6RNNR. §REF§ while others believe it maintained its unity as an organized and centralized state. §REF§ Wouter Henkelman 2016, personal communication. §REF§ Documents excavated at the site of Anshan dating to the 11th century BCE hint at the survival of some form of royal administration, at least in the highlands. §REF§ (Waters 2000, 10) Waters, Matthew W. 2000. A Survey of Neo-Elamite History. Helsinki: The Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JH4EIDJU. §REF§
Secure population estimates for the area under Elamite control in this period are lacking.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",9.0,Susiana,Levant-Mesopotamia,48.235564000000,32.382851000000,Susa (Shush),IR,Iran,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
497,IrSukkE,-1900,-1701,Elam - Early Sukkalmah,ir_elam_3,LEGACY,"Women in Elam
""with the rise of the nuclear family by the end of the third millennium ... daughters attained equal inheritance rights with sons. Sometimes fathers even preferred to pass on their entire estates to their daughters rather than to their sons. A wide's share of her husband's estate also increased considerably in the later Elamite period."" §REF§ (Nashat 2003, 14-15) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana. §REF§
Succession ""sometimes passed from a man to his sister's son. Succession through the sister suggests that royal women had greater political power than did royal women in Mesopotamia."" §REF§ (Nashat 2003, 15) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana. §REF§
queen Nahhunte-utu of Elam ""married two of her own brothers"" and passed her claim to the throne to her eldest son. Also evidence for next-of-kin marriage within the royal family."" §REF§ (Nashat 2003, 15) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana. §REF§
""Hinz argues that even after the sister's son was no longer the major heir to the throne, brother-sister marriage did not disappear but continued until the end of the Elamite period, when 'even provincial rulers followed the ""family custom"" of Elamite kings in marrying their sisters."" §REF§ (Nashat 2003, 15) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana. §REF§
c1800 BCE? ""the Elamite sukkal-mah, who invaded Mesopotamia. At first Mari and Babylon supported Elam in its siege of their old rival Eshnunna. However, the situation completely changed when Elam threatened Babylon and the Sinjar region. This lead to the formation of a coalition between Mari and Babylon, along with their allies Larsa, Yamhad, Zalmaqum and all the kings in the Jezira. Within a few years, Elam was forced to retreat, although it still managed to plunder Eshnunna."" §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 229) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§
""The documentation on Elam predominantly comes from Susa. The city had a central role as the residence of the sukkal-mah, but also a marginal one from an Elamite perspective due to its proximity to the Lower Mesopotamian border. Therefore, it is hypothetically possible that other Elamite regions and cities had a similar triad of offices, sharing the same sukkal-mah, but with different people in the other two roles."" §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 254) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§
""the Sukkal-mah Dynasty replaced the one of Shimashki perhaps as a repercussion of the incursion of Gungunum of Larsa against Susa. Eparti and Shilhaka, founders of the new dynasty, took on the title of 'king of Anshan and Susa' and made Susa their capital."" §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 254) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§
""Elam remained politically independent from the Mesopotamian kingdoms and even relatively superior to them. During the Mari Age, the sukkal-mah (probably Shiruduh I) was engage in diplomatic and commercial relations with Mari and even more distant Qatna. ... Elam's influence extended all over the Zagros, reaching Shemshara, which was very close to Assyria. At the death of Shamshi-Adad ... the anti-Babylonian front along the Tigris was under the supremacy of Elam. Hammurabi's victory, however, helped in lowering the expansionistic ambitions ... The Babylonians never conquered Elam and the local dynasty continued to rule, leaving only Susiana vulnerable to the consequences of the military developments taking place in Mesopotamia."" §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 254) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§
""Just like in the rest of the Near East, even in the case of Elam there is a lack of documentation for the sixteenth century BC."" §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 254) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§
""At the time of the sukkal-mah, the choice of Susa as capital showed a clear intention of becoming a constitutive part of the Mesopotamian political system and of Babylonian culture."" §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§
Babylonian official language at this time: ""The official language (also for royal inscriptions) was once again Elamite, and not Babylonian, as it had been before the dark age."" §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 376) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§
""Among the major administrative achievements of the Elamite Iran were the development and management of a gigantic system of underground irrigation, qanats, an earlier Iranian invention turning an unworked country into an agricultural land; the invention and development of the written language of Elamite and its extensive use in the administration of the federated state; and the construction and maintenance of numerous public enterprises like roads, bridges, cities and towns, communication centers, and economic trade centers with the neighboring states. Elamite Iran was relatively prosperous because of its rich minerals and precious metals, as well as other industries and arts."" §REF§ (Farazmand 2001, 536) Farazmand, Ali in Farazmand, Ali ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York. §REF§
""The earliest experiences of state tradition and administrative functions on a massive scale began around 6000 B.C. in Susa. As one of the oldest sites of ancient civilization, Susa began political and administrative life first as a city-state contemporary and rival to Sumer in the Mesopotamia, then as the capital of one of the oldest empires of antiquity, Elam. Established in the late fourth millennium B.C., the Elamite Empire was the first Iranian experience in empire building and state tradition. ... the federated state of Elam practiced public administration ... The federal system of Elam was composed of several major kingdoms (the Kassite, the Guti, the Lullubi, Susiana, and Elamite), all being of the same racial group of the pre-Aryan people. The Elamite over-lordship in Susa was the main power of the federated states, the heads of which frequently assembled for political and military purposes. Decision making wa based on equality, and cooperation was key to the coordinated system of government in a federal structure."" §REF§ (Farazmand 2001, 535) Farazmand, Ali in Farazmand, Ali ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York. §REF§
""While internal independence of the member states was respected, intergovernmental relations on civil administration were regulated by various administrative rules and ordinances."" §REF§ (Farazmand 2001, 536) Farazmand, Ali in Farazmand, Ali ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York. §REF§
16th-14th centuries BCE: The Elamites were concentrated in the Susiana plain but maintained their ancestral ties with the highlands, where Anshan was progressively deserted."" §REF§ (Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 9) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art. §REF§
The Elamite polity was ruled by three main officials: sukkalmah (grand regent, grand vizier), sukkal of Elam and Shimaski (usually brother of the sukkalmah) and sukkal of Susa (prince, heir to the throne). The power was transmitted inside the royal family. The marriages between brothers and sisters were common practices in Old Elamite Period. When the sukkalmah died, his younger brother became a king, the next was sukkalmah's son or son of sukkal of Elam and Shimaski §REF§ Liverani 2014, 253 §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",9.0,Susiana,Levant-Mesopotamia,48.235564000000,32.382851000000,Susa (Shush),IR,Iran,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
500,IrMElm2,-1399,-1200,Elam - Igihalkid Period,ir_elam_6,LEGACY,"The Middle Elamite kingdom, about 250,000 square kilometers, was located in what is now Southwestern Iran. §REF§ (Liverani, 2014. 279) Liverani, Mario. The ancient Near East: history, society and economy. London: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, 2014 §REF§ The kingdom is commonly split into three phases: the first before 1400 BCE; the second, 1400-1200 BCE, which was characterised by intermarriage with the Kassites; and the third, 1200-1100 BCE, characterised by war with the Kassites.
The First Period lacks the evidence of the later periods, but can be seen to be a substantial state, where the kings held the title of king of Anshan and Susa, even if it is not clear how much control they exerted over Anshan. The kings of the First Period had local governors and diplomats, craft and cult organisation, and could wage war against the Babylonians. §REF§ Carter, E. and Stolper, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Publication. p. 32-34 §REF§
The Second Period has a comparative wealth of evidence, mostly royal inscriptions from building or dedicatory texts. During this period, the empire expanded and many building works were undertaken, including the construction of the new city al-Untash Napirisha. This period also saw the Elamites becoming increasingly involved in Mesopotamian politics. There were many marriages between Elamite princes (the Igihalkids) and Kassite princesses. §REF§ Carter, E. and Stolper, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. Near Eastern Studies. Volume 25. Berkeley: University of California Press. p.37-38 §REF§ The ""Berlin letter"", an important text, names four marriages between Elamite princes and Kassite princesses. §REF§ Potts, D.T. 2012. The Elamites. In Daryaee, T. (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 37 §REF§
The Third Period involved military battles with Babylon, which had been annexed by Assyria. in 1158 BCE, the Elamite king Shutruk-Nahhunte invaded Babylonia and overthrew the Kassite king Zababa-shuma-iddina, probably giving the throne to his son Kutir-Nahhunte. The Middle Elamite Kingdom ended when the Babylonian army, led by Nebuchadnezzar, defeated the last Middle Elamite king, Hutelutush-Inshushinak and seized Susa in revenge for taking their god and invading their kingdom. §REF§ Potts, D.T. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.232-253 §REF§
Population and political organization
Kings of this period were commonly referred to by the title 'king of Susa and Anshan' in Akkadian and 'king of Anshan and Susa' in Elamite. It is a period characterised by this unity between the highlands, Anshan, and the lowlands, Susa. §REF§ Potts, D. T. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.188 §REF§ A powerful bureaucracy had religious and secular influence in the government. §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 21) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§
The population for the entire empire is unknown, but the largest settlement is estimated at between 1,500-6,000 people during the early period, 2,750-11,000 people in 1300 BCE, and 5,000-20,000 in 1200 BCE.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",9.0,Susiana,Levant-Mesopotamia,48.235564000000,32.382851000000,Susa (Shush),IR,Iran,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
499,IrMElm1,-1500,-1400,Elam - Kidinuid Period,ir_elam_5,LEGACY,"The Middle Elamite kingdom, about 250,000 square kilometers, was located in what is now Southwestern Iran. §REF§ (Liverani, 2014. 279) Liverani, Mario. The ancient Near East: history, society and economy. London: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, 2014 §REF§ The kingdom is commonly split into three phases: the first before 1400 BCE; the second, 1400-1200 BCE, which was characterised by intermarriage with the Kassites; and the third, 1200-1100 BCE, characterised by war with the Kassites.
The First Period lacks the evidence of the later periods, but can be seen to be a substantial state, where the kings held the title of king of Anshan and Susa, even if it is not clear how much control they exerted over Anshan. The kings of the First Period had local governors and diplomats, craft and cult organisation, and could wage war against the Babylonians. §REF§ Carter, E. and Stolper, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Publication. p. 32-34 §REF§
The Second Period has a comparative wealth of evidence, mostly royal inscriptions from building or dedicatory texts. During this period, the empire expanded and many building works were undertaken, including the construction of the new city al-Untash Napirisha. This period also saw the Elamites becoming increasingly involved in Mesopotamian politics. There were many marriages between Elamite princes (the Igihalkids) and Kassite princesses. §REF§ Carter, E. and Stolper, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. Near Eastern Studies. Volume 25. Berkeley: University of California Press. p.37-38 §REF§ The ""Berlin letter"", an important text, names four marriages between Elamite princes and Kassite princesses. §REF§ Potts, D.T. 2012. The Elamites. In Daryaee, T. (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 37 §REF§
The Third Period involved military battles with Babylon, which had been annexed by Assyria. in 1158 BCE, the Elamite king Shutruk-Nahhunte invaded Babylonia and overthrew the Kassite king Zababa-shuma-iddina, probably giving the throne to his son Kutir-Nahhunte. The Middle Elamite Kingdom ended when the Babylonian army, led by Nebuchadnezzar, defeated the last Middle Elamite king, Hutelutush-Inshushinak and seized Susa in revenge for taking their god and invading their kingdom. §REF§ Potts, D.T. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.232-253 §REF§
Population and political organization
Kings of this period were commonly referred to by the title 'king of Susa and Anshan' in Akkadian and 'king of Anshan and Susa' in Elamite. It is a period characterised by this unity between the highlands, Anshan, and the lowlands, Susa. §REF§ Potts, D. T. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.188 §REF§ A powerful bureaucracy had religious and secular influence in the government. §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 21) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§
The population for the entire empire is unknown, but the largest settlement is estimated at between 1,500-6,000 people during the early period, 2,750-11,000 people in 1300 BCE, and 5,000-20,000 in 1200 BCE.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",9.0,Susiana,Levant-Mesopotamia,48.235564000000,32.382851000000,Susa (Shush),IR,Iran,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
498,IrSukkL,-1700,-1500,Elam - Late Sukkalmah,ir_elam_4,LEGACY,"Women in Elam
""with the rise of the nuclear family by the end of the third millennium ... daughters attained equal inheritance rights with sons. Sometimes fathers even preferred to pass on their entire estates to their daughters rather than to their sons. A wide's share of her husband's estate also increased considerably in the later Elamite period."" §REF§ (Nashat 2003, 14-15) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana. §REF§
Succession ""sometimes passed from a man to his sister's son. Succession through the sister suggests that royal women had greater political power than did royal women in Mesopotamia."" §REF§ (Nashat 2003, 15) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana. §REF§
queen Nahhunte-utu of Elam ""married two of her own brothers"" and passed her claim to the throne to her eldest son. Also evidence for next-of-kin marriage within the royal family."" §REF§ (Nashat 2003, 15) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana. §REF§
""Hinz argues that even after the sister's son was no longer the major heir to the throne, brother-sister marriage did not disappear but continued until the end of the Elamite period, when 'even provincial rulers followed the ""family custom"" of Elamite kings in marrying their sisters."" §REF§ (Nashat 2003, 15) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana. §REF§
",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",9.0,Susiana,Levant-Mesopotamia,48.235564000000,32.382851000000,Susa (Shush),IR,Iran,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
496,IrShima,-2028,-1940,Elam - Shimashki Period,ir_elam_2,LEGACY,"Women in Elam
""with the rise of the nuclear family by the end of the third millennium ... daughters attained equal inheritance rights with sons. Sometimes fathers even preferred to pass on their entire estates to their daughters rather than to their sons. A wide's share of her husband's estate also increased considerably in the later Elamite period."" §REF§ (Nashat 2003, 14-15) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana. §REF§
Succession ""sometimes passed from a man to his sister's son. Succession through the sister suggests that royal women had greater political power than did royal women in Mesopotamia."" §REF§ (Nashat 2003, 15) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana. §REF§
queen Nahhunte-utu of Elam ""married two of her own brothers"" and passed her claim to the throne to her eldest son. Also evidence for next-of-kin marriage within the royal family."" §REF§ (Nashat 2003, 15) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana. §REF§
""Hinz argues that even after the sister's son was no longer the major heir to the throne, brother-sister marriage did not disappear but continued until the end of the Elamite period, when 'even provincial rulers followed the ""family custom"" of Elamite kings in marrying their sisters."" §REF§ (Nashat 2003, 15) Nashat, Guity. Women in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Iran. in Nashat, Guity. Beck, Lois. eds. 2003. Women in Iran: From The Rise Of Islam To 1800. University of Illinois Press. Urbana. §REF§
Data below has yet to be coded into the sheet
""The Ur III rulers imposed their suzerainty over the Elamite princes of Anshan, who were probably semi-nomadic, in the southeast, and over others, including the princes of Shimashki, in an area that is likely to have extended to the north and southeast of Susiana."" §REF§ (Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 7) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art. §REF§
Ur reduced to rubble. ""An Elamite attack against Ur brought Ibbi-Sin to seek refuge within its walls. The city [Ur] was besieged for a long time, until it collapsed for lack of food supplies. The Elamites broke into the city and plundered it. They profaned its most sacred temples, captured Ibbi-Sin an imprisoned him in Susa. For a while, Ur became an Elamite garrison..."" §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 174) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§
""While Isin moved from being the heir of the Third Dynasty of Ur back to a city-state, Larsa moved in the opposite direction, moving away from its position as a city-state clenched between Isin and Elam. Gungunum began his rise to power in Larsa at the end of the twentieth century, taking Ur and Lagash from Isin and Susa from Elam. He took on the title of 'king of Sumer and Akkad', the standard title of the kings of Ur, and led a couple of campaigns against Bashime (located on the Iranian coast facing the Persian Gulf) and Anshan (modern Fars, located in the hinterland of Bashime)."" §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 192) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§
""In Elam, the princes of the new Shimashkian dynasty, who governed a vast area to the north and southeast of Susiana, drove out the Sumerians and gained control of Susa toward 2000 B.C."" §REF§ (Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 8) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art. §REF§
""Anshan was soon restored as the major metropolis of the Elamite federation, and the rulers of Shimashki seem to have adopted the title ""king of Anshan and Susa"" sometime before 1900 B.C. That imperial title of the rulers of Elam was subsequently changed to sukkalmah, a term borrowed from the Sumerian administration and meaning ""grand regent."" Under the rule of the sukkalmahs, which continued until about 1500 B.C., Susa remained within the Mesopotamian cultural sphere, but local artistic traditions continued."" §REF§ (Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 8) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art. §REF§
Shimashki's dynasty originated from Shimashki region, and was ruling probably in Shimashki, Anshan and Elam since at least 2094 BC, however Elam (and Susiana) stayed under control of Ur III Empire during that time. §REF§ Hinz 1971, 658 §REF§ The independence of Shimashki's dynasty and Elam itself was associated probably with the act of direct aggression from Ur III and its king - Shu-Sin who undertook war campaign against Elam. According to some researchers, this might have stimulated Shimashkian to formation their own state, but real autonomy was achieved later, during the reign of Ibbi-Sin and rebellion of Ishbi-erra, ensi of Isin, and disintegration of Ur III Empire. §REF§ Potts 1999, 142-43 §REF§ §REF§ Stolper 1982, 51 §REF§ There is also believed that Shimashkian had important contribution in collapse of Ur III as they took a part of coalitions against Ibbi-Sin, together with some people of the Zagros (e. g. Su people) attacked eastern Mesopotamia. §REF§ Bryce 2009, 642 §REF§ , §REF§ Hinz 1971, 658 §REF§ The earlier relations between Ur III and Elam based mostly on peaceful coexistence, marital alliances and allegiance. Elam was treated as very important partner and part of Ur III empire, and had his own governor. §REF§ Potts 1999, 132-135 §REF§ There is very little known regarding the Shimashki dynasty, and there are found only few inscription, lists and seals with names of lugal or ensi of Elam and Anshan from this dynasty (e. g. Imazu, Idaddu I, Ebarti II). §REF§ Potts 2012, 42-43 §REF§ The tradition of inter-dynastic marriages was continued in Elam, e. g. son of Indattu-In-Shushinak was married to Me-kubi, daughter of governor of Eshnunna. §REF§ Hinz 1971, 660 §REF§
",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",9.0,Susiana,Levant-Mesopotamia,48.235564000000,32.382851000000,Susa (Shush),IR,Iran,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
501,IrMElm3,-1199,-1100,Elam - Shutrukid Period,ir_elam_7,LEGACY,"The Middle Elamite kingdom, about 250,000 square kilometers, was located in what is now Southwestern Iran. §REF§ (Liverani, 2014. 279) Liverani, Mario. The ancient Near East: history, society and economy. London: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, 2014 §REF§ The kingdom is commonly split into three phases: the first before 1400 BCE; the second, 1400-1200 BCE, which was characterised by intermarriage with the Kassites; and the third, 1200-1100 BCE, characterised by war with the Kassites.
The First Period lacks the evidence of the later periods, but can be seen to be a substantial state, where the kings held the title of king of Anshan and Susa, even if it is not clear how much control they exerted over Anshan. The kings of the First Period had local governors and diplomats, craft and cult organisation, and could wage war against the Babylonians. §REF§ Carter, E. and Stolper, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Publication. p. 32-34 §REF§
The Second Period has a comparative wealth of evidence, mostly royal inscriptions from building or dedicatory texts. During this period, the empire expanded and many building works were undertaken, including the construction of the new city al-Untash Napirisha. This period also saw the Elamites becoming increasingly involved in Mesopotamian politics. There were many marriages between Elamite princes (the Igihalkids) and Kassite princesses. §REF§ Carter, E. and Stolper, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. Near Eastern Studies. Volume 25. Berkeley: University of California Press. p.37-38 §REF§ The ""Berlin letter"", an important text, names four marriages between Elamite princes and Kassite princesses. §REF§ Potts, D.T. 2012. The Elamites. In Daryaee, T. (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 37 §REF§
The Third Period involved military battles with Babylon, which had been annexed by Assyria. in 1158 BCE, the Elamite king Shutruk-Nahhunte invaded Babylonia and overthrew the Kassite king Zababa-shuma-iddina, probably giving the throne to his son Kutir-Nahhunte. The Middle Elamite Kingdom ended when the Babylonian army, led by Nebuchadnezzar, defeated the last Middle Elamite king, Hutelutush-Inshushinak and seized Susa in revenge for taking their god and invading their kingdom. §REF§ Potts, D.T. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.232-253 §REF§
Population and political organization
Kings of this period were commonly referred to by the title 'king of Susa and Anshan' in Akkadian and 'king of Anshan and Susa' in Elamite. It is a period characterised by this unity between the highlands, Anshan, and the lowlands, Susa. §REF§ Potts, D. T. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.188 §REF§ A powerful bureaucracy had religious and secular influence in the government. §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 21) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§
The population for the entire empire is unknown, but the largest settlement is estimated at between 1,500-6,000 people during the early period, 2,750-11,000 people in 1300 BCE, and 5,000-20,000 in 1200 BCE.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",9.0,Susiana,Levant-Mesopotamia,48.235564000000,32.382851000000,Susa (Shush),IR,Iran,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
503,IrNElm1,-900,-744,Elam I,ir_neo_elam_1,LEGACY,"The period between c. 1100 and the mid-8th century BCE has been seen as one of decline for the Elamite civilization, §REF§ (Liverani 2014, 461) Liverani, Marco. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. Translated by Soraia Tabatabai. Abingdon: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q. §REF§ §REF§ (Diakonoff 1985, 18) Diakonoff, I. M. 1985. ""Elam."" In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. II: The Median and Achaemenian Periods, edited by I. Gershevitch, 1-24. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IIDGFEPA. §REF§ which had by that time occupied the highlands of the south-western Iranian plateau and the fertile lowlands of the Susiana plain for over a millennium. These historically obscure centuries represent a transitional phase between the Middle Elamite and Neo-Elamite Kingdoms. Following M.-J. Steve, we have split the period at 900 BCE, resulting in a 'crisis phase' between 1100 and 900 and an early Neo-Elamite period between 900 and 744 BCE. §REF§ (Steve 1992, 21-22) Steve, M.-J. 1992. Syllabaire élamite: Histoire et Paléographie. Civilisations Du Proche-Orient 2. Neuchâtel: Recherches et Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NVMM9G55. §REF§
In his 'Elamite war' of 1125-1104 BCE, the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar I invaded Elam and forced the Elamite king Hutelutush-Inshushinak to abandon Susa. §REF§ (Carter and Stolper 1984, 43) Carter, Elizabeth, and Matthew W. Stolper. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SDF8S3B. §REF§ §REF§ (Vallat 1998) Vallat, F. 1998. ""Elam I: The History of Elam."" Encyclopaedia Iranica. London: Mazda Publishers. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/elam-i. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3ACKKUDJ. §REF§ After this date, there is a drastic reduction in written sources for the history of Elam, both in Mesopotamian documents (either Babylonian or Assyrian) and in inscriptions and tablets from Elam itself. §REF§ (Diakonoff 1985, 18) Diakonoff, I. M. 1985. ""Elam."" In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. II: The Median and Achaemenian Periods, edited by I. Gershevitch, 1-24. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IIDGFEPA. §REF§ The traditional interpretation has been that there was a disintegration of centralized authority in Elam between the Babylonian invasion and the reemergence of well-attested Elamite kings in the 8th century BCE. §REF§ (Liverani 2014, 527-28) Liverani, Marco. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. Translated by Soraia Tabatabai. Abingdon: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q. §REF§ However, some scholars question this, pointing out that systematic archaeological excavation of many Elamite sites has yet to be carried out. §REF§ Wouter Henkelman 2016, personal communication. §REF§ Further, the gaps in the Mesopotamian historical sources, instead of reflecting the disappearance of Elam as a political entity, may be a function of the political crises and famine that affected Assyria and Babylonia during this period. §REF§ (Diakonoff 1985, 18) Diakonoff, I. M. 1985. ""Elam."" In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. II: The Median and Achaemenian Periods, edited by I. Gershevitch, 1-24. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IIDGFEPA. §REF§
Population and political organization
Due to a scarcity of evidence, the political organization of Elam in the centuries between c. 1100 and 744 BCE remain unclear. Some archaeologists and historians argue that Elam split into multiple autonomous chiefdoms after the Babylonian invasion, §REF§ (Hansman 1985, 30) Hansman, J. 1985. ""Anshan in the Median and Achaemenian Periods."" In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol II: The Median and Achaemenian Periods, edited by I. Gershevitch, 25-35. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IXD6RNNR. §REF§ while others believe it maintained its unity as an organized and centralized state. §REF§ Wouter Henkelman 2016, personal communication. §REF§ Documents excavated at the site of Anshan dating to the 11th century BCE hint at the survival of some form of royal administration, at least in the highlands. §REF§ (Waters 2000, 10) Waters, Matthew W. 2000. A Survey of Neo-Elamite History. Helsinki: The Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JH4EIDJU. §REF§
Secure population estimates for the area under Elamite control in this period are lacking.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",9.0,Susiana,Levant-Mesopotamia,48.235564000000,32.382851000000,Susa (Shush),IR,Iran,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
504,IrNElm2,-743,-647,Elam II,ir_neo_elam_2,LEGACY,"Our Neo-Elamite II period runs from 743 BCE, when the Elamite king Humban-nikash I came to the throne (according to the Babylonian Chronicle), §REF§ (Potts 2004, 263) Potts, D. T. 2004. The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WDUEEBGQ. §REF§ to 647 BCE, the date of the invasion of Elam and sack of Susa by the Neo-Assyrian king Ashurbanipal. §REF§ (Álvarez-Mon, Garrison and Stronach 2011, 10) Álvarez-Mon, Javier, Mark B. Garrison, and David Stronach. 2011. ""Introduction."" In Elam and Persia, edited by Javier Álvarez-Mon and Mark B. Garrison, 1-32. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WF4UWMWH. §REF§ By that time, the Elamite civilization had occupied the highlands of the south-western Iranian plateau and the fertile lowlands of the Susiana plain for almost two millennia.
Population and political organization
The accession of King Humban-nikash I in the 8th century marks the re-emergence of Elam from the 'obscure' phase of its history: there is an almost complete lack of written evidence for Elamite society, politics and history between c. 1100 and 743 BCE. §REF§ (Liverani 2014, 526) Liverani, Marco. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. Translated by Soraia Tabatabai. Abingdon: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q. §REF§ §REF§ (Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 13) Amiet, Pierre, Nicole Chevalier, and Elizabeth Carter. 1992. ""Susa in the Ancient Near East."" In The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre, edited by Prudence O. Harper, Joan Aruz, and Françoise Tallon, 1-24. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9KQATXPQ. §REF§ During the Neo-Elamite II period, in contrast, a combination of archaeological evidence and both local and Mesopotamian written sources has provided historians with a better (if not comprehensive) understanding of Elamite political organization and key events affecting the polity.
The Elamite king exercised power from his seat at Susa through a series of high officials, most of whom were related to him. §REF§ (Liverani 2014, 529) Liverani, Marco. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. Translated by Soraia Tabatabai. Abingdon: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q. §REF§ A governmental body called the 'elders of Elam', also attested from the Middle Elamite period, exercised independent executive power, perhaps indicating that there were institutional checks on the king's authority. §REF§ (Henkelman 2008, 17) Henkelman, Wouter. 2008. The Other Gods Who Are: Studies in Elamite-Iranian Acculturation Based on the Persepolis Fortification Texts. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/T6UFW9CW. §REF§ However, the Neo-Elamite monarchy was unstable and fell prey to frequent coups d'état. §REF§ (Carter and Stolper 1984, 47) Carter, Elizabeth, and Matthew W. Stolper. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SDF8S3B. §REF§ This instability was exacerbated by Neo-Assyrian interference, especially after Ashurbanipal began his Elamite campaigns in 653 BCE. §REF§ (Potts 2012, 46) Potts, Daniel T. 2012. ""The Elamites."" In The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History, edited by Touraj Daryaee, 37-56. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BEAERFCW. §REF§ It is likely that Elam in this period sometimes functioned as a centralized state but at other times was split into smaller, autonomous kingdoms. §REF§ (Liverani 2014, 530) Liverani, Marco. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. Translated by Soraia Tabatabai. Abingdon: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q. §REF§
Secure population estimates for the area under Elamite control in this period are lacking.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",9.0,Susiana,Levant-Mesopotamia,48.235564000000,32.382851000000,Susa (Shush),IR,Iran,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
505,IrNElm3,-612,-539,Elam III,ir_neo_elam_3,LEGACY,"Our Neo-Elamite III period begins in 647 BCE, the date of the invasion of Elam and sack of the ancient city of Susa by the Neo-Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, §REF§ (Álvarez-Mon, Garrison and Stronach 2011, 10) Álvarez-Mon, Javier, Mark B. Garrison, and David Stronach. 2011. ""Introduction."" In Elam and Persia, edited by Javier Álvarez-Mon and Mark B. Garrison, 1-32. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WF4UWMWH. §REF§ and ends in 539 BCE. This date marks the capture of Babylon by the first king of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, Cyrus the Great, who must have been ruling in Susa by 540 BCE. §REF§ (Potts 2004, 307) Potts, D. T. 2004. The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WDUEEBGQ. §REF§ By this time, the Elamite civilization had occupied the highlands of the south-western Iranian plateau and the fertile lowlands of the Susiana plain for over two millennia.
Population and political organization
The traditional interpretation of this period has been that Elam effectively ceased to exist as an independent state after Ashurbanipal's invasion, becoming a province of Neo-Assyria until Assyria's own fortunes declined several decades later. §REF§ (Potts 2004, 288) Potts, D. T. 2004. The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WDUEEBGQ. §REF§ However, some scholars believe that Ashurbanipal's destruction of Elam may not have been as complete as he claimed. §REF§ Wouter Henkelman 2016, personal communication. §REF§ The archaeologist Pierre de Miroschedji has argued that by 625 BCE, Elam's government was restored and that the royal chancellery was active at Susa. §REF§ (de Miroschedji 1982, 62 in Potts 2004, 301) Potts, D. T. 2004. The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WDUEEBGQ. §REF§ The extent of Babylonian and Persian influence on Elamite politics in the century before c. 540 BCE is also a matter of ongoing debate. §REF§ (Potts 2012, 46) Potts, Daniel T. 2012. ""The Elamites."" In The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History, edited by Touraj Daryaee, 37-56. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BEAERFCW. §REF§ §REF§ (Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 13) Amiet, Pierre, Nicole Chevalier, and Elizabeth Carter. 1992. ""Susa in the Ancient Near East."" In The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre, edited by Prudence O. Harper, Joan Aruz, and Françoise Tallon, 1-24. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9KQATXPQ. §REF§
Secure population estimates for the area under Elamite control in this period are lacking.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",9.0,Susiana,Levant-Mesopotamia,48.235564000000,32.382851000000,Susa (Shush),IR,Iran,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
803,de_bavaria_1,1623,1806,Electorate of Bavaria,de_bavaria_1,OTHER_TAG,"The Electorate of Bavaria, established in 1623 during the Thirty Years' War, was a significant territorial state within the Holy Roman Empire, primarily encompassing what is now modern-day Bavaria, Germany. Unlike the decentralized nature of the Empire, the Electorate was a more unified entity with Munich serving as its capital and center of administration. The Elector, a title granted by the Emperor, held substantial autonomous power within his territories, managing internal affairs, laws, and customs, distinct from the broader imperial structure.§REF§Hartmann, Bayerns Weg in Die Gegenwart. Zotero link: WLSMSWHR§REF§
This period saw Bavaria under the rule of the Wittelsbach dynasty, which played a crucial role in the political, religious, and cultural developments within the Electorate and the Empire at large. The Catholic faith remained a central unifying factor, with the Bavarian Electors often positioning themselves as champions of Catholicism, especially during the Counter-Reformation, reinforcing their political and religious significance within the Empire.§REF§Adalbert and Nöhbauer, Die Wittelsbacher. Zotero link: 9ZP6CVBS§REF§
The conclusion of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) elevated the former Duchy of Bavaria to that of an Electorate in recognition of Maximilian I's support for the Catholic cause and the Habsburgs.§REF§Arndt, Der Dreißigjährige Krieg. Zotero link: PULFEDKX§REF§
The Electorate of Bavaria also took part in the War of the Austrian Succession, Karl Albrecht, Elector of Bavaria made demands on behalf of his wife Maria Amalie, the youngest daughter of Joseph I. After suffering defeats at the hand of the Habsburgs, they withdrew from the war in 1745.§REF§“Der Österreichische Erbfolgekrieg,” Die Welt der Habsburger Zotero link: ZXXX6U6B§REF§
The end of the Electorate came with the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, following the Napoleonic Wars. Bavaria was elevated to a Kingdom by Napoleon in recognition of its alliance with France.§REF§Körner, Geschichte Des Königreichs Bayern. Zotero link: RZXCRW25§REF§",,,2024-01-26T14:21:26.086231Z,2024-02-14T16:51:51.698949Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
801,de_brandenburg_1,1415,1618,Electorate of Brandenburg,de_hohenzollern_1,OTHER_TAG,"The era from 1415 to 1618 in Brandenburg was marked by the gradual emergence of a centralized state, the strategic territorial expansion, and the foundational development of what would become one of Europe's most powerful dynasties. The Hohenzollerns' political strategies, combined with significant cultural and religious shifts, transformed Brandenburg from a marginal margraviate into a significant power, which would play a central role in the subsequent centuries of European history.§REF§Hansjoachim Wolfgang Koch, A History of Prussia (New York: Barnes & Noble, 1978). Zotero link: FS2NYAJR§REF§
The Hohenzollern era in Brandenburg began with Frederick I's elevation to Elector of Brandenburg in 1415, granted by Emperor Sigismund as a reward for his support against the Hussites, changing the Margraviate of Brandenburg to the Electorate of Brandenburg.§REF§Hansjoachim Wolfgang Koch, A History of Prussia (New York: Barnes & Noble, 1978). Zotero link: FS2NYAJR§REF§
One of the pivotal figures of this era was Frederick II Elector of Brandenburg, who reigned from 1440 to 1470. Known as ""Frederick the Iron,"" he centralized authority, reduced the power of the local nobility, and established a more cohesive state. His efforts laid the groundwork for the transformation of Brandenburg into a more centralized territorial state.§REF§Deutsche Biographie, “Friedrich II. - Deutsche Biographie,” Zotero link: 9GPFMNB8§REF§
Under Elector Joachim II (1535-1571), Brandenburg officially adopted Lutheranism, aligning itself with the Protestant states within the Empire. This religious shift not only reflected the broader European religious transformations but also served as a political tool to assert greater independence from imperial Catholic influences and to consolidate internal governance.§REF§
Mathis Leibetseder, Joachim II. von Brandenburg: Kurfürst Zwischen Renaissance Und Reformation, Veröffentlichungen aus den Archiven Preussischer Kulturbesitz. Forschungen Band 15 (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 2022). Zotero link: ZI9KVPJI§REF§
John Sigismund's accession in 1608 marked the beginning of Brandenburg's expansion into the Duchy of Prussia. His acceptance of the Prussian dukedom in 1618 through inheritance established the personal union between Brandenburg and Prussia.§REF§Heinz Immekeppel, Das Herzogtum Preussen von 1603 Bis 1618, Studien zur Geschichte Preussens Bd. 24 (Köln: G. Grote, 1975). Zotero link: XUFQZXAA§REF§",,,2024-01-26T14:18:40.640870Z,2024-03-12T09:42:48.196889Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
507,IrElym2,25,215,Elymais II,ir_elymais_2,LEGACY,"""The Elymean or Middle Parthian Period (ca. 25 B.C.-ca. A.D. 125) (figure 76) coincides with the rise of an autonomous Elymean state, incorporating Susa and most of the Susiana Plain. It is also apparently the period when Susa reached its zenith as an economic power. Coins dated to this period and minted at Seleucia and other major cities are frequently found at Susa, and Susa's own coinage is well represented at most large nearby cities (Le Rider 1965). During the 1973 survey, we found many coins of this era, even on tiny sites on the plain's periphery."" §REF§ (Wenke 1987, 254) Wenke, Robert J. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C. §REF§
""Rural Susiana settlement patterns at this time indicate a considerable increase in population densities, vastly greater investents in irrigation systems, and the emergence of a ring of substantial settlements around Susa itself. Large investments were made to irrigate and cultivate marginally productive areas of the plain, and in a few locations the limits of traditional agricultural productivity were probably approached."" §REF§ (Wenke 1987, 254) Wenke, Robert J. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C. §REF§
",,,,2023-11-10T20:09:43.913829Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",9.0,Susiana,Levant-Mesopotamia,48.235564000000,32.382851000000,Susa (Shush),IR,Iran,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
898,af_afghanistan_emirate,1827,1926,Emirate of Afghanistan,af_afghanistan_emirate,OTHER_TAG,,,,2024-07-04T09:09:18.410888Z,2024-07-04T13:27:22.468463Z,"{'id': 71, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,8,Afghanistan,Afghanistan,"{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
841,es_cordoba_emirate,756,928,Emirate of Córdoba,es_cordoba_emirate,OTHER_TAG,,Emirate of Córdoba,,2024-04-10T08:29:23.767974Z,2024-04-10T08:29:23.767985Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
652,et_harar_emirate,1650,1875,Emirate of Harar,et_harar_emirate,POL_AFR_EAST,"The Emirate of Harar was the successor of the Imamate of Aussa. The Emirate was founded in the middle of the seventh century by Ali B. Dawud. The capital of the Emirate was Harar, which is one of the holiest cities in the Islamic world. During the time of the Emirate, Harar was an important Islamic centre for Quranic studies and learning with large numbers of mosques, schools and saint shrines in the city. The Emirate of Harar was also a pivotal trade centre of Ethiopia, linking the Red Sea and the interior of Ethiopia. §REF§ (Abir 2008, 552) Abir, Mordecai. 2008. ‘Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa’ In The Cambridge History of Africa c. 1600 – c. 1790. Edited by Richard Gray. Vol 4. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 537-577. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Abir/titleCreatorYear/items/JHH9VH96/item-list §REF§ The Emirate of Ethiopia was occupied by the Khedivate of Egypt in 1875, officially ending the Emirate’s rule. §REF§ (Shinn and Ofcansky 2013, 207) Shinn, David and Thomas Ofcansky. 2013. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/29MS79PA/collection §REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
730,br_brazil_emp,1822,1888,Empire of Brazil,br_brazil_emp,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,31,Amazonia,"Brazil, Guyanas, plus Amazonian parts of bordering states","{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}"
588,jp_japanese_emp,1869,1945,Empire of Japan,jp_japanese_emp,LEGACY,,,,,2023-10-18T14:12:18.417504Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,14,Northeast Asia,"Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
848,tr_trebizond_emp,1204,1461,Empire of Trebizond,tr_trebizond_emp,OTHER_TAG,,Empire of Trebizond,,2024-04-10T09:55:21.896103Z,2024-04-10T09:55:21.896115Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
302,GBEnglK,1486,1689,England Tudor-Stuart,gb_tudor_stuart,LEGACY,"
This polity begins with the start of the Tudor dynasty, commencing with Henry VII’s reign, and runs until the end of the Glorious Revolution in 1689.
This period incorporates immense changes in technology, science, medicine, demographics as well as seeing the creation of the British Empire and its widespread colonisation of countries around the world.
§REF§(Bucholz et al: 2013) Bucholz, Robert, Newton Key, and R.O. Bucholz. 2013. Early Modern England 1485-1714: A Narrative History. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uvic/detail.action?docID=1166775. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XQGJH96U§REF§",,,,2025-02-15T13:34:11.960451Z,"{'id': 182, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
13,MxEpicl,650,899,Epiclassic Basin of Mexico,mx_basin_of_mexico_8,LEGACY,"The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Epiclassic or Late Classic period (c. 650-899 CE). In this period, Teotihuacan had diminished in size and lost its hold over the region; at the same time, none of the major centres at the time matched it: the populations of Cantona, Xochicalco, and Cacaxtla likely did not surpass 25-30,000. §REF§ (Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to E. Cioni and G. Nazzaro) §REF§ Worship of the feathered snake became widespread throughout Mesoamerica, as indicated by the broad distribution of artistic representations of this deity or culture hero, and there was a renewed emphasis on human sacrifice in both ritual practice and artistic expression. §REF§ (Evans 2012: 123-124) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",27.0,Basin of Mexico,Mexico,-99.130000000000,19.430000000000,Ciudad de Mexico,MX,Mexico,North America,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
422,CnErlig,-1650,-1250,Erligang,cn_erligang,LEGACY,"Erligang culture developed during the final phase of Erlitou in the central Yellow River valley. In Sima Qian’s Basic Annals of the Yin, the last Xia king is overthrown and executed by the first king of Shang Cheng Tang. §REF§ (Major and Cook 2017, 77) Major, John S. and Constance Cook. 2017. Ancient China: A History. New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9DB56EP2 §REF§ Many scholars place Erligang culture within the Shang period to fit with the traditional chronology of Xia-Shang-Zhou. §REF§ (Major and Cook 2017, 78) Major, John S. and Constance Cook. 2017. Ancient China: A History. New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9DB56EP2 §REF§ The early Shang kings were have believed to have moved their capital several times because of natural disasters. §REF§ (San, Koon Tan 2014, 17) San, Koon Tan. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F) §REF§ The material culture is referred to as both Erligang and early Shang.
Zhengzhou was the center of Erligang culture, and Yanshi was the secondary center. §REF§ (Liu 2014, 278) Liu, Li and Xingchan Chen. The Archaeology of China: From the Late Paleolithic to the Early Bronze Age. Cambridge: CUP. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KPQQWPK6 §REF§ The two cities were large fortified settlements with palaces and crafts workshops. §REF§ (Ross and Steadman 2017, 219) Ross, Jennifer C. and Sharon R. Steadman. 2017. Ancient Complex Societies. New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/S7GPCJ9A §REF§ The bronze and ceramic workshops produced goods that varied from the ones produced in Shang and Erlitou settlements. §REF§ (Ross and Steadman 2017, 220) Ross, Jennifer C. and Sharon R. Steadman. 2017. Ancient Complex Societies. New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/S7GPCJ9A §REF§ Erligang expanded its cultural influence with the development of regional outputs. Evidence of Erligang material culture is present in Shaanxi, Shandong, and the middle Yangzi region. §REF§ (Liu 2014, 285) Liu, Li and Xingchan Chen. The Archaeology of China: From the Late Paleolithic to the Early Bronze Age. Cambridge: CUP. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KPQQWPK6 §REF§
Population and political organization
Erligang culture had at least three tiers of political hierarchy. §REF§ (Liu 2014, 278) Liu, Li and Xingchan Chen. The Archaeology of China: From the Late Paleolithic to the Early Bronze Age. Cambridge: CUP. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KPQQWPK6 §REF§ Walled palace cities were occupied by royalty, priests, and specialized craftsmen, while the general population and other craftsmen lived in surrounding villages. §REF§ (Liu 2014, 295) Liu, Li and Xingchan Chen. The Archaeology of China: From the Late Paleolithic to the Early Bronze Age. Cambridge: CUP. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KPQQWPK6 §REF§ The political and cultural core of Erligang had an estimated population of 500,000 to 1 million people. The wider Erligang region had a population of 1.5 million to 2 million people. §REF§ (Wang 2014, 179) Wang, Haicheng. 2014. Writing and the Ancient State: Early China in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVA5IWCB §REF§",,,,2024-01-04T15:29:18.017912Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",20.0,Middle Yellow River Valley,North China,112.517587000000,34.701825000000,Luoyang,CN,China,East Asia,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
421,CnErlit,-1850,-1600,Erlitou,cn_erlitou,LEGACY,"Erlitou is a large Bronze Age settlement in the central Yellow River valley southeast of modern Luoyang. §REF§ (Major and Cook 2017, 61) Major, John S. and Constance Cook. 2017. Ancient China: A History. New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9DB56EP2 §REF§ The settlement city was long considered to be the capital of the Xia dynasty, however, some scholars now believe that Erlitou was a separate culture. §REF§ (Ross and Steadman 2017, 216) Ross, Jennifer C. and Sharon R. Steadman. 2017. Ancient Complex Societies. New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/S7GPCJ9A §REF§ Erlitou culture was descended from late Longshan culture, especially the settlements at Taosi and Dawenkou. §REF§ (Major and Cook 2017, 61) Major, John S. and Constance Cook. 2017. Ancient China: A History. New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9DB56EP2 §REF§ Erlitou is divided into four phases by archaeologists.
Erlitou culture is characterized by a state-sponsored bronze industry and a highly specialized casting process for bronze vessels. §REF§ (Lavi-Shelach 2015, 188) Lavi-Shelach, Gideon. 2015. The Archaeology of Early China: From Prehistory to the Han Dynasty. Cambridge: CUP. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6J7SN4JD §REF§ The city featured large buildings used for rituals, and palaces built on pounded earth platforms. Workshops that were most likely state-sponsored produced crafts and goods made of jade, ceramic, and bronze. §REF§ (Major and Cook 2017, 61) Major, John S. and Constance Cook. 2017. Ancient China: A History. New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9DB56EP2 §REF§ The economy was based on agriculture- the people of Erlitou farmed wheat, millet, rice, and vegetables and raised domestic animals. §REF§ (Major and Cook 2017, 63) Major, John S. and Constance Cook. 2017. Ancient China: A History. New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9DB56EP2 §REF§ The state controlled areas as far as 500 km from the center. §REF§ (Lavi-Shelach 2015, 188) Lavi-Shelach, Gideon. 2015. The Archaeology of Early China: From Prehistory to the Han Dynasty. Cambridge: CUP. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6J7SN4JD §REF§
Population and political organization
An increased number of bronze ritual vessels have been found in Phase III elite burials which suggests that society may have been controlled by elites. §REF§ (Ross and Steadman 2017, 218) Ross, Jennifer C. and Sharon R. Steadman. 2017. Ancient Complex Societies. New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/S7GPCJ9A §REF§
In its first phase, at the end of the 3rd millennium BCE, Erlitou was a town in the Yi river valley. The settlement developed into a large city with an estimated 30,000 residents in 1800 BCE in its second and third phases. In its final phase in 1600 BCE, Erlitou declined in population as the nearby city of Erligang developed. §REF§ (Major and Cook 2017, 61) Major, John S. and Constance Cook. 2017. Ancient China: A History. New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9DB56EP2 §REF§",,,,2024-01-04T15:28:49.950419Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",20.0,Middle Yellow River Valley,North China,112.517587000000,34.701825000000,Luoyang,CN,China,East Asia,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
234,EtEthiK,1270,1620,Ethiopia Kingdom,et_ethiopian_k,LEGACY,,,,,2025-01-23T15:48:59.828581Z,"{'id': 135, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
789,et_ethiopian_k_2,1621,1768,Ethiopia Kingdom II,et_ethiopian_k_2,OTHER_TAG,,,,2023-12-07T16:10:22.768317Z,2023-12-07T16:10:22.768332Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
788,et_ethiopian_k_3,1769,1854,Ethiopia Kingdom III,et_ethiopian_k_3,OTHER_TAG,,,,2023-12-07T16:09:45.909264Z,2023-12-07T16:09:45.909278Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
187,ItRav**,568,751,Exarchate of Ravenna,it_ravenna_exarchate,LEGACY,"We begin our Exarchate of Ravenna polity in 568 CE, the date of the last praetorian prefect in Italy, although the first 'exarch' (essentially a governor with political and military authority) known by name dates to the last decades of the 6th century. §REF§ (Noble 1984, 4) Thomas F. X. Noble. 1984. The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 680-825. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§ This year saw Lombard and Germanic tribes invade northern Italy, expelling the Byzantine influence in the area which the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I (r. 527-565 CE) had established only about a decade earlier. The Exarchate of Ravenna together with most of central Italy and parts of the south were the only parts of the former Ostrogothic Kingdom to remain under Byzantine authority after this time. Shortly afterwards, perhaps around 575 CE or slightly later, the first exarch of Ravenna was created under the aegis of the Byzantine emperor. §REF§ (Nicol 1988, 5) Donald M. Nicol. 1988. Byzantium and Venice: A Study in Diplomatic and Cultural Relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The Exarchate period ended when the last exarch, Eutychius, was killed during the Lombard conquest of the territory in 751 CE. However, recognition of the nominal Byzantine authority in the region persisted until 781 CE, when the years of the emperor's reign were no longer used for dating papal documents or on the coins minted in Rome. §REF§ (Grierson and Blackburn 2007, 259) P. Grierson and M. Blackburn. 2007. Medieval European Coinage, Volume 1: The Early Middle Ages (5th-10th Centuries). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
The Exarchate of Ravenna was essentially a special province of the East Roman Empire and the exarch owed nominal allegiance to the emperor in Constantinople. The Roman Senate was last known operating in 580 CE §REF§ (Deliyannis 2010, 207) Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis. 2010. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and many of the senators moved to Constantinople 'to maintain access to court appointments'. §REF§ (Deliyannis 2010, 207) Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis. 2010. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In Italy, Ravenna was the undisputed home and capital for the army and civil administration. §REF§ (Deliyannis 2010, 207-10) Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis. 2010. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
The exarch was a ruler who combined civil and military powers, §REF§ (Deliyannis 2010, 208) Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis. 2010. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ commanding over 50,000 square kilometres of land in Italy after a period of protracted warfare had destroyed the Roman-friendly Ostrogothic governmental system. §REF§ (Deliyannis 2010, 207) Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis. 2010. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ His duties included leading the army in Italy, publishing and enforcing laws and canons of church councils, and appointing most subordinate officials. §REF§ (Noble 1984, 4) Thomas F. X. Noble. 1984. The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 680-825. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§ Exarchs were appointed by the East Roman Emperor from among the personnel of his palace administration in Constantinople 'and rarely had served in any capacity in Italy before being named exarch'. §REF§ (Noble 1984, 4) Thomas F. X. Noble. 1984. The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 680-825. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§ The criteria for choosing exarchs is not entirely clear, nor is it certain how long they might have expected their official tenure to last. §REF§ (Deliyannis 2010, 208) Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis. 2010. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ What is clear is that the exarch retained a great deal of authority and autonomy in the region.
Under the exarch, dukes of provinces ruled from cities (e.g. Rome, Naples, Rimini, Venice) and tribunes governed in towns. Like the exarch himself, the role of dukes and tribunes combined both military and civic duties. However, these men, 'along with the lower-level officers and troops, administrators, clerks, and tax collectors were drawn primarily from the local population, including educated laymen, although on occasion an official might be sent from Constantinople'. §REF§ (Deliyannis 2010, 286-87) Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis. 2010. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Ravenna was governed both directly by the exarchal administration §REF§ (Deliyannis 2010, 286-87) Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis. 2010. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and, until the mid-7th century, a city council (curia) responsible for tax collection and certifying and storing legal documents. §REF§ (Deliyannis 2010, 208, 286-87) Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis. 2010. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Decentralization from 600 to 750 CE weakened the authority of the exarch, §REF§ (Deliyannis 2010, 278) Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis. 2010. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and as government collapsed, the dukes in the provinces gained power. §REF§ (Deliyannis 2010, 287) Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis. 2010. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The 7th century CE saw the development of an 'increasingly closed and hereditary land and officeholding aristocracy'. §REF§ (Noble 1984, 7) Thomas F. X. Noble. 1984. The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 680-825. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§
Another important rival of the exarch's authority was the archbishop of Ravenna. The exarch worked with the archbishop of Ravenna 'in legal cases, foreign affairs, papal relations, and other similar sorts of situations', §REF§ (Deliyannis 2010, 210, 287) Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis. 2010. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ but sometimes they clashed on 'doctrinal matters'. §REF§ (Brown 1979, 26) T. S. Brown. 1979. 'The Church of Ravenna and the Imperial Administration in the Seventh Century'. The English Historical Review 94 (370): 1-28. §REF§ The Church also financed public works projects, such as building churches and public baths. §REF§ (Deliyannis 2010, 201) Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis. 2010. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
Italy experienced a slight population expansion during this period, and had perhaps over one million inhabitants. §REF§ (Noble 1984, 8) Thomas F. X. Noble. 1984. The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 680-825. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",1.0,Latium,Southern Europe,12.486948000000,41.890407000000,Rome,IT,Italy,Europe,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
221,TnFatim,909,1171,Fatimid Caliphate,tn_fatimid_cal,LEGACY,"The Fatimid Caliphate lasted from 909 to 1171 CE. After a failed uprising against the Sunni Abbasids in Syria, the head of the Ismaili Shi'a religious movement - who claimed descent from Muhammad's daughter Fatimah by way of her descendent Ismail - fled to Tunisia. There, with the help of local Berber warriors, he 'seized Ifriqiya - modern Tunisia and Eastern Algeria - took over the trans-Saharan gold-and-slave trade, built two great capitals - first Kairouan, then nearby Mahdiyya - and set up an autonomous state far from the reach of Baghdad'. §REF§ (Man 1999, 74) John Man. 1999. Atlas of the Year 1000. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ From there, the Fatimids conquered much of North Africa, extending their rule into Egypt. The effective end of the Fatimid Caliphate occurred at the end of the 11th century (though the Caliphate remained nominally intact for nearly another century). At this time, a series of Fatimid viziers increased their control of the military and, ruling from their own palaces, turned the imam-caliph into a nominal figurehead. §REF§ (Walker 2006, 88) Paul E. Walker. 2006. 'The Relationship Between Chief Qadi and Chief Da'i under the Fatimids', in Speaking for Islam: Religious Authorities in Muslim Societies, edited by Gudrun Kramer and Sabine Schmidtke, 70-94. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Over many years in the final century, the Fatimid state experienced a long decline marked by incompetent viziers. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 73) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
Although relatively little is known about the Fatimid bureaucracy during the early period (909-969 CE), we can say that it did not have a vizier. §REF§ (Walker 2011, 104) Paul E. Walker. 2011. 'Responsibilities of Political Office in a Shi'i Caliphate and the Delineation of Public Duties under the Fatimids', in Islam, the State, and Political Authority: Medieval Issues and Modern Concerns, edited by A. Afsaruddin, 93-110. London: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ In Tunisia, the Fatimids used slave eunuchs to command army and naval forces, and, following the precedent of previous Islamic governments, founded cities as administrative and military centres and seats for their courts. §REF§ (Yaacov 1991, 4) Yaacov Lev. 1991. State and Society in Fatimid Egypt. Leiden: E. J. Brill. §REF§ Suggesting the presence of a highly capable full-time bureaucracy, one of their purpose-built cities, the second capital Mansuriyya (948-975 CE), was supplied with fresh water from a distant spring via an aqueduct 'modelled on the Roman system at Carthage'. §REF§ (Qutbuddin 2011, 39) Tahera Qutbuddin. 2011. 'Fatimids', in Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Africa, and Asia, Volume 2: Africa, edited by Edward Ramsamy, 37-40. Los Angeles: Sage. §REF§
In 969 CE, the Fatimids conquered Egypt under a military general called Jawhar. This brought the total land area under Fatimid control to 2.4 million square kilometres, §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 10) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and the new capital city, al-Qahira (Cairo), was founded in 975 and remained the capital under the fall of the dynasty in 1171. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 241) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In Egypt the vizier, a staple of Islamic Egyptian government, was introduced to Fatimid professional administration, which may suggest that the Fatimids retained much of the lower administration present during the Ikshidid Period as well. Heads of administration are known for the military, treasury, religion, missionary activities, and the judiciary. §REF§ (Hamblin 2004) William J. Hamblin. 2013. 'Egypt: Fatimids, Later (1073-1171): Army and Administration', in Encyclopedia of African History, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§ Before 1073 CE, the vizier was a slave who did not have military powers. Between 1073 and 1121, he became the military chief and effectively replaced the iman-caliph as head of government. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 243) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The imam-caliph retreated into a palace that contained a harem run by a 'hierarchical corps of eunuchs'. §REF§ (Hamblin 2004) William J. Hamblin. 2013. 'Egypt: Fatimids, Later (1073-1171): Army and Administration', in Encyclopedia of African History, edited by K. Shillington. Online edition. London: Routledge. §REF§
Provinces were ruled through vassals. After the foundation of Cairo, North Africa was 'abandoned' to the Zirid (972-1148 CE) and Hammadid (1015-1152 CE) Dynasties. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 242) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Within Egypt, two cities enjoyed a measure of self-rule: Fustat was governed by a wali (governor) §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 65) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ and Alexandria also had its own budget and chief judge. §REF§ (Sanders 1998, 167) Paula A. Sanders. 1998. 'The Fatimid State, 969-1171', in The Cambridge History of Egypt, Volume 1: Islamic Egypt, 640-1517, edited by Carl F. Petry, 151-74. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The rest of Egypt was divided into seven districts, §REF§ (Lindsay 2005, 108) James E. Lindsay. 2005. Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Publishing Group. §REF§ which may have been commanded by amirs (military governors). Towns with markets would have a muhtasib, who oversaw shopkeepers' and artisans' activities and ensured that religious law was correctly observed. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 65) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§
The Fatimids repaired and improved dams and canals §REF§ (Hrbek 1977, 16) Ivan Hrbek. 1977. 'Egypt, Nubia and the Eastern Deserts', in The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3: From c. 1050 to c. 1600, edited by Roland Oliver, 10-97. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and Egypt grew exceptionally prosperous under their rule, especially before the mid-10th century. Al-Qahira had eight public baths, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 54) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ a caravanserai (funduq) for foreign merchants, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 41) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ and possibly the most famous market in the Islamic world at the time, called the Market of the Lamps (Suq al-Qanadil). §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 42) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The 10th-century geographer al-Muqaddasi described Suq al-Qanadil as 'the marketplace for all mankind ... It is the storehouse of the Occident, the entrepot of the Orient.' §REF§ (Lindsay 2005, 106) James E. Lindsay. 2005. Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Publishing Group. §REF§ Another contemporary traveller, Nasir-i Khusraw, reported that in Cairo the shops were 'all the sultan's property' and leased to the shop owners, §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 54) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ underscoring the power of the caliphs and their dedication to public works.
The population of the Fatimid Caliphate peaked at about 12-13 million in 1000 CE, but subsequently declined as territory was lost to about 4 million in 1100 CE. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 219-29, 141-47) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. London: Allen Lane. §REF§ By the end of the 10th century, the population of the caliphate was roughly equivalent to that of Egypt. The city of Fustat, close to Cairo, had approximately 120,000 residents, even after the fire of 1168, and multiple sources report multi-storey residential homes with up to seven levels. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 62, 65, 78) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",5.0,Upper Egypt,Northeastern Africa,32.714706000000,25.725715000000,Luxor,EG,Egypt,Africa,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
65,GrCrFPa,-1200,-1000,Final Postpalatial Crete,gr_crete_post_palace_2,LEGACY,"With the fall or weakening of the great Eastern Mediterranean powers--the Hittites, the Assyrians, Egypt--there is evidence for a correspondingly ""troubled"" phase in Crete's prehistory. Most notably, the population moved from the coast to the hinterland, suggesting the coasts were no longer safe. Minoan culture continued to exist in some form, but contacts with the rest of the world were greatly reduced §REF§ (Hallager 2010, 157-158) Erik Hallager. 2010. 'Crete' in The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean, edited by E.H. Cline. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
Firth estimated the Cretan population during Late Minoan IIIA and IIIB periods (1400-1200 BCE) at 110,000 people §REF§ (Firth 1995, 33-55) R. Firth. 1995. 'Estimating the population of Crete during LM IIIA/B'. Minos 29-30: 33-55. §REF§ There are no estimates for the Final Post Palatial Period; settlement patterns, however, point to a considerable population decrease, especially during the 1100-1000 BCE period. §REF§ (Rehak and Younger 2001, 458) P. Rehak and J.G. and Younger. 2001. 'Neopalatial, Final palatial, and Postpalatial Crete', in Aegean Prehistory. A Review, edited by Tracey Cullen. Boston: Archaeological Institute of America. §REF§ §REF§ (Borgna 2003, 153-183) Elisabetta Borgna. 2003. 'Regional settlement patterns in Crete at the end of LBA'. SMEA 45: 153-83. §REF§ Similarly, not much is known about political organization at this time. §REF§ K. Christakis, pers. comm., May 2016 §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",4.0,Crete,Southeastern Europe,25.144200000000,35.338700000000,Heraklion,GR,Greece,Europe,19,Southeastern Europe,"Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
693,Milansi,1600,1890,Fipa,tz_milansi_k,POL_AFR_EAST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
546,Cn5Dyna,906,970,Five Dynasties Period,cn_five_dyn,LEGACY,"Five Dynasties Period is an ""intercycle quasipolity,"" referring to the period of disunity and instability in China between the end of the Tang Dynasty and the beginning of the Song Dynasty. An alternative name is The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.",,,,2023-11-10T20:28:44.535122Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
486,IrForma,-7200,-7000,Formative Period,ir_susiana_formative,LEGACY,"""The Formative Ceramic Phase. Soon after the initial Aceramic phase at Coga Bonut, plain and crude pottery vessels of simple shapes appeared, marking the beginning of the Formative Ceramic phase of the following Archaic period. During this phase, several classes of simple decorated pottery vessels, some with fugitive paint, can be observed (Alizadeh, pp. 43-47). The crude pottery of the Formative Ceramic phase (FIGURE 3) evolved into several outstanding classes of painted pottery, but the straw-tempered ware of the following Archaic Susiana 0 phase continued almost unchanged during the entire Archaic sequence.
The architectural evidence of the Formative Ceramic phase consisted of rectangular small houses with two or three rooms and usually an open court with some fire pits containing fire-cracked rocks. These simple nuclear family residences were built with the characteristic long, cigar-shaped mud bricks that continued to be used until the end of the Archaic period, and even into the Early Susiana period (ca. 5900 BCE). These architecturally awkward bricks have a surprisingly wide geographic distribution from the Susiana plain to southern and central Mesopotamia—for example, they have been found at Tell al-Owayli (Oueili; see Vallat, 1996, pp. 113-15, figs. 2-5) and at Čoḡā Māmi (Oates, p. 116, pl. 22:c)—and as far as Central Asia (Masson and Sarianidi, pp. 33-40, pl. 7). In addition to these peculiar bricks, stone and clay T-shaped figurines and a variety of simple coarse ware were shared by a number of early Neolithic cultures of southwest Asia. Exotic materials, not native to the region, consisted solely of obsidian blades and Persian Gulf shells. These non-local items may possibly have been procured by a trickle-down inter-regional exchange system.
No evidence of intramural burial was found at Coga Bonut during this and preceding phase. The absence of this crucial evidence renders it difficult to assess social status solely on the basis of the distribution of other artifacts, which seem homogeneous in all excavated areas. The evidence of architecture, however, points out to some type of social practice that, though not clearly understood, suggests communal activities at this early stage of social development. Two partially preserved buildings are all that were excavated from this phase (FIGURE 4). The better-preserved building may have had a non-domestic as well as domestic function. The plans of the buildings and the presence of numerous fire pits in them suggest non-domestic character or special status of these buildings as well, the nature of which can only be speculated. The possibility that an extended family resided in this building cannot be ruled out, however (Alizadeh, fig. 11)."" §REF§ (Alizadeh 2009, Encyclopedia Iranica Online, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coga-bonut-archaeological-site) §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",9.0,Susiana,Levant-Mesopotamia,48.235564000000,32.382851000000,Susa (Shush),IR,Iran,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
671,ni_dahomey_k,1715,1894,Foys,ni_dahomey_k,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,2025-01-23T15:31:59.740679Z,"{'id': 132, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
609,si_freetown_1,1787,1808,Freetown,si_freetown_1,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
460,FrBurbE,1589,1660,French Kingdom - Early Bourbon,fr_bourbon_k_1,LEGACY,"The House of Bourbon (The Ancien Regime) ruled France from the death of the childless Late Valois king Henry III in 1589 CE to the re-convening of the Estates General during the French Revolution. The Early Bourbon period covers the Kingdom of France from the inheritance of the monarchy by Henry VI to the rise of Louis XIV in 1661 CE. Henry VI inherited the crown amidst the Wars of Religion between the Roman Catholics and the Reformed Protestants, and is celebrated for his tolerance because of his the Edict of Nantes, which granted some rights to Protestants. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 50) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7 §REF§ The reign of Henry VI restored the French monarchy to full power, and his superintendent of finance Sully was able to double state revenues. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 50) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7 §REF§ The French army was modernized by King Louis XIII’s cardinal minister Richelieu. The Fronde, a series of revolts in the 1640s against cardinal minister Mazarin, led the crown to consolidate its power even further. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 55) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7 §REF§ This paved the way for the absolute rule of King Louis XIV in the Late Bourbon period.
In 1608, Samuel de Champlain founded Québec, and the surrounding territory was claimed as New France. France obtained land from Spain in the south and German land from the Holy Roman Empire in the north in treaties from the Thirty Years’ War in 1648 CE and 1659 CE. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 50) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7 §REF§ Because of these new claims, the territory of the French Kingdom covered 931,000 in 1600 CE and 2.6 million square meters by 1650 CE. §REF§ (Chase-Dunn Spreadsheet) §REF§
Population and political organization
Important institutional and military reforms were instituted in this period. King Henry IV instituted a tax on holders of government and judicial offices which gave the owners of the office the right to transfer their position. The expansion and modernization of the French army under Richelieu led to the large-scale expansion of the French bureaucracy. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 50-51) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7 §REF§
The population within the boundaries of present day France is estimated at 18.5 million in 1600 CE, and 21 million in 1650 CE. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 56. McEvedy C, Jones, R (1979) Atlas of World Population History, Allen Lane, London. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6U4QZXCG/). §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",2.0,Paris Basin,Western Europe,2.312458000000,48.866111000000,Paris,FR,France,Europe,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
333,FrValoE,1328,1450,French Kingdom - Early Valois,fr_valois_k_1,LEGACY,"The French crown passed to the Valois Dynasty in 1328 after a succession crisis within the ruling Capetian family, and the Valois reigned over the French kingdom until 1589 CE. Here we focus on the early Valois period, 1328-1450 CE, which was marked by the Hundred Years' War and the economic and human devastation caused by the Black Death. By the mid-15th century, the beginnings of a more modern bureaucracy had developed under Charles VII.
In this period, the territory of the Kingdom of France was considerably smaller than that of modern France. §REF§ (Knecht 2004, 2) Knecht, Robert J. 2004. The Valois: Kings of France 1328-1589. London: Hambledon and London. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI. §REF§ The kingdom covered 390,000 square kilometres in 1350 and 340,000 square kilometres in 1450. §REF§ (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 113) Turchin, Peter and Sergey Nefedov. 2009. Secular Cycles. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH. §REF§
In response to the decline in population and production during the Black Death in the mid-fourteenth century, the crown instituted harsh financial reforms and higher taxes. This led to revolts by peasants and in urban areas. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 44) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7 §REF§ At the same time, the Valois faced the English Plantagenet dynasty in the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453 CE). The French suffered major defeats at Bruges (1340 CE) and Agincourt (1415 CE). Historian of France W. Scott Haine notes that, “In the darkest days of this war France’s very existence seemed in question.” §REF§ (Haine 2000, 44) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7 §REF§ In 1439 CE, inspired by the actions of peasant leader Joan of Arc, Charles VII of France instituted a professional standing army. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 45) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7 §REF§ Charles VII conquered Normandy and Aquitaine by 1453 CE, and England only maintained control over Calais.
Population and political organization
We have estimated the population of the French Kingdom as 12 million in 1350 CE using data from Turchin and Nefedov’s Secular Cycles. §REF§ (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 113) Turchin, Peter and Sergey Nefedov. 2009. Secular Cycles. Princeton: Princeton, University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH/ §REF§ The population declined drastically during the Black Plague in the mid-fourteenth century. §REF§ (Knecth 2004, 2) Knecht. Robert. 2004. The Valois: Kings of France 1328-1589. London: Hambledon Continuum. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI §REF§ An estimated one-third of population died in the plague by 1400 CE. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 44) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7 §REF§ In 1450 CE, the population was only 9 million. §REF§ (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 113) Turchin, Peter and Sergey Nefedov. 2009. Secular Cycles. Princeton: Princeton, University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH/ §REF§
The king and royal lineage dominated French political society. Others were divided into estates: the clergy, the nobles, and the common people. §REF§ (Knecth 2004, 8) Knecht. Robert. 2004. The Valois: Kings of France 1328-1589. London: Hambledon Continuum. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI §REF§ During the time of the Valois there were 40,000 noble families in France- nobility was either inherited or bestowed by the king. §REF§ (Knecth 2004, 8) Knecht. Robert. 2004. The Valois: Kings of France 1328-1589. London: Hambledon Continuum. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBFZ35AI §REF§ Charles VII (1422-1461 CE) began the process to modernize the crown- instituting reforms to change the government from feudal to bureaucratic. This was continued by Late Valois ruler Louis XI (1461-1483 CE). §REF§ (Haine 2000, 46) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7 §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",2.0,Paris Basin,Western Europe,2.312458000000,48.866111000000,Paris,FR,France,Europe,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
461,FrBurbL,1660,1815,French Kingdom - Late Bourbon,fr_bourbon_k_2,LEGACY,"The House of Bourbon (The Ancien Regime) ruled France from the death of the childless Late Valois king Henry III in 1589 CE to the re-convening of the Estates General during the French Revolution. The Late Bourbon period began as King Louis XIV consolidated monarchical power in 1661 CE and ended when King Louis XVI signed the National Assembly’s proposed constitution in 1789 CE. Nickname the “Sun King”, Louis XIV came into full power after the death of cardinal minister Mazarin in 1661 CE. The king was an avid patron of the arts, creating academies for dance, science, music, and architecture, supporting French writers, and expanding the Louvre. The palace of Versailles, then the largest building in Europe, was constructed by Louis XIV in the 1670s and 1680s. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 59) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7 §REF§ The king also nullified the Edict of Nantes that gave rights of worship to the Huguenot Protestants with 1685 CE Edict of Fontainebleau. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 60) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7 §REF§
While the first two periods (1661-1672 CE and 1673-1688 CE) of Louis XIV’s reign were marked by prosperity and expansion, the third period (1689 to 1715 CE) of the Sun King’s reign ended in frustration. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 60-61) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7 §REF§ France was involved in a succession of wars between 1682 CE and 1712 CE (including the War of the League of Augsburg and the War of Spanish Succession) which united much of Europe against Louis XIV. Public debt also increased under the Sun King and France suffered from famine from 1693 to 1694 CE. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 63) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7 §REF§ Under Cardinal Fleury, the regent of the second Late Bourbon King Louis XV, France entered a sustained period of peace and economic expansion from 1726 CE to 1741 CE. In the 18th century, the Enlightenment began to dominate the public sphere, and became a catalyst for the French Revolution which overthrew King Louis XVI in 1789 CE. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 66-71) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7 §REF§
The French Kingdom was expanded under Louis XIV. However, France lost most of its colonial territories in the Seven Years’ War under Louis XV, and gained only Lorraine (1766 CE) and Corsica (1768 CE). §REF§ (Haine 2000, 65) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7 §REF§ France covered 2.5 million square kilometers in 1700 CE but only between 700,000 to 1.54 million square meters in 1750-1789 CE. §REF§ (Chase-Dunn spreadsheet) §REF§ More research is necessary on colonial expansion and loss of territories in this period.
Population and political organization
King Louis XIV changed the relationship between the king and his government by ruling as his own prime minister. Under the rule of the Sun King, the Estates General and the Assembly of Notables did not meet, and the Assembly of the Clergy was tightly controlled. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 57) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7 §REF§ Louis XVI was forced to reconvene the Estates General as the National Assembly during the French Revolution. The National Assembly forced Louis XVI to sign a constitution which limited his right to rule. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 72) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7 §REF§
The population of the French Kingdom was 21.8 million in 1685 CE and 28.5 million in 1789 CE. §REF§ (Ladurie 1991, 302) Ladurie, E L. 1991. The Ancien Regime. A History of France, 1610-1774. Blackwell Publishers, Oxford. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JEZFIU2N §REF§ In the Late Bourbon period, the population of the bourgeoisie increased from 700,000 in 1700 CE to 2.3 million in 1789 CE. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 64) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7 §REF§ ",,,,2024-11-18T11:54:10.131065Z,"{'id': 125, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",2.0,Paris Basin,Western Europe,2.312458000000,48.866111000000,Paris,FR,France,Europe,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
458,FrCaptL,1150,1328,French Kingdom - Late Capetian,fr_capetian_k_2,LEGACY,"In the history of France the Late Capetian period (1150-1328 CE) was a character-defining period of administrative centralization and demographic expansion.
Population and political organization
Before Philip II (r. 1180-1223 CE), government was very simple and closely linked to the king's court, which was still itinerant, moving wherever the king went.§REF§(Clark and Henneman 1995, 1317) Clark, William W., and John Bell Henneman, Jr. 1995. “Paris.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1314-30. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HS8644XK §REF§ At the core of the French king's government were a few major officials with household titles (chancellor, seneschal, butler, chamberlain and constable).§REF§(Bradbury 2013, 249) Bradbury, Jim. 2013. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E §REF§ From the 12th century onwards, these positions were the preserve of the aristocracy.§REF§(Bradbury 2013, 249) Bradbury, Jim. 2013. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E §REF§§REF§(Pegues 1995, 1333) Pegues, Franklin J. 1995. “Parlement de Paris.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1332-33. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HHFUSQER §REF§
Philip II was likewise surrounded by a group of close counsellors,§REF§(Bradbury 2013, 249) Bradbury, Jim. 2013. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E §REF§ but he also laid some of the foundations of a more formal administrative system.§REF§(Spufford 2006, 67) Spufford, Peter. 2006. Power and Profit: The Merchant in Medieval Europe. London: Thames and Hudson. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N7ZCQTEW §REF§ More than ever, government activity was recorded in writing; registers and government records for finance and justice were placed in a dedicated archive.§REF§(Bradbury 2013, 248-49) Bradbury, Jim. 2013. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E §REF§ The clergy of the Christian Church, which had long provided a pool of 'educated, literature and numerate subjects', continued to be a vital resource for the government and administration, while the Knights Templar military order advised and under Philip II controlled the treasury from the Paris Temple.§REF§(Martin 2011) Martin, Sean. 2011. The Knights Templar: The History and Myths of the Legendary Military Order. Harpenden: Pocket Essentials. Seshat URL:https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/S2RA6VRR §REF§§REF§(Bradbury 2013, 249) Bradbury, Jim. 2013. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E §REF§ However, an indication of the increasing specialization of central government, men of lesser status, such as marshals, were increasingly often appointed to important official positions.§REF§(Bradbury 2013, 249) Bradbury, Jim. 2013. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E §REF§ The first truly professional administration in Paris dates from about 1250 CE§REF§(Pegues 1995, 1333) Pegues, Franklin J. 1995. “Parlement de Paris.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1332-33. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HHFUSQER §REF§ and included distinct departments for finance, justice, the chancery and the treasury, housed within the Royal Palace on the Île de la Cité.§REF§(Spufford 2006, 68) Spufford, P. 2006. Power and Profit: The Merchant in Medieval Europe. Thames and Hudson. London.§REF§
The power of the royal centre over the regions (for instance, the power of the French king to make laws binding across the whole of his territory) steadily increased during the Late Capetian period.§REF§(Pegues 1995, 1007-08) Pegues, Franklin J. 1995. “Law and Justice.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1005-11. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UH73VNTJ §REF§ Seneschals who had previously served as the senior officials in the households of dukes, barons, and counts were generally retained but now became royal appointees.§REF§(Henneman, Jr. 1995, 1645) Henneman, Jr., John Bell. 1995. “Seneschal.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1645. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H7UJDBAS §REF§ From the reign of Louis VIII (1223-1226 CE), apanages were carved out in peripheral regions and placed under the control of the sons of the ruler.§REF§(Suarez 1995, 97) Suarez, Pedro J. 1995. “Apanage.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 97-98. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZVMB3BUD §REF§
From the 11th to the 14th century CE, the French population almost quadrupled from about 4 to 15 million.§REF§(Percy, Jr. 1995, 1416) Percy, Jr., William A. 1995. “Population and Demography.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1415-17. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QI73FMSM §REF§ The population of Paris may have grown from about 25,000 people in 1200 CE to 210,000 in 1328 CE.§REF§(Percy, Jr. 1995, 1416) Percy, Jr., William A. 1995. “Population and Demography.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1415-17. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QI73FMSM §REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",2.0,Paris Basin,Western Europe,2.312458000000,48.866111000000,Paris,FR,France,Europe,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
459,FrValoL,1450,1589,French Kingdom - Late Valois,fr_valois_k_2,LEGACY,"The Late Valois (Valois dynasty) represent the last century of Valois rule over the French Kingdom from 1450-1589 CE. The period was greatly impacted by the French Renaissance, external war against the Italians and Habsburgs, and the internal Wars of Religion. First Late Valois king Louis XI (1461-1483 CE) continued to modernize the royal government, and implemented the first royal postal service. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 46) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7 §REF§ The French Renaissance hit its cultural peak during the rule of Frances I (1515-1547 CE) and Henry II (1547-1559 CE). Artists and scholars traveled from Italy to France, and had an immense impact on architecture, culture, and art. Urban life was transformed by Renaissance culture and the printing press. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 47) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7 §REF§
Calais was returned to France from England, and Burgundy, Dauphiné, Provence, and the Three Bishoprics in Lorraine were secured in this period. §REF§ (Jones 1999, 130) Jones, Colin. 1999. The Cambridge Illustrated History of France. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7QCEQCM6 §REF§ §REF§ (Haine 2000, 46) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7 §REF§ The territory of the Kingdom of France was between 400,000 and 500,000 square meters during the rule of the Late Valois. §REF§ (Potter, 1995, 4) Potter, D. 1995. A History of France, 1460-1560. The Emergence of a Nation State. Macmillan. London. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DVCUX6RX §REF§ Outside of Europe, explorer Jacques Cartier paved the way for future French colonies in Canada, and French explorers and merchants began to exploit the west African coast. §REF§ (Haine 2000, 48) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7 §REF§
The Valois fought the Italian Wars from 1494-1559 CE over the French crown’s claim on the kingdom of Naples. In 1519 CE, Charles V of the Spanish Habsburgs became the Holy Roman Emperor. The wars in Italy were the start of a lasting rivalry between the Habsburgs and Valois. In 1559 CE, France gave up all claims in Italy. §REF§ (Jones 1999, 130) Jones, Colin. 1999. The Cambridge Illustrated History of France. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7QCEQCM6 §REF§ The last Valois kings were weakened by the Wars of Religion (Huguenot Wars) (1562-1598 CE), between the Roman Catholics and Reformed Protestants. 3 million people died in the conflict or from famine or disease during the war. §REF§ (Knetcht 2002, 91) Knecht, Robert J. 2002. The French Religious Wars 1562-1598. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7QCEQCM6 §REF§
Population and political organization
Early Valois king Charles VII's work to modernize the French government was continued by Louis XI. The royal council became less feudal and more bureaucratic, the king was advised by professional lawyers rather than feudal vassals, and the financial and judicial functions of government were separated. §REF§ (Jones 1999, 123) Jones, Colin. 1999. The Cambridge Illustrated History of France. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7QCEQCM6 §REF§ §REF§ (Haine 2000, 46) Haine, W. Scott. 2000. The History of France. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9RS462P7 §REF§
The disasters of the late 14th and 15th century had decimated the population of many cities and towns in France. The nation recovered by the late 15th century. §REF§ (Jones 1999, 130) Jones, Colin. 1999. The Cambridge Illustrated History of France. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7QCEQCM6 §REF§ The population of the Kingdom of France during the recovery period in 1470 CE is estimated to be between 10 million and 12 million. §REF§ (Potter, 1995, 170) Potter, D. 1995. A History of France, 1460-1560. The Emergence of a Nation State. Macmillan. London. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DVCUX6RX §REF§ In 1560 CE, the population reached 20 million. §REF§ (Potter, 1995, 8) Potter, D. 1995. A History of France, 1460-1560. The Emergence of a Nation State. Macmillan. London. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DVCUX6RX §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",2.0,Paris Basin,Western Europe,2.312458000000,48.866111000000,Paris,FR,France,Europe,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
37,KhFunaE,225,540,Funan I,kh_funan_1,LEGACY,"'Funan' is the name the Chinese gave to the polity (or cluster of polities) that, between the 3rd and the 7th centuries CE, ruled over much of the southern portion of mainland Southeast Asia ‒ including territory that is today southern Vietnam, Thailand, and Myanmar, as well as all of Cambodia. §REF§ (West 2009, 222) Barbara West. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ Most likely, what we now know as Funan emerged from Iron Age settlements around the Mekong Delta and the banks of the Mekong river. §REF§ (O'Reilly 2007, 91, 97) Dougald J. W. O'Reilly. 2007. Early Civilizations of Southeast Asia. Lanham: AltaMira Press. §REF§ The best known of these settlements is the archaeological site of Oc Èo ‒ hence the name 'culture of Oc Èo' to describe mainland Southeast Asian culture at this time. §REF§ (Ooi 2004, 6-7) Keat Gin Ooi. 2004. 'Introduction', in Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor, edited by Ooi Keat Gin, 1-109. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio. §REF§
Because it is difficult to pinpoint precisely when Funan was founded, here we use 225 CE as our start date. According to written records, this was the year in which the first Funanese embassy visited the Southern Chinese kingdom of Wu. §REF§ (Pelliot 1903, 303) Paul Pelliot. 1903. 'Le Fou-Nan'. Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient 3: 248-303. §REF§ We selected 539 CE as our end date, corresponding to the year King Rudravarman offered the gift of a live rhinoceros to the emperor at Beijing. This is the last time a Funanese ruler is mentioned in any existing records, and indeed it seems that Funan entered a period of gradual decline around this time, until it was supplanted by the Northern Cambodian state of Chenla or Zhenla in the 7th century. §REF§ (Tully 2005, 13) John Tully. 2005. A Short History of Cambodia: From Empire to Survival. Crows Nest, New South Wales: Allen & Unwin. §REF§ Chenla is the older spelling, the modern romanization of the Chinese character is Zhenla. §REF§ (Miksic, John. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email) §REF§
Funan was rather prosperous, due to its privileged position at the crossroads of important trade routes that linked with India and China. Sources suggest that it reached its peak either in the mid-3rd century (when it extended its influence into Malaysia) §REF§ (Gin 2004, 11) Ooi Keat Gin. 2004. 'Introduction', in Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor, edited by Ooi Keat Gin, 1-109. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio. §REF§ or between the end of the 5th and the beginning of the 6th century (when it was ruled by King Kaundinya Jayavarman and reached its maximum territorial extent, as well as the zenith of its political and economic power). §REF§ (West 2009, 223-24) Barbara West. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. New York: Facts on File. §REF§
Population and political organization
It is not entirely clear whether Funan was a unitary state, as suggested by Chinese records, or a cluster of competing centres, or indeed the most powerful out of many such polities. §REF§ (Mabbett and Chandler 1995, 73) Ian Mabbett and David Chandler. 1995. The Khmers. Oxford: Blackwell. §REF§ The highest political authority was probably something like a Mon-Khmer poñ, that is, a settlement chief. There may have been a loose hierarchy of poñ, possibly based on wealth and political influence, with the wealthiest and most powerful poñ viewed as 'kings' by the Chinese. §REF§ (Vickery 1998, 19-20) Michael Vickery. 1998. Society, Economics, and Politics in pre-Angkor Cambodia: The 7th-8th Centuries. Chicago: Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies. §REF§
No population estimates for Funan could be found in the literature, as work continues to locate and study settlements from this period. However, it is worth noting that the site of Oc Èo may have covered 450 hectares, with a possible population of many thousands of people. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 65) Michael Coe. 2003. Angkor and the Khmer Civilization. London: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",17.0,Cambodian Basin,Siam,103.866700000000,13.412500000000,Angkor Wat,KH,Cambodia,Southeast Asia,41,Mainland Southeast Asia,"Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
38,KhFunaL,540,640,Funan II,kh_funan_2,LEGACY,"'Funan' is the name the Chinese gave to the polity (or cluster of polities) that, between the 3rd and the 7th centuries CE, ruled over much of the southern portion of mainland Southeast Asia ‒ including territory that is today southern Vietnam, Thailand, and Myanmar, as well as all of Cambodia. §REF§ (West 2009, 222) Barbara West. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ Most likely, what we now know as Funan emerged from Iron Age settlements around the Mekong Delta and the banks of the Mekong river. §REF§ (O'Reilly 2007, 91, 97) Dougald J. W. O'Reilly. 2007. Early Civilizations of Southeast Asia. Lanham: AltaMira Press. §REF§ The best known of these settlements is the archaeological site of Oc Èo ‒ hence the name 'culture of Oc Èo' to describe mainland Southeast Asian culture at this time. §REF§ (Gin 2004, 6-7) Ooi Keat Gin. 2004. 'Introduction', in Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor, edited by Ooi Keat Gin, 1-109. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio. §REF§
Our Late Funan period spans the century between 540 (the year following the final mention of a Funanese ruler in the Chinese records) §REF§ (Tully 2005, 13) John Tully. 2005. A Short History of Cambodia: From Empire to Survival. Crows Nest, New South Wales: Allen & Unwin. §REF§ and 640 CE (a decade or so before the Chinese received embassies from a number of polities subjugated by the Northern Cambodian polity of Chenla). §REF§ (Hall 2010, 60-61) Kenneth R. Hall. 2010. A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100-1500. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. §REF§ This period was one of decline and dissolution, due in large part to significant changes in international trade networks and the nautical technologies on which these trade networks relied. §REF§ (Hall 2010, 60-61) Kenneth R. Hall. 2010. A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100-1500. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. §REF§
Population and political organization
It is not entirely clear whether Funan was a unitary state, as suggested by Chinese records, or a cluster of competing centres, or indeed the most powerful out of many such polities. §REF§ (Mabbett and Chandler 1995, 73) Ian Mabbett and David Chandler. 1995. The Khmers. Oxford: Blackwell. §REF§ The highest political authority was probably something like a Mon-Khmer poñ, that is, a settlement chief. There may have been a loose hierarchy of poñ, possibly based on wealth and political influence, with the wealthiest and most powerful poñ viewed as 'kings' by the Chinese. §REF§ (Vickery 1998, 19-20) Michael Vickery. 1998. Society, Economics, and Politics in pre-Angkor Cambodia: The 7th-8th Centuries. Chicago: Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies. §REF§
No population estimates for Funan could be found in the literature, as work continues to locate and study settlements from this period. However, Chinese records state that, in the early 7th century, Funan included 30 settlements with about 1,000 households each. §REF§ (Miksic 2007, 125) John N. Miksic. 2007. Historical Dictionary of Ancient Southeast Asia. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",17.0,Cambodian Basin,Siam,103.866700000000,13.412500000000,Angkor Wat,KH,Cambodia,Southeast Asia,41,Mainland Southeast Asia,"Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
649,et_funj_sultanate,1504,1820,Funj Sultanate,et_funj_sultanate,POL_AFR_EAST,"The Funj Sultanate was a kingdom in modern-day Sudan, Ethiopia and Eritrea. The Funj Sultanate was founded in 1504 after its first ruler, Amara Dunquas defeated the Christian Alwa Kingdom. The capital of the Funj Sultanate was at Sinnar in Sudan. Islam spread early in the kingdom as it was originally accepted by the nobles and sultans. As an important trading kingdom, Islam grew due to Muslim immigrants and scholars that arrived in the sultanate. These Islamic scholars and holy men created Quranic schools, established local saint veneration cults, and established Maliki law. As Islam became the kingdom’s state religion, Arabic became the official language of the sultanate. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 431) Lapidus, Ira M. 2002. A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QW9XHCIW/collection §REF§
The Funj Sultanate depended heavily on caravan trade and the gold trade. The apex of the sultanate was during the reign of Badi II from 1644 to 1680. In the last half of the eighteenth century, the kingdom became fragmented as different nobles and elites competed for power. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 621) Lapidus, Ira M. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/SRW6XCHP/collection §REF§ The Funj Sultanate formally ended with Egyptian occupation in 1820-21. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 431) Lapidus, Ira M. 2002. A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/QW9XHCIW/collection §REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
610,gu_futa_jallon,1725,1896,Futa Jallon,gu_futa_jallon,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
405,InGhdvl,1085,1193,Gahadavala Dynasty,in_gahadavala_dyn,LEGACY,"The Gahadavala Kingdom, ruled by the Gahadavala dynasty, was located in the Indian subcontinent spanning the modern-day states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar during 11th and 12th centuries.",,,,2024-07-19T07:49:34.346036Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",14.0,Middle Ganga,Indo-Gangetic Plain,82.700000000000,25.750000000000,Jaunpur,UTPR,India,South Asia,64,North India,"Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
328,UaGalicia,1199,1349,Galicia-Volhynia Principality,ua_galicia_volhynia_principality,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,16,Eastern Europe,"Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
404,InGanga,1028,1435,Ganga Kingdom,in_ganga_k,LEGACY,,,,,2025-03-11T16:48:55.394745Z,"{'id': 148, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,37,Eastern South Asia,"Bangladesh + Indian states of West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and Sikkim","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
796,in_gangaridai,-300,-100,Gangaridai,in_gangaridai,OTHER_TAG,,,,2023-12-07T16:18:46.424116Z,2025-04-15T09:32:06.200356Z,"{'id': 52, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,37,Eastern South Asia,"Bangladesh + Indian states of West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and Sikkim","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
902,cn_ganzhou_k,893,1036,Ganzhou Kingdom,cn_ganzhou_k,OTHER_TAG,,Ganzhou Kingdom,,2024-07-04T14:39:10.594580Z,2024-07-04T14:39:10.594595Z,,,,,,,,,,,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
783,BdGauda,600,625,Gauda Kingdom,in_gauda_k,OTHER_TAG,,,Formerly 600-750 CE,,2024-06-10T10:25:21.820425Z,"{'id': 59, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,37,Eastern South Asia,"Bangladesh + Indian states of West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and Sikkim","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
66,GrCrGeo,-1000,-710,Geometric Crete,gr_crete_geometric,LEGACY,"The eleventh century BCE marks the beginning of radical changes in southern Greece generally as well as Crete specifically, largely resulting from the invasion from the North of the Dorians §REF§ (Whitley 1998, 27-39) J. Whitley. 1998. 'From Minoans to Eterocretans: the Praisos region 1200-500 BC,' in Post-Minoan Crete: Proceedings of the First Colloquium on Post-Minoan Crete held by the British School at Athens and the Institute of Archaeology, University College London, 10-11 November 1995, edited by W.G. Cavanagh and M. Curtis, M. (eds), London: British School at Athens. §REF§ Overall, however, this period is relatively poorly understood, with no written sources and few archaeological finds. Most likely, Cretans mainly dedicated themselves to farming and pastoralism. Writing disappeared and artistic expression became more abstracted and geometrical. Things started to change in the eighth century, when trade routes were revitalized, and Cretans were able to capitalize on the island's premier location in the Eastern Mediterranean. And the trade in artefacts and products was accompanied by the exchange of new ideas and technologies. §REF§ Kostis Christakis, pers. comm., May 2016 §REF§
Population and political organization
Not much is known about either the island's population numbers at the time, or its political organization. In terms of population, very few settlements have been excavated, and none of these have yielded enough data for a credible estimate; in terms of political organization, it is likely that elite families were in charge but not much else could be said. §REF§ Kostis Christakis, pers. comm., May 2016 §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",4.0,Crete,Southeastern Europe,25.144200000000,35.338700000000,Heraklion,GR,Greece,Europe,19,Southeastern Europe,"Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
806,de_hohenzollern_3,1871,1918,Germany - Hohenzollern Dynasty,de_hohenzollern_3,OTHER_TAG,,,,2024-01-26T14:26:26.185902Z,2024-03-12T11:14:39.919338Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
356,JoGhass,500,636,Ghassanid Kingdom,jo_ghassanid_k,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,61,Levant,"Israel/Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
363,AfGhazn,998,1040,Ghaznavid Empire,af_ghaznavid_emp,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,8,Afghanistan,Afghanistan,"{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
134,AfGhurd,1025,1215,Ghur Principality,af_ghur_principality,LEGACY,"The Ghurids were an Islamic Turkish dynasty that ruled the Persian Principality of Ghur between 1025-1215 CE. The peak of their power occurred with their defeat of the Ghaznavid Empire in 1186 CE. For the majority of its existence the Ghurid rulers were in a state of vassalage of the Ghaznavids and the sultans of the Seljuk Turks, to whom they sent tribute. §REF§ (Bosworth 2012) Bosworth, Edmund C. 2012. GHURIDS. Encyclopaedia Iranica. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ghurids §REF§
While ""the early history of the Sansabani family had been full of feuds and disputes"" the successful rebellion against the Ghaznavids resulted in a legacy of at least a degree of cooperation. §REF§ (Bosworth 2012) Edmund C Bosworth. 2012. GHURIDS. Encyclopaedia Iranica. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ghurids §REF§ Bosworth (2012) talks of a polity with two power-bases: one at the newly-acquired Firuzkuh, at Gazna; the other at Bamian. §REF§ (Bosworth 2012) Edmund C Bosworth. 2012. GHURIDS. Encyclopaedia Iranica. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ghurids §REF§
When Mo'ezz-al-Din, conquered Gazna he took the title of sultan. §REF§ (Bosworth 2012) Edmund C Bosworth. 2012. GHURIDS. Encyclopaedia Iranica. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ghurids §REF§ Government was based on the Persian model with a professional vizier who oversaw civil affairs. We also know of a treasurer (khazin), an overseer of public morality and inspector of the markets (muhtasib), and qadis who enforced the Shari'a law. §REF§ (Jackson 2003, 25) Peter Jackson. 2003. The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History. Cambridge University Press. §REF§
Literary and artistic activities under the Ghurids were Persian in style and literature was sponsored by Ghurid sultans. §REF§ (Bosworth 2012) Bosworth, Edmund C. 2012. GHURIDS. Encyclopaedia Iranica. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ghurids §REF§ One of the major cultural achievements of the Ghurid period was the building of the double-helical Minaret of Jam c1190 CE.",,,,2023-10-23T16:25:02.654099Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",13.0,Kachi Plain,Indo-Gangetic Plain,67.628836000000,29.377664000000,Mehrgarh,PK,Pakistan,South Asia,8,Afghanistan,Afghanistan,"{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
692,Gisaka,1700,1867,Gisaka,rw_gisaka_k,POL_AFR_EAST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
252,KrGogur,-37,668,Goguryeo Kingdom,kr_goguryeo_k,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,14,Northeast Asia,"Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
573,ru_golden_horde,1240,1440,Golden Horde,ru_golden_horde,LEGACY,"
The Golden Horde – or Ulug Ulus (‘Great State’) – was originally a northwest sector of the Mongol Empire, which became one of four independent khanates after the fragmentation of the empire in 1259, led by the son of Ghengis Khan, Jochi.
Our Golden Horde polity begins in 1240 when Khan Batu, the grandson of Ghengis Khan, sacked and burned the city of Kiev, conquering and subjugating the region of the Russian steppe and its principalities.
The merging of the nomadic, shamanist, mongol-turkic Gold Horde, with the devoutly Christian and settled people of the Russian steppes, brought about many changes for both sides.
From the fourteenth century the Horde officially converted to Islam under the rule of Öz Beg (Uzbek) Khan
At its greatest extent, around 1330, the Golden Horde territory ran from the Carpathian Mountains to the steppes of Siberia, while the south bordered the Black Sea, the Caucasus Mountains and the Iranian territory of the Il-Khans.
§REF§“Golden Horde”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VXQGWC6R§REF§§REF§ Atwood 2004: vii. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJXN6MZD.§REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,10,Pontic-Caspian,The steppe belt of Ukraine and European Russia,"{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
265,KrGorye,936,1258,Goryeo Kingdom,kr_goryeo_k,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,14,Northeast Asia,"Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
867,lt_lithuania_grand_duc,1220,1385,Grand Duchy of Lithuania,lt_lithuania_grand_duc,OTHER_TAG,,Grand Duchy of Lithuania,,2024-04-11T07:22:35.384042Z,2024-04-11T07:22:35.384057Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
833,it_tuscany_grand_duc,1569,1860,Grand Duchy of Tuscany,it_tuscany_grand_duc,OTHER_TAG,,Republic of Florence,,2024-04-09T14:49:37.069057Z,2024-04-09T14:49:37.069070Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
599,ru_moskva_mongolian_period,1240,1479,"Grand Principality of Moscow, Mongolian period",ru_moskva_mongolian_period,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,16,Eastern Europe,"Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
337,RuMoskva,1480,1613,"Grand Principality of Moscow, Rurikid Dynasty",ru_moskva_rurik_dyn,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,16,Eastern Europe,"Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
824,rs_serbia_k,1091,1371,"Grand Principality, Kingdom and Serbian Empire",rs_serbia_k,OTHER_TAG,,"Grand Principality of Serbia, Kingdom of Serbia, Serbian Empire",,2024-04-09T12:57:15.047704Z,2024-04-13T11:52:39.307754Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,19,Southeastern Europe,"Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
269,CnMing*,1368,1644,Great Ming,cn_ming_dyn,LEGACY,"After 300 years of rule by outsiders, the Ming Dynasty, lasting from the fourteenth to the seventeenth centuries CE, restored Chinese rule to the region. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§ The dynasty was founded by a peasant rebel general, Zhu Yuanzhang, later known as Emperor Taizu or the Hongwu Emperor. §REF§ (Brook 1998, 8) Timothy Brook. 1998. The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Taizu destroyed the Yuan capital in Beijing, forced the Mongols to retreat to Mongolia, and founded the Ming capital in Nanjing in 1368 CE. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 191) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The period saw a resurgence of Chinese intellectualism and economic activity, §REF§ (Mote, Twitchett and Fairbank 1988, 1) Frederick W. Mote, Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank. 1988 'Introduction', in The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644, edited by Frederick W. Mote and Denis Twitchett, 1-10. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ but Ming emperors often struggled to control their massive empire and they do not tend to number among the Chinese emperors considered 'great' by historians. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 216) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
The Ming expanded their territory to the southwest during their rule. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 190) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ However, they never expanded into Mongolia - conflict with the Mongols in the north led the Ming emperors instead to carry out restorations works on the Great Wall. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 212) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The Dynasty came to an end in 1644 CE, when the region was re-captured by descendants of Jin Dynasty's Jurchen rulers from Manchuria known as Qing.
Population and political organization
Ming emperors were not consistent in their style of rule. While Emperor Taizu ruled as an autocrat, some Ming emperors left the governance of the nation in the hands of officials and eunuchs. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 216) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The emperor presided over the central government in concert with various levels of chief ministers and imperial officials, and the central government structure was replicated on a smaller scale at the provincial level. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§ Officials were recruited through an examination system. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§
The period was marked by increasing openness to non-Confucian ideas and an increase in literacy among the lower levels of society. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 212) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Intellectual culture flourished among the elites §REF§ (Mote, Twitchett and Fairbank 1988, 1) Frederick W. Mote, Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank. 1988 'Introduction', in The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644, edited by Frederick W. Mote and Denis Twitchett, 1-10. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and the publishing industry expanded greatly in the Lower Yangtze region. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 190) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Novels, including The Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Water Margin, and the play Peony Pavilion were written in the Ming period. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Ming Dynasty Government and Administration'. Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Ming/ming-admin.html. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§
The rapid growth of the international trading system along with foreign desire for Chinese porcelain and silk led to large increases in foreign trade and an influx of silver into the Ming economy. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 212) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In the later Ming period, trade conflicts impacted China's foreign silver supply, leading to massive deflation. The Ming government, near bankruptcy, could not fund military campaigns against the rebellion spreading through the nation. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 215) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
The Ming population was between 60 million and 66.5 million in 1400 CE and 90 million and 110 million in 1600 CE. §REF§ 《明太祖實錄 卷140》 §REF§ §REF§ (Weatherhead East Asian Institute 2008) Weatherhead East Asian Institute. 2008. 'Issues and Trends in China's Demographic History'. Asia for Educators. Columbia University. http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1950_population.htm. Accessed 16 March 2017. §REF§",,,,2024-01-17T15:39:57.138564Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",20.0,Middle Yellow River Valley,North China,112.517587000000,34.701825000000,Luoyang,CN,China,East Asia,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
813,cz_moravia_k,820,907,Great Moravia,cz_moravia_k,OTHER_TAG,,,,2024-03-13T15:27:30.401013Z,2024-03-13T15:27:30.401030Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
268,CnYuan*,1271,1368,Great Yuan,cn_yuan_dyn,LEGACY,"After a series of military campaigns, Kublai Khan, leader of the large and powerful Mongolian empire, took control of China and established a new Mongolian dynasty based in the territory of the former Jin empire. This polity, ruling from China, was to be known as the Yuan Dynasty, and lasted from 1271 CE until its eventual demise in 1368. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 603) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. New York: Facts on File. §REF§
The Yuan Dynasty was a continuation of the Mongolian Empire. However, Genghis Khan's empire had by this time fractured into rival Khanates, including the Chagatai Khanate, the Ilkhanate, and the Golden Horde. Although the Yuan Emperor was the nominal overlord of these regions, the Khanates were effectively independent. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 603) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ The Yuan's core territory covered North China, Manchuria, and the Inner Mongolian steppe, §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 603) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ but military campaigns saw it expand over most of China, Tibet and into Korea. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 604) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ However, their attempt to conquer Japan was thwarted by a typhoon. §REF§ (Morgan 2007, 107) David Morgan. 2007. The Mongols. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Eventually, internal dissensions between the various ordos (political units) and local rebellions dissolved the fabric of the empire and led to its disaggregation. §REF§ (Franke and Twitchett 1994, 26) Herbert Franke and Denis Crispin Twitchett. 1994. 'Introduction', in The Cambridge History of China, Vol 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368, edited by Herbert Franke and Denis C. Twitchett, 414-89. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
The Yuan Empire was a sociopolitical blend of Chinese and Mongolian features. At the top of the administrative, religious and military hierarchy sat the emperor, ruling under the traditional Chinese 'Mandate of Heaven'. §REF§ Connie Cook, Seshat North China Workshop, 2016. §REF§ Kublai Khan was the embodiment of a strong central authority, but the balance he created was only maintained for about 30 years after his death before emperors started to lose internal and external control over the Yuan dominion. §REF§ (Buell 2003, 62) Paul D. Buell. 2003. Historical Dictionary of the Mongol World Empire. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. §REF§ Administratively, the empire was modelled on its Jin predecessor, and ruled through a variety of entities such as the Secretariat, the Military Affairs Bureau, and the Censorate. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 606) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ However, it also retained Mongolian institutions, such as the keshig (imperial guard) and the ordos, which corresponded to the palace-tents, household and staff of various princes and lords. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 606) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ These ordos acted as separate vassal states under nominal imperial control. §REF§ (Franke and Twitchett 1994, 26) Herbert Franke and Denis Crispin Twitchett. 1994. 'Introduction', in The Cambridge History of China, Vol 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368, edited by Herbert Franke and Denis C. Twitchett, 414-89. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In terms of territorial administration, the Yuan Dynasty comprised 12 provinces. §REF§ (Buell 2003, 60) Paul D. Buell. 2003. Historical Dictionary of the Mongol World Empire. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. §REF§ In total, the population of Yuan China may have been between 60 §REF§ (Mote 1994, 618) Frederick W. Mote. 1994. 'Chinese Society under Mongol Rule, 1215-1368', in The Cambridge History of China, Vol 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368, edited by Herbert Franke and Denis C. Twitchett, 616-64. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and 85 million. §REF§ 《中國人口史》（第三卷）遼宋金元時期.第390頁.吳松弟.復旦大學出版社.2000年12月出版.《中國人口史》共六卷，由葛劍雄教授主編. §REF§
Communications across the vast empire were facilitated by an elaborate postal system, described in detail by Marco Polo. There were 1,400 relay stations located every 25 to 50 kilometres along the main axes of communication, and messengers could cover up to 400 kilometres a day to relay urgent news. §REF§ (Rossabi 1994, 450) Morris Rossabi. 1994. 'The Reign of Khubilai Khan', in The Cambridge History of China, Vol 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368, edited by Herbert Franke and Denis C. Twitchett, 414-89. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Resources could be controlled by the state thanks to the use of paper currency, issued in proportion to silver reserves, and a commercial tax on the government-sponsored ortoq merchant class. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 606) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ Another significant source of wealth was the salt monopoly, which had reached 80 percent of the government's income by 1320. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 606) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. New York: Facts on File. §REF§
Kublai oversaw the construction of a new capital, known as Dadu to the Chinese, Khanbalik to the Turks and Daidu to the Mongols, on the site of modern Beijing. §REF§ (Rossabi 1994, 454) Morris Rossabi. 1994. 'The Reign of Khubilai Khan', in The Cambridge History of China, Vol 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368, edited by Herbert Franke and Denis C. Twitchett, 414-89. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ At its height, Dadu may have had 600,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 123) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. New York: Facts on File. §REF§ The location of this city in the vicinity of the northern frontier enabled Kublai to retain control over the Mongolian homeland. §REF§ (Rossabi 1994, 454) Morris Rossabi. 1994. 'The Reign of Khubilai Khan', in The Cambridge History of China, Vol 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368, edited by Herbert Franke and Denis C. Twitchett, 414-89. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Its architecture and design embodied the syncretism of Mongolian and Chinese influences: it featured two inner walls and an imperial city, but also had avenues wide enough for nine horsemen to gallop abreast, and Mongolian yurts flourished in its parks. §REF§ (Rossabi 1994, 454) Morris Rossabi. 1994. 'The Reign of Khubilai Khan', in The Cambridge History of China, Vol 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368, edited by Herbert Franke and Denis C. Twitchett, 414-89. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The court was cosmopolitan and although Kublai followed Tantric Buddhism, he also had Confucian advisors §REF§ Vesna Wallace 2017, personal communication. §REF§ and welcomed foreigners such as the Polo family. The Yuan were patrons of education through state schools and temples; state organizations sponsored the study of Confucianism, astronomy, historiography and medicine. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 606) Christopher P. Atwood. 2004. Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. New York: Facts on File. §REF§
Yuan China encompassed a territory that fluctuated between roughly 11 and 24 million square kilometres, supporting a population of between 60 and 85 million people. §REF§ 《元史‧卷五八‧志第十‧地理一》，記載：「十三年，平宋，全有版圖。二十七年，又籍之，得戶一千一百八十四萬八百有奇。於是南北之戶總書於策者，一千三百一十九萬六千二百有六，口五千八百八十三萬四千七百一十有一，而山澤溪洞之民不與焉。」 §REF§ §REF§ 《中國人口史》（第三卷）遼宋金元時期.第390頁.吳松弟.復旦大學出版社.2000年12月出版.《中國人口史》共六卷，由葛劍雄教授主編。 §REF§",,,,2024-01-04T16:00:20.553956Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",20.0,Middle Yellow River Valley,North China,112.517587000000,34.701825000000,Luoyang,CN,China,East Asia,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
624,zi_great_zimbabwe,1270,1550,Great Zimbabwe,zi_great_zimbabwe,POL_AFR_SA,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,6,Southern Africa,"Namibia, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique and south","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
350,AfGrBct,-256,-125,Greco-Bactrian Kingdom,af_greco_bactrian_k,LEGACY,"The Greco-Bactrian Kingdom was a hereditary monarchy founded in the mid-3rd century BCE, probably by the Seleucid satrap Diodotus I,§REF§(Holt 1999, 51, 63) Holt, Frank Lee. 1999. Thundering Zeus: The Making of Hellenistic Bactria. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/X4JIUZNR §REF§ as a successor kingdom of the Seleucid Empire. It came to an end when it was conquered by nomadic peoples who were being pushed further west by the rising power of a unified Chinese empire.§REF§(Bernard 2012, 42-52) Bernard, Paul. 2012. “Ai Khanum: A Greek Colony in Post-Alexandrian Central Asia, or How to Be Greek in an Oriental Milieu.” In Afghanistan: Forging Civilizations along the Silk Road, edited by Joan Aruz and Elisabetta Valtz Fino, 42-53. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/K38GFI79 §REF§
Population and political organization
Under the Graeco-Bactrian rulers, new cities based on the Greek street plan, such as Sirkap, sprang up in Central Asia.§REF§(Higham 2004, 344) Higham, Charles. 2004. Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations. New York: Facts On File. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JBEBEPPM §REF§ The Bactrian Greek city of Ai Khanoum, one of the best preserved, had an impressive administrative centre, gymnasium and theatre as well as Greek statuary.§REF§(Docherty 2008, 64-65) Docherty, Paddy. 2008. The Khyber Pass: A History of Empire and Invasion. New York: Union Square Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IW3IVGT7 §REF§ The administrative centre at Ai Khanoum was Persian in style so was likely organized into different departments and scribes.§REF§(Mori 2015, 93) Mori, Anatole. 2015. “Literature in the Hellenistic World.” In A Companion to Greek Literature, edited by Martin Hose and David Schenker, 89-111. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IBRAVRD7 §REF§
The regions of Bactria were ruled by officials from their administrative centres, such as Ai Khanoum, which may have had a population of between 25,000 and 50,000 people. But if these regional officials were initially directly loyal to the central monarchy at the capital Bactra, by 126 BCE the Chinese chronicler Zhang Qian could claim that Bactria had 'no great ruler but only a number of petty chiefs ruling the various cities'.§REF§(Mairs 2014, 154) Mairs, Rachel. 2014. The Hellenistic Far East: Archaeology, Language, and Identity in Greek Central Asia. Oakland, CA: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3ENDA26P §REF§
The Greco-Bactrian army was based on the same model as that of the Macedonian-Seleucids, with innovations in tactics based on exposure to nomadic horsemen.§REF§(Holt 1999, 118) Holt, Frank Lee. 1999. Thundering Zeus: The Making of Hellenistic Bactria. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/X4JIUZNR §REF§ The Bactrian Greeks were equipped in the Macedonian style adopted by their Seleucid forebears. They wore a muscled breastplate made of metal scales and their legs were protected by strips of leather.§REF§(Docherty 2008, 64-66) Docherty, Paddy. 2008. The Khyber Pass: A History of Empire and Invasion. New York: Union Square Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IW3IVGT7 §REF§
The flowering of Greek culture in Central Asia in this period produced distinctly Hellenistic artwork, statuary and coinage and had a profound influence on the culture of central Asia for centuries to come.§REF§(Holt 1999, 136) Holt, Frank Lee. 1999. Thundering Zeus: The Making of Hellenistic Bactria. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/X4JIUZNR §REF§§REF§(Bernard 1994) Bernard, P. 1994. “The Greek Kingdoms of Central Asia.” In History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Volume II: The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civilizations, 700 B.C. to A.D. 250, edited by János Harmatta, B. N. Puri, and G. F. Etemadi, 96-126. Paris: UNESCO. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HIB5JTCU §REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",23.0,Sogdiana,Turkestan,66.938170000000,39.631284000000,Samarkand,UZ,Uzbekistan,Central Eurasia,8,Afghanistan,Afghanistan,"{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
388,InGupta,320,550,Gupta Empire,in_gupta_emp,LEGACY,"The Gupta polity ran from 320-514 CE, with its peak considered to be around 400 CE during the reign of Skanda-Gupta. §REF§ (Keay 2010, 146) Keay, John. 2010. India: A History. New Updated Edition. London: HarperPress. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X. §REF§
At its largest, the Gupta empire spanned up to 900,000 square kilometres across north and south India, which it had full and direct control over, as well as southern India indirectly. The cities of Ujjain and Pataliputra seem to have both served as capital cities. While the total population is not known, the largest settlement, Pataliputra, is thought to have had a population of 150,000 people in 360 CE. §REF§ (Agrawal 1989) §REF§ , Kulke and Rothermund (2004) §REF§ (Kulke and Rothermund 2004) §REF§ and Stein (2010) §REF§ (Stein 2010) §REF§ .
Trade flourished under the Gupta Empire both internally across India as well as through overseas trading routes with China and the Roman Empire. Among their exports were pearls, gems, diamonds and precious metals. §REF§ (Keay 2010, 146) Keay, John. 2010. India: A History. New Updated Edition. London: HarperPress. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X. §REF§
Common religions practiced in this polity included Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism from both the Vaisnava and Saiva Traditions, though none claimed to be the exclusive or ‘correct’ religion. §REF§ (Bisschop 2010, 478) Bisschop, Peter. 2010. “Saivism in the Gupta-Vakataka Age.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 20 (4):477-88.Seshat URL: .https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/M52PA8IW/itemKey/BHH5W2PV §REF§",,,,2024-10-17T09:15:38.939628Z,"{'id': 65, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",14.0,Middle Ganga,Indo-Gangetic Plain,82.700000000000,25.750000000000,Jaunpur,UTPR,India,South Asia,64,North India,"Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
418,in_gurjara_pratihara_dyn,730,1030,Gurjar-Pratihara Dynasty,in_gurjara_pratihara_dyn,LEGACY,"The polity of Gurjar ran from c. 730 to 1030 CE with its territory spanning approximately 1 million square kilometres; roughly corresponding to a slightly smaller area than the states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar combined. §REF§ (Keay 2000: 198) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X. §REF§
There has been no information could be found in the sources consulted regarding the polity's overall population, but the imperial capital of Kanauj is thought to have had a population of 80,000 people at its peak in 810 - 950 CE.",,JR: Changed start year from 810 to 730 CE -- now matches the date range for ruler transitions.,,2024-07-19T07:49:42.884204Z,"{'id': 57, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",14.0,Middle Ganga,Indo-Gangetic Plain,82.700000000000,25.750000000000,Jaunpur,UTPR,India,South Asia,64,North India,"Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
790,et_habesha,801,1136,Habesha,et_habesha,OTHER_TAG,,,,2023-12-07T16:11:32.953872Z,2023-12-07T16:11:32.953885Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
640,so_habr_yunis,1300,1886,Habr Yunis,so_habr_yunis,POL_AFR_EAST,"The Habr Yunis Sultanate was originally part of the Isaaq Sultanate or clan group that began roughly around the fourteenth century with the arrival of Sheikh Isaq, (the founder of the Isaaq Somali people) from the Arabian Peninsula. §REF§ (Lewis 2002, 22-23) Lewis, Ioan M. 2002. A Modern History of the Somali: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KHB7VSJK/collection §REF§ By the mid-nineteenth century along with Habr Awal and Habr Jeclo, Habr Yunis broke away from the Isaaq to create its own sultanate. The Habr Yunis controlled trade around the Zeila and Berbera ports on the northwest Somali coast. §REF§ (Bridges 1986, 682-683) Bridges, Roy. 1986. ‘The Visit of Frederick Forbes to the Somali Coast in 1833.’ The International Journal of African Historical Studies. Vol. 19:4. Pp 679-691. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/G3PNH843/collection §REF§ By the late nineteenth century, Habr Yunis was absorbed into British Somaliland officially ending the sultanate. §REF§ (Albaharna et. al. 1986, 88) Albaharna, Husain M. 1986. The Legal Status of the Arabian Gulf States: A Study of Their Treaty Relations and Their International Problems. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/G6NP7HE4/collection §REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
645,et_hadiya_sultanate,1300,1680,Hadiya Sultanate,et_hadiya_sultanate,POL_AFR_EAST,"The Hadeya Sultanate or Kingdom was in southwestern part of Ethiopia. The kingdom was first mentioned in the Ethiopian historical epic, Kebra Nast, in the early fourteenth century. During the early 1300s, the polity is thought to have paid tribute to the Ethiopian Empire under the reign of Amda Tseyon. By 1531, the Muslim forces of Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al Ghazi of the Adal Sultanate formed an alliance with the Hadeya leaders going against the Ethiopian Kingdom. After a major victory over the Adal Sultanate, the Ethiopian Empire with the help of the Portuguese brought the Hadeya Kingdom back into the Ethiopian domination. Despite being under Ethiopian control, the Hadeya still rebelled and led insurrections. By the 17th century, Hadeya finally submitted allegiance to the Ethiopian Emperor.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
228,TnHafsid,1227,1452,Hafsid Dynasty,tn_hafsid_dyn,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,3,Maghreb,From Morocco to Libya,"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
449,FrHallA,-1000,-900,Hallstatt A-B1,fr_hallstatt_a_b1,LEGACY,"The Hallstatt culture, named after an archaeological site in Austria and traditionally divided into four phases, was the main cultural complex in Western Europe during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. It coincides with the North Alpine complex, extending over modern-day central and southern Germany, northern Italy, and Switzerland. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 14) Brun, Patrice. 1995. “From Chiefdom to State Organization in Celtic Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, Cambridge University Press, 13-25. Cambridge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH. §REF§
Population and political organization
Across Europe, thousands of small-scale polities coexisted in the Hallstatt A period (c. 1100-1000 BCE); §REF§ (CNRS-ENS 2017) CNRS-ENS. 2017. “Atlas de L’âge Du Fer.” Accessed July 7. http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/patlas. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HUKZMF9J. §REF§ the average independent political unit controlled a zone with a radius of 20 kilometres. §REF§ (Brun 2007, 381) Brun, Patrice. 2007. “Une Période de Transition Majeure En Europe: De La Fin Du IVe Au Début Du IIe s. Av. J.-C.(La Tène B2 et C).” In La Gaule Dans Son Contexte Européen Aux IV e et III e Siècle Avant Notre Ère, edited by Christine Mennessier-Jouannet, Anne-Marie Adam, and Pierre-Yves Milcent, 377-84. Lattes: Edition de l’Association pour le Développement de l’Archéologie en Languedoc-Roussillon. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D2ET47FZ. §REF§ Most settlements identified archaeologically consisted of dispersed farms gravitating around a significant monument, a village or a fortification. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 15) Brun, Patrice. 1995. “From Chiefdom to State Organization in Celtic Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, Cambridge University Press, 13-25. Cambridge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH. §REF§
At this time, elites had control over long-distance exchange networks, which encouraged the production of bronze objects such as helmets. §REF§ (Allen 2007, 119) Allen, Stephen. 2007. Lords of Battle: The World of the Celtic Warrior. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F9D9PI8A. §REF§ These elites also distinguished themselves in death, as they were buried in elaborate complexes of tumuli, which could include protective walls, stone markers and even four-wheeled wagons. §REF§ Pare, Christopher FE. 1992. Wagons and Wagon-Graves of the Early Iron Age in Central Europe. Vol. 35. Oxford: Oxford University School of Archaeology. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XPKX7SNP. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",2.0,Paris Basin,Western Europe,2.312458000000,48.866111000000,Paris,FR,France,Europe,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
450,FrHallB,-900,-700,Hallstatt B2-3,fr_hallstatt_b2_3,LEGACY,"The Hallstatt culture, named after an archaeological site in Austria and traditionally divided into four phases, was the main cultural complex in Western Europe during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. It coincides with the North Alpine complex, extending over modern-day central and southern Germany, northern Italy, and Switzerland. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 14) Brun, Patrice. 1995. “From Chiefdom to State Organization in Celtic Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, Cambridge University Press, 13-25. Cambridge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH. §REF§
Population and political organization
In the Hallstatt B period (c. 1000-800 BCE), §REF§ (CNRS-ENS 2017) CNRS-ENS. 2017. “Atlas de L’âge Du Fer.” Accessed July 7. http://www.chronocarto.ens.fr/gcserver/patlas. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HUKZMF9J. §REF§ the North Alpine cultural complex gradually became incorporated in trade networks dominated by Greek and Etruscan settlements. Hallstatt chiefs mediated the supply of Mediterranean prestige goods in their own spheres of exchange. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 14) Brun, Patrice. 1995. “From Chiefdom to State Organization in Celtic Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, Cambridge University Press, 13-25. Cambridge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH. §REF§
The average scale of integration of Hallstatt B polities extended to include land within a roughly 25-kilometre radius. §REF§ (Brun 2007, 381) Brun, Patrice. 2007. “Une Période de Transition Majeure En Europe: De La Fin Du IVe Au Début Du IIe s. Av. J.-C.(La Tène B2 et C).” In La Gaule Dans Son Contexte Européen Aux IV e et III e Siècle Avant Notre Ère, edited by Christine Mennessier-Jouannet, Anne-Marie Adam, and Pierre-Yves Milcent, 377-84. Lattes: Edition de l’Association pour le Développement de l’Archéologie en Languedoc-Roussillon. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D2ET47FZ. §REF§ The maximal territorial extent of polities could be as much as 1000 square kilometres, as in the case of Wessex. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 14) Brun, Patrice. 1995. “From Chiefdom to State Organization in Celtic Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, Cambridge University Press, 13-25. Cambridge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH. §REF§
In this period, a three-tiered settlement hierarchy can be discerned archaeologically. Previous units fragmented: new autonomous communities polarized around fortified sites, the proportion of which increased. Tumuli became a more noticeable feature in the Hallstatt B landscape, and iron-working activity became much more prevalent. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 15) Brun, Patrice. 1995. “From Chiefdom to State Organization in Celtic Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, Cambridge University Press, 13-25. Cambridge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",2.0,Paris Basin,Western Europe,2.312458000000,48.866111000000,Paris,FR,France,Europe,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
451,FrHallC,-700,-600,Hallstatt C,fr_hallstatt_c,LEGACY,"The Hallstatt culture, named after an archaeological site in Austria and traditionally divided into four phases, was the main cultural complex in Western Europe during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. It coincides with the North Alpine complex, extending over modern-day central and southern Germany, northern Italy, and Switzerland. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 14) Brun, Patrice. 1995. “From Chiefdom to State Organization in Celtic Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, Cambridge University Press, 13-25. Cambridge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH. §REF§
Population and political organization
In the Hallstatt C period, which lasted from around 700 to 600 BCE, §REF§ (Collis 1995, 75) Collis, John. 1995. “States without Centers? The Middle La Tène Period in Temperate Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, 75-80. Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QFU68CIQ. §REF§ Hallstatt polities became increasingly integrated into the Mediterranean economy. Although the settlement pattern was still rather decentralized, §REF§ (Collis 1995, 75) Collis, John. 1995. “States without Centers? The Middle La Tène Period in Temperate Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, 75-80. Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QFU68CIQ. §REF§ this period saw the proliferation of fortified sites. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 15) Brun, Patrice. 1995. ""From chiefdom to state organization in Celtic Europe."" In Celtic chiefdom, Celtic state. New Directions in Archaeology, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, 13-25. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH. §REF§ These elevated settlements, covering between one and ten hectares, sprang up at strategic locations such as the confluence of rivers. They were often enclosed by earthworks and walls and associated with burial mounds and tumuli. §REF§ (Arnold and Gibson 1995, 7) Arnold, Bettina, and D. Blair Gibson. 1995. “Introduction: Beyond the Mists: Forging an Ethnological Approach to Celtic Studies.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and Gibson, 1-7. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/583XXU9Z. §REF§
Another important development of the Hallstatt C period was an increasing diversity in material culture, especially in ceramic and metal objects, as seen in the elaborate bronze hoards dating to this period. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 15) Brun, Patrice. 1995. ""From chiefdom to state organization in Celtic Europe."" In Celtic chiefdom, Celtic state. New Directions in Archaeology, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, 13-25. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH. §REF§ The variability of artefact types may indicate the fragmentation of cultural zones and the creation of myriad princely territories with an average radius of c. 30 kilometres. §REF§ (Brun 2007, 381) Brun, Patrice. 2007. “Une Période de Transition Majeure En Europe: De La Fin Du IVe Au Début Du IIe s. Av. J.-C.(La Tène B2 et C).” In La Gaule Dans Son Contexte Européen Aux IV e et III e Siècle Avant Notre Ère, edited by Christine Mennessier-Jouannet, Anne-Marie Adam, and Pierre-Yves Milcent, 377-84. Lattes: Edition de l’Association pour le Développement de l’Archéologie en Languedoc-Roussillon. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D2ET47FZ. §REF§ It is possible that a four-tiered administrative hierarchy developed during the Hallstatt C period. §REF§ (Arnold and Gibson 1995, 6-7) Arnold, Bettina, and D. Blair Gibson. 1995. “Introduction: Beyond the Mists: Forging an Ethnological Approach to Celtic Studies.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and Gibson, 1-7. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/583XXU9Z. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",2.0,Paris Basin,Western Europe,2.312458000000,48.866111000000,Paris,FR,France,Europe,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
452,FrHallD,-600,-475,Hallstatt D,fr_hallstatt_d,LEGACY,"The Hallstatt culture, named after an archaeological site in Austria and traditionally divided into four phases, was the main cultural complex in Western Europe during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. It coincides with the North Alpine complex, extending over modern-day central and southern Germany, northern Italy, and Switzerland. §REF§ (Brun 1995, 14) Brun, Patrice. 1995. “From Chiefdom to State Organization in Celtic Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, Cambridge University Press, 13-25. Cambridge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RZWRCEPH. §REF§
Population and political organization
The Hallstatt D period (c. 600-475 BCE) §REF§ (Collis 1995, 75) Collis, John. 1995. “States without Centers? The Middle La Tène Period in Temperate Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, 75-80. Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QFU68CIQ. §REF§ saw the intensification of processes that had been occurring throughout the Hallstatt era. Some polities disintegrated while others gained power. Thus, the number of hillforts decreased but they grew in size; §REF§ (Allen 2007, 26-27) Allen, Stephen. 2007. Lords of Battle: The World of the Celtic Warrior. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F9D9PI8A. §REF§ Mont Lassois is a prime example. §REF§ (Collis 1984, 16) Collis, John. 1984. The European Iron Age. London; New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2HS6EBNS. §REF§ Chiefs controlled the prestige economy at the local level, trading with their Mediterranean counterparts. Extreme social differentiation can be observed in burials; §REF§ (Collis 1995, 75) Collis, John. 1995. “States without Centers? The Middle La Tène Period in Temperate Europe.” In Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems in Prehistoric Europe, edited by Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson, 75-80. Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QFU68CIQ. §REF§ the lavish Vix Burial, a cairn 42 metres wide and 6 metres high associated with the site of Mont Lassois, §REF§ (Collis 1984, 16, 95) Collis, John. 1984. The European Iron Age. London; New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2HS6EBNS. §REF§ includes gold and bronze objects as well as prestigious imports.
This period was also marked by the rise of urban centres specializing in administrative and mercantile activities, including colonies and entrepôts established for the purpose of long-distance trade. §REF§ (Collis 1984, 22) Collis, John. 1984. The European Iron Age. London; New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2HS6EBNS §REF§ Population estimates are more easily accessible for the Hallstatt D period. The Heuneburg, a hillfort reaching c. 100 hectares in the mid-6th century BCE, may have been home to about 5000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Fernández Götz and Krausse 2012, 31) Fernández-Götz, Manuel, and Dirk Krausse. 2012. “Heuneburg. First City North of the Alps.” Current World Archaeology, no. 55: 28-34. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/PMS9IF2F. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",2.0,Paris Basin,Western Europe,2.312458000000,48.866111000000,Paris,FR,France,Europe,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
894,th_haribhunjaya_k,662,1292,Haribhunjaya,th_haribhunjaya_k,OTHER_TAG,,Haribhunjaya,,2024-07-03T14:17:21.281240Z,2024-07-03T14:17:21.281255Z,,,,,,,,,,,41,Mainland Southeast Asia,"Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
644,et_harla_k,500,1500,Harla Kingdom,et_harla_k,POL_AFR_EAST,,,,,2025-01-30T16:06:23.151565Z,"{'id': 134, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
884,in_harsha_emp,606,647,Harsha's Empire,in_harsha_emp,OTHER_TAG,,Harsha Vardhana,,2024-06-14T09:43:25.687364Z,2024-06-14T09:43:25.687378Z,,,,,,,,,,,64,North India,"Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
164,TrHatNK,-1400,-1180,Hatti - New Kingdom,tr_hatti_new_k,LEGACY,"The period of the Hittite New Kingdom lasts from about 1400-1180 BCE although the dynasty that created it, originating from the city Kumbnani within the Kizzuwatna polity, came to power in the mid-fifteenth century BCE. The rulers of this dynasty were the creators of the Hittite empire, which during the reign of King Suppiluliuma I (1356-1319 BCE) and his successors achieved the greatest prosperity. In the period of its greatest splendor, the Hittite king controlled up to 400,000 squared kilometers of land including the areas of Northern Mesopotamia, Syria and Palestine.
The central bureaucracy was relatively sophisticated: a Chief of the Scribes headed up the Hittite chancellery §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 66) §REF§ whilst a separate administrator, the hazannu, had responsibility for the city of Hattusa. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 16) §REF§ Keepers of the Royal Storehouses were also important officials. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 18) §REF§ District governors known as Lord of the Watchtower were appointed for the provinces §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 16) §REF§ whilst the conquest of Syria c1340 BCE lead to the position of viceroy being created for the important urban centre of Karkamis. §REF§ (Thuesen 2002, 45) §REF§ The power of the state was based on the army, which was great for the times - it had iron weapons, armor, and excellent war chariots.
During the reign of Muwattalli, Ramses II was in power in Egypt, and the war between two most powerful states in the Middle East area resulted in the first written international treaty known to us as "" Kadesh Treaty "". Although this treaty was originally written in the Akkadian language, copies in Hittite and Egyptian languages were made. Around 1200 BCE, the Hittite state probably fell under the pressure of the Sea Peoples, although a few Hittite city-states in Northern Syria survived until 708 BC.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",11.0,Konya Plain,Anatolia-Caucasus,32.521164000000,37.877845000000,Konya,TR,Turkey,Southwest Asia,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
162,TrHatOK,-1650,-1500,Hatti - Old Kingdom,tr_hatti_old_k,LEGACY,"The early period of the Hittite Kingdom lasted from about 1650 to 1500 BCE and is known as the Old Kingdom. The polity emerged after a group of Indo-European speakers migrated c. 2000 BCE from either the Causasus or the Bosphorus and Dardanelles and settled on a high plateau in western Anatolia known as Hatti. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 8) Bryce, Trevor R. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W. §REF§ §REF§ (Stephens, Jr. 1979, 46) Stephens, Jr., W. Richard. 1979. “The Rise of the Hittite Empire: A Comparison of Theories on the Origin of the State.” Mid-American Review of Sociology 4 (1): 39-55. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2MD3WV2T. §REF§ The immigrants mingled with the indigenous people of Hatti and adopted many of their beliefs and customs. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 8) Bryce, Trevor R. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W. §REF§
Population and political organization
Before the mid-1st millennium BCE, the central Anatolian region was divided into many city-states. §REF§ (Stephens, Jr. 1979, 41-42) Stephens, Jr., W. Richard. 1979. “The Rise of the Hittite Empire: A Comparison of Theories on the Origin of the State.” Mid-American Review of Sociology 4 (1): 39-55. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2MD3WV2T. §REF§ Gradually, however, the Hittites began to conquer the neighbouring cities, founding a strong state around 1650 BCE. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 8) Bryce, Trevor R. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W. §REF§ §REF§ (Stephens, Jr. 1979, 41049) Stephens, Jr., W. Richard. 1979. “The Rise of the Hittite Empire: A Comparison of Theories on the Origin of the State.” Mid-American Review of Sociology 4 (1): 39-55. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2MD3WV2T. §REF§ Labarna I (17th century BCE) was the first known Hittite king. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 34) Bryce, Trevor R. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W. §REF§
The king was the supreme ruler and military commander, a chief judge and a priest in Hittite society. §REF§ (Bryce 2007, 11) Bryce, Trevor A. 2007. Hittite Warrior. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/38EMV897. §REF§ He entrusted the management of major cities and provinces to officials who were often directly answerable to him, §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 16) Bryce, Trevor R. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W. §REF§ and could bestow important military positions on members of his own family. §REF§ (Bryce 2007, 8-9) Bryce, Trevor A. 2007. Hittite Warrior. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/38EMV897. §REF§ Vassal rulers were obliged to pay tribute to the king and take an oath of allegiance. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 43) Bryce, Trevor R. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8JSUC58W. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",11.0,Konya Plain,Anatolia-Caucasus,32.521164000000,37.877845000000,Konya,TR,Turkey,Southwest Asia,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
101,UsIroqE,1566,1713,Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Early,us_haudenosaunee_1,LEGACY,"The Finger Lakes region of the modern-day state of New York was once part of Iroquois territory. On the eve of European contact, this territory stretched from Lake Champlain and Lake George west to the Genesee River and Lake Ontario and from the St. Lawrence River south to the Susquehanna River. Originally, the League of the Iroquois was a confederacy of five Native American tribes (the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca), joined by a sixth tribe, the Tuscarora, in 1722, following its northward migration from the Roanoke River. This confederacy was created between 1400 and 1600 CE. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the confederacy was overall able to exploit the establishment of the European fur trade to its advantage, playing French and English interests off against one another, and gaining a major role in economic and political affairs. As a result of this, the Iroquois - particularly the Seneca - also frequently clashed with other Native tribes, such as the Huron, Petun, Neutral and Susquehannock. Eventually, the Iroquois also came into conflict with the Europeans, first with the French, then with the American revolutionaries. Starting in the 19th century, the Iroquois tribes settled on reservations in western New York state, southern Quebec and southern Ontario. §REF§ (Reid 1996) Reid, Gerald. 1996. “Culture Summary: Iroquois.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE. §REF§
Population and political organization
The central Iroquois League Council dealt with common affairs, while tribal chiefs and councils (as well as the female elders of their respective lineages and more recently created non-hereditary positions) occupied an intermediary position. The council included 50 men and women representing the five original tribes and had legislative, executive and judiciary powers, but it only deliberated on matters relating to foreign affairs (for example, peace and war) as well as matters of common interest to all five tribes. §REF§ (Reid 1996) Reid, Gerald. 1996. “Culture Summary: Iroquois.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE. §REF§
According to Gerald Reid, there were around 5,500 Iroquois at the beginning of the 17th century. §REF§ (Reid 1996) Reid, Gerald. 1996. “Culture Summary: Iroquois.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",29.0,Finger Lakes,East Coast,-77.021375000000,42.704980000000,Seneca Falls,USNY,United States,North America,22,East Coast,East Coast of US,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
102,UsIroqL,1714,1848,Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Late,us_haudenosaunee_2,LEGACY,"The Finger Lakes region of the modern-day state of New York was once part of Iroquois territory. On the eve of European contact, this territory stretched from Lake Champlain and Lake George west to the Genesee River and Lake Ontario and from the St. Lawrence River south to the Susquehanna River. Originally, the League of the Iroquois was a confederacy of five Native American tribes (the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca), joined by a sixth tribe, the Tuscarora, in 1722, following its northward migration from the Roanoke River. This confederacy was created between 1400 and 1600 CE. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the confederacy was overall able to exploit the establishment of the European fur trade to its advantage, playing French and English interests off against one another, and gaining a major role in economic and political affairs. As a result of this, the Iroquois - particularly the Seneca - also frequently clashed with other Native tribes, such as the Huron, Petun, Neutral and Susquehannock. Eventually, the Iroquois also came into conflict with the Europeans, first with the French, then with the American revolutionaries. Starting in the 19th century, the Iroquois tribes settled on reservations in western New York state, southern Quebec and southern Ontario. §REF§ (Reid 1996) Reid, Gerald. 1996. “Culture Summary: Iroquois.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE. §REF§
Population and political organization
The central Iroquois League Council dealt with common affairs, while tribal chiefs and councils (as well as the female elders of their respective lineages and more recently created non-hereditary positions) occupied an intermediary position. The council included 50 men and women representing the five original tribes and had legislative, executive and judiciary powers, but it only deliberated on matters relating to foreign affairs (for example, peace and war) as well as matters of common interest to all five tribes. §REF§ (Reid 1996) Reid, Gerald. 1996. “Culture Summary: Iroquois.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE. §REF§
According to Gerald Reid, there were around 5,500 Iroquois at the beginning of the 17th century. §REF§ (Reid 1996) Reid, Gerald. 1996. “Culture Summary: Iroquois.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=nm09-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZHZI7ZTE. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",29.0,Finger Lakes,East Coast,-77.021375000000,42.704980000000,Seneca Falls,USNY,United States,North America,22,East Coast,East Coast of US,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
669,ni_hausa_k,900,1808,Hausa bakwai,ni_hausa_k,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
17,Hawaii1,1000,1200,Hawaii I,us_hawaii_1,LEGACY,"Hawai'i, also known as the Big Island, is the largest island of the Hawaiian archipelago. Recent estimates for the date of initial settlement by Polynesian voyagers have varied from 800 to 1250 CE, but the latest Bayesian model, based on palaeoenvironmental data and a carefully defined set of archaeological radiocarbon dates, suggests that the archipelago was first colonized between 1000 and 1100. §REF§ (Athens, Rieth and Dye 2014) J. Stephen Athens, Timothy M. Rieth and Thomas S. Dye. 2014. 'A Paleoenvironmental and Archaeological Model-Based Age Estimate for the Colonization of Hawai'i'. American Antiquity 79(1): 144-55. §REF§ Our 'Hawaii 1' designates the earliest phase of Hawai'i's prehistory, from around 1000 to 1200, before most of the changes characteristic of Kirch's 'expansion period', including a rapid rise in population, took place. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 127) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
According to reconstructions of Hawaiki, the ancestral Polynesian homeland, ancient Polynesians recognized the authority of the *ariki, that is, the head of a lineage, who had both secular and sacred authority and was in charge of most, if not all, rituals. §REF§ (Kirch 2012, 45) Patrick V. Kirch. 2012. A Shark Going Inland Is My Chief. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ However, a few thousand years separate Ancestral Polynesians from the earliest Hawaiians, and it is not clear how much the latter retained of the former's culture and sociopolitical organization. The earliest island-wide unitary kingdom on the Big Island emerged around 1580; §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 174) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ before then the Big Island was probably divided into several small, independent polities. §REF§ (Kirch 2016, personal communication) §REF§
The founding population was probably about 100 people, due to the limited capacity of the canoes the first settlers likely used to reach the islands. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 129) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ This population probably grew somewhat between 1000 and 1200, but no up-to-date estimates could be found in the literature — an estimate of 20,000 inhabitants for the entire archipelago around 1100 dates to 1985, when the earliest phase of human occupation was thought to have begun around 600 CE. §REF§ (Kirch 1985, 302) Patrick V. Kirch. 1985. Feathered Gods and Fishhooks: An Introduction to Hawaiian Archaeology and Prehistory. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",33.0,Big Island Hawaii,Polynesia,-155.916989000000,19.528931000000,Kona,USHI,United States,Oceania-Australia,30,Polynesia,Polynesia,"{'id': 8, 'name': 'Oceania-Australia'}"
18,Hawaii2,1200,1580,Hawaii II,us_hawaii_2,LEGACY,"Hawai'i, also known as the Big Island, is the largest island of the Hawaiian archipelago. Our 'Hawaii 2' refers to the period from 1200 to 1580 CE. 1200 marks the beginning of archaeologist Patrick Kirch's 'expansion period', §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 127-28) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ while 1580 is the approximate date of the formation of the first island-wide unitary kingdom. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 174) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
According to reconstructions of Hawaiki, the ancestral Polynesian homeland, ancient Polynesians recognized the authority of the *ariki, that is, the head of a lineage, who had both secular and sacred authority and was in charge of most, if not all, rituals. §REF§ (Kirch 2012, 45) Patrick V. Kirch. 2012. A Shark Going Inland Is My Chief. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ However, a few thousand years separate Ancestral Polynesians from the earliest Hawaiians, and it is not clear how much the latter retained of the former's culture and sociopolitical organization. The earliest island-wide unitary kingdom on the Big Island emerged around 1580; §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 174) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ before then, the Big Island was probably divided into several small, independent polities. §REF§ (Kirch 2016, personal communication) §REF§
It is currently not possible to reconstruct the exact population of a typical Big Island community at this time. §REF§ Kirch, personal communication §REF§ No up-to-date estimates have been found in the literature. Scholars do, however, distinguish between distinct phases of demographic and agricultural development after the initial colonization period. From 1200 to 1400 CE, Hawaiians experienced significant population growth and adapted their technology and subsistence economy to local conditions while maintaining long-distance contact with Eastern Polynesia. From 1400 to 1580 CE, population growth peaked and began to stabilize, contact with Eastern Polynesia ceased, and large-scale dryland field systems were established across the Big Island. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 127-28) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ ",,,,2024-08-14T12:47:39.957086Z,"{'id': 81, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",33.0,Big Island Hawaii,Polynesia,-155.916989000000,19.528931000000,Kona,USHI,United States,Oceania-Australia,30,Polynesia,Polynesia,"{'id': 8, 'name': 'Oceania-Australia'}"
19,Hawaii3,1580,1778,Hawaii III,us_hawaii_3,LEGACY,"Hawai'i, also known as the Big Island, is the largest island of the Hawaiian archipelago. Our 'Hawaii 3' refers to the period from 1580 to 1778 CE. 1580 is the approximate date of the formation of the first island-wide unitary kingdom, while 1778 is the date of first European contact ‒ the arrival of Captain Cook. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 174) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Kirch 2000, 300) Patrick V. Kirch. 2000. On the Road of the Winds: An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands before European Contact. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
By about 1580, 'Umi had become the first true 'king' (ali'i nui) of the entire Big Island. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 92, 98) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ In contrast with the chiefs who came before him, he is said to have exerted greater control over land tenure, instituted a system of territorial administration based on ahupua'a land parcels, intensified food production, and elaborated the religious system. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 102-03) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§
After 'Umi, the island alternated several times between being split into two or more smaller polities, and being united under one ruler. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 105-09) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ In times of greater integration, the kingdom was divided into districts (moku) which were each under the control of a major chief called an ali'i-'ai-moku. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 48) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Within districts were territories called ahupua'a, ruled by chiefs called ali'i-'ai-ahupua'a. The more powerful of these ali'i held more than one ahupua'a. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 48) §REF§ Below the ahupua'a chiefs, konohiki land managers (often their junior relatives) oversaw the collection of tribute from the commoner farmers, known as maka'āinana. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 49) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§
Overall, this period was characterized by a high-density but stable population settled in all ecological zones, a secondary intensification of the dryland field systems, and endemic conquest warfare. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 127) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ The population of the entire Hawaiian archipelago by Cook's arrival was certainly very large, but there is a long-standing debate regarding exact numbers. Estimates range between 250,000 and 800,000. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 129-130) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",33.0,Big Island Hawaii,Polynesia,-155.916989000000,19.528931000000,Kona,USHI,United States,Oceania-Australia,30,Polynesia,Polynesia,"{'id': 8, 'name': 'Oceania-Australia'}"
147,JpHeian,794,1185,Heian,jp_heian,LEGACY,"The Heian period (794-1185 CE) began when the Emperor Kammu (r. 781-806 CE) moved the capital from Nara to Heian (Kyoto) in 794 CE. The imperial court maintained centralized control over the main islands of Japan and was the centre of a vast, highly bureaucratic administration system. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 89) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Mason 2011, 67) Richard H. P. Mason. 2011. A History of Japan. Revised ed. New York: Tuttle Publishing. §REF§ The period's peak can be considered to run from 794 to 930 CE, a phase of prosperity and cultural and artistic florescence. §REF§ (Shively and McCullough 2008, 1-2) Donald H. Shively and William H. McCullough. 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 2: Heian Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ However, the imperial court's isolation from the realities of government, elaborate internal power dynamics and court intrigues eventually weakened the central government and contributed to the rise of the provincial warrior class. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 29-30) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The period ends with the establishment of the Kamakura Shogunate.
Population and political organization
Beginning in the proceeding Nara period, the imperial court had based its bureaucratic system on that of the 'statutory' (ritsuryō) regime of the Chinese T'ang court. The Nara style of administration continued to be implemented by the Heian emperors until the 850s CE. While the government still maintained 'the conception and rhetoric of Confucian government', its functions were carried out by other means, with increased competition for offices, and, due to the dominance of the Fujiwara family, an increasingly narrow focus on factional concerns. §REF§ (Shively and McCullough 2008, 342-43) Donald H. Shively and William H. McCullough. 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 2: Heian Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Mason 2011, 64) Richard H. P. Mason. 2011. A History of Japan. Revised ed. New York: Tuttle Publishing. §REF§ Although knowledge of Chinese culture had been considered the mark of a cultured individual for much of the Heian period, by its end a distinctly Japanese cultural identity had started to emerge. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 30) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§
Over the course of the Heian period, the imperial family and nobility became increasingly divorced from the realities of government, preoccupying themselves with 'dilettantish pastimes' and matters of protocol above matters of state. While this led to a florescence of the arts and the refinement of etiquette, it also indirectly allowed the provincial warrior class to increase their power because the day-to-day tasks of governance in the provinces were left to them. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 28-29) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Another factor in the rise and consolidation of power by the warrior class at the expense of the nobility was the changing patterns of land ownership. By the late 10th century CE, with the end of public land allotment, private land ownership had proliferated, much of which was exempt from taxation, significantly affecting the revenue of the government. The nobles' presence at court meant that vast private land holdings were controlled by estate managers on behalf of absentee landlords - further weakening the centralized government and contributing to the emergence of feudalism in Japan. §REF§ (Mason 2011, 76) Richard H. P. Mason. 2011. A History of Japan. Revised ed. New York: Tuttle Publishing. §REF§ §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 29) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The personal power of the emperors also waned throughout the period, with the rising prominence of imperial regents, consolidating the power of the Fujiwara family, and the early abdication of emperors in attempts to form a 'cloister government' to counter the Fujiwara regents' control of young puppet rulers. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 29-30) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§
The institution of a standing army of professional warriors contributed to the rise of a class of militarized landed gentry in the provinces. This in turn laid the foundation for the rise of the shogunate, the military government which would dominate Japan until the 1800s, leaving the emperor as little more than a figurehead. §REF§ (Lorge 2011, 47) P. A. Lorge. 2008. The Asian Military Revolution: From Gunpowder to the Bomb. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
The polity population ranged from roughly four million in 800 CE to five or six million by 1100 CE. §REF§ (Farris 2006, 9) William Wayne Farris. 2006. Japan's Medieval Population: Famine, Fertility, and Warfare in a Transformative Age. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. §REF§ §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 181) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. London: Penguin Books. §REF§ Kyoto became the largest settlement, with an estimated population of 200,000 from 800 to 925 CE; 175,000 in the 11th century; and 150,000 by 1150 CE. §REF§ (Chandler 1987) Tertius Chandler. 1987. Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census. Lewiston, NY: The Edwin Mellen Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",21.0,Kansai,Northeast Asia,135.762200000000,35.025280000000,Kyoto,JP,Japan,East Asia,14,Northeast Asia,"Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
69,GrCrHel,-323,-69,Hellenistic Crete,gr_crete_hellenistic,LEGACY,"In the Greek world, the Hellenistic era goes from the death of Alexander in 323 BCE to the Roman conquest in 69 BCE. For much of this period, due to its enviable position in the Eastern Mediterranean, the island lay at the centre international conflicts between Alexander's successors, most notably the Ptolemies (who managed to establish an autonomous republic at Itanos in the third century §REF§ (Spyridakis 1970) Stylianos Spyridakis. 1970. Ptolemaic Itanos and Hellenistic Crete. Berkeley: University of California Press. §REF§ ), the Seleucids, Macedonia, and Pergamon. §REF§ (Van Effenterre 1948, 114) Henri van Effenterre, H. 1948. La Crète et le mondes grec de Platon à Polybe. Paris: E. de Boccard. §REF§ This in turn exacerbated conflicts between the island's chief city-states, with few periods of respite, until Crete was conquered by the Romans §REF§ (Chaniotis 1987, 236-246) Angelos Chaniotis. 1897. 'Κλασική και Ελληνιστική Κρήτη', in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός, edited by N. Panagiotakis. Heraklion: ΣΥΝΔΕΣΜΟΣ ΔΗΜΩΝ & ΚΟΙΝΟΤΗΤΩΝ ΚΡΗΤΗΣ. §REF§ .
Population and political organization
In terms of the island's population at this time, estimates vary for a minimum of 200,000 to a maximum of 1,000,000 people; however, the most likely estimate is of 450,000-500,000 people. §REF§ (Chaniotis 1987, 194-195) Angelos Chaniotis. 1897. 'Κλασική και Ελληνιστική Κρήτη', in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός, edited by N. Panagiotakis. Heraklion: ΣΥΝΔΕΣΜΟΣ ΔΗΜΩΝ & ΚΟΙΝΟΤΗΤΩΝ ΚΡΗΤΗΣ. §REF§ Political, military and religious control in Cretan city-states was exercised by the Kosmoi (Κόσμοι), a board of 3 to 10 nobles, annually elected by the Ecclesia, the body of free male citizens. One of the Kosmoi, known as protokosmos or stratagetas, was the president of the board. The council of elders, the Gerousia, whose members were chosen among the best Kosmoi, had legislative and juridical authority. §REF§ (Willetts 1965, 56-75) Ronald F. Willetts. 1965. Ancient Crete. A Social History. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. §REF§ §REF§ (Chaniotis 1987, 196-199) Angelos Chaniotis. 1897. 'Κλασική και Ελληνιστική Κρήτη', in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός, edited by N. Panagiotakis. Heraklion: ΣΥΝΔΕΣΜΟΣ ΔΗΜΩΝ & ΚΟΙΝΟΤΗΤΩΝ ΚΡΗΤΗΣ. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",4.0,Crete,Southeastern Europe,25.144200000000,35.338700000000,Heraklion,GR,Greece,Europe,19,Southeastern Europe,"Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
129,AfHepht,408,561,Hephthalite Empire,af_hephthalite_emp,LEGACY,"The Hepthalites were one group of a series of nomadic tribal confederations that are sometimes referred to as the White Huns. The evidence seems to indicate that they were a second wave of Hunnish migration. §REF§ http://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledgebankarticle/vol_III%20silk%20road_the%20hephthalite%20empire%20BIS.pdf p. 140 §REF§ Despite the name, some scholars think the White Huns were in fact not a Turkic people, but rather the easternmost group of Iranian nomads. §REF§ Docherty, Paddy. The Khyber Pass: a history of empire and invasion. Union Square Press, 2008. p. 105 §REF§
At their peak territorial coverage the Hephthalite lands may have enclosed 26 million people but most subjects likely had a great deal of autonomy. As a nomadic confederation, the Hepthalites may not have possessed a central administration, although evidence indicates at least the adoption of local administrations for the purposes of exacting tribute. §REF§ encyclopedia iranica vol. XII, HAREM I - ILLUMINATIONISM, 2004. Fasc. 2, pp. 198-201 §REF§ During the peak of their power, they seem to have become increasingly sedentary, and this may have increased the degree of centralization. Coins show Hephthalites practiced skull deformation §REF§ (West 2009, 276) West, B A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing. §REF§ which may provide indirect evidence for strong social hierarchy and status competition.
Commentators at the time differed in their opinions as to what the structure of the group was and to what degree they differed from the other nomadic peoples of the area. The Byzantian commentator Procopius of Caesarea stressed that, 'They are not nomadic like the other Hunnish peoples, but have long since settled on fertile land.' He further explained that unlike the other peoples of central asia, the Hepthalites were,'ruled by one king and possess a legal state structure, observing justice among themselves and with their neighbours in no lesser measure than the Byzantines and Persians.' §REF§ http://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledgebankarticle/vol_III%20silk%20road_the%20hephthalite%20empire%20BIS.pdf p. 140 §REF§",,,,2025-04-17T14:20:56.398412Z,"{'id': 99, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",23.0,Sogdiana,Turkestan,66.938170000000,39.631284000000,Samarkand,UZ,Uzbekistan,Central Eurasia,8,Afghanistan,Afghanistan,"{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
353,YeHmyr1,270,340,Himyar I,ye_himyar_1,LEGACY,"In 115 BCE the Himyarites were a tribe from the southwestern highlands of Yemen. They formed, with Saba, the dual kingdom of Saba and Dhu-Raydan §REF§ (Burrows 2010, 140) Robert D Burrows. 2010. Historical Dictionary of Yemen. Second Edition. The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham. §REF§ §REF§ (Bryce 2009, 602) Trevor Bryce. 2009. The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia. The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the fall of the Persian Empire. Routledge. Abingdon. §REF§ after the Roman attacks in 25 BCE emboldened the Himyarites who ""siezed the Sabaean homelands and made the population subject to a new Saba-Himyar regime."" §REF§ (McLaughlin 2014, 136) Raoul McLaughlin. 2014. The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: The Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia and India. Pen and Sword Military. Barnsley. §REF§ They used the royal title 'king of Saba and dhu-Raydan' with Raydan later becoming known as Qataban. §REF§ (Hitti 2002, 55) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ Dhu-Raydan (Zafar), the Himyarite capital, was located in the highlands near modern Yarim. §REF§ (Burrows 2010, 161) Robert D Burrows. 2010. Historical Dictionary of Yemen. Second Edition. The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham. §REF§
The Roman discovery of the Indian Ocean trade winds around 100 CE signaled the end of many great civilizations in South Arabia that used overland trade routes; §REF§ (Burrows 2010, xxiii) Robert D Burrows. 2010. Historical Dictionary of Yemen. Second Edition. The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham. §REF§ but the Himyarite state was initially an exception, and prospered. For a time the Himyarites were a subject tribe of the Romans §REF§ (Friedman 2006, 105) Saul S. Friedman. 2006. A History of the Middle East. McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. Jefferson. §REF§ and they possessed colonies which seeded the Abyssinian Kingdom in Ethiopia. §REF§ (Hitti 2002, 56) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ The wealth of the Himyar state, similarly acquired as other local kingdoms from the trade of incense and spices, came from trading overseas routes. While during the second millennium CE Saba split from Himyar the Himyarites later benefited immensely at the expense of their rival kingdoms as the overland routes became increasingly less efficient and disrupted by warfare, especially in the third century CE, which involved Himyar, Saba, Hadramawt and Aksum.
The Himyarites had a much more centralized polity than Saba throughout the early first millennium §REF§ (Korotayev 1996, 47) Andrey Vitalyevhich Korotayev. 1996. Pre-Islamic Yemen. Socio-political Organization of the Sabaean Cultural Area in the 2nd and 3rd Centuries AD. Harrassowitz Verlag. Wiesbaden. §REF§ but could not hold back the Abyssinians who invaded and occupied the tihama (Red Sea littoral) from the 2nd century CE; the Ethiopians conquered the Himyarite capital in 240 CE, but agreeing an alliance with Himyar withdraw from the Arabian peninsular §REF§ (Caton 2013, 45-46) Steven C Caton ed. 2013. Yemen. ABC-Clio. Santa Barbara §REF§ in about 270 CE. §REF§ (Orlin et al. 424) Eric Orlin. Lisbeth S Fried. Jennifer Wright Knust. Muchael L Satlow. Michael E Pregill. eds. 2016. The Routledge Encyclopedia of Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Routledge. New York. §REF§ The Himyar-Abyssinain alliance or vassalage ended about 298 CE. §REF§ (Syvanne 2015, 133) Ilkka Syvanne. 2015. Military History of Late Rome 284-361. Pen and Sword. Barnsley. §REF§ Himyar ""reached the peak of its power in the third century as a result of a successful series of wars against the local heathen tribes and the African realm of Ethiopia."" §REF§ (285) Norman Roth ed. 2016. Routledge Revivals: Medieval Jewish Civilization (2003): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. §REF§ Between 270-280 CE the Sabaean Kingdom was annexed by the Himyarites. §REF§ (Caton 2013, 45-46) Steven C Caton ed. 2013. Yemen. ABC-Clio. Santa Barbara §REF§ Hadramawt was conquered by 300 CE. §REF§ (Hitti 2002, 60) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ Throughout this period the profits from the incense trade were in a progressive decline as the rise of Christianity in the west had reduced demand for a product that was most commonly used in pagan rituals. When in 395 CE the Roman emperor Theodosius declared Christianity to be the official state religion of the Roman Empire the trade ceased entirely. §REF§ (Romano 2004, 13) Amy Romano. 2004. A Historical Atlas of Yemen. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. New York. §REF§
At this same time Himyarites also were undergoing their own seismic shift in religious belief system - rapidly converting from their pagan polytheistic belief system to monotheistic religious doctrines by the late 4th century CE. §REF§ (Kaye 2007, 168) L E Kogan. A V Korotayev. Epigraphic South Arabian Morphology. Alan S Kaye ed. 2007. Morphologies of Asia and Africa. Volume 1. Eisenbrauns. Winona Lake. §REF§ ""There is significant archaeological evidence of the abandonment of pagan temples toward the conclusion of the fourth century and of the almost complete disappearance of expressions of devotion to the old tribal gods shortly thereafter."" §REF§ (Maroney 2010, 93) Eric Maroney. 2010. The Other Zions: The Lost Histories of Jewish Nations. Roman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham. §REF§ ""From the 4th century on the Himyarite kings were either full members or sympathizers of Judaism"" and the Jewish faith became ""the dominant religion"" in South Arabia. §REF§ (Tubach 2015, 363-365) Johann Jurgen Tubach. Aramaic Loanwords In Geez. Aaron Michael Butts. ed. 2015. Semitic Languages in Contact. BRILL. Leiden. §REF§ In the later fourth century there was a Jewish dynasty of kings known as the Tabbai'a. §REF§ (Haas 2014, 38-39) Christopher Haas. Geopolitics and Georgian Identity in Late Antiquity: The Dangerous World of Vakhtang Gorgasali. Tamar Nutsubidze. Cornelia B Horn. Basil Lourie. eds. 2014. Georgian Christian Thought and Its Cultural Context. Memorial Volume for the 125th Anniversary of Shalva Nutsubidze (1888-1969). BRILL. Leiden. §REF§ A list of Himyarite's known Jewish kings include: Yassirum Yohre'am (from 270 CE); 'Amr-Shlomo ben David (325-330 CE); Malki Kariba Juha'min (378-385 CE); Abu Kariba As'as (385-420 or 445 CE); Shurihbi'il Yakkuf (468-480 CE); Martad Ilan ('Judaized' 495-515 CE); Yusuf Ash'ar Dhu Nuwas (515-525 CE). §REF§ (Brook 2006, 264-265) Kevin Alan Brook. 2006. The Jews of Khazaria. Second Edition. Rowman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham. §REF§ §REF§ (Haas 2014, 38-39) Christopher Haas. Geopolitics and Georgian Identity in Late Antiquity: The Dangerous World of Vakhtang Gorgasali. Tamar Nutsubidze. Cornelia B Horn. Basil Lourie. eds. 2014. Georgian Christian Thought and Its Cultural Context. Memorial Volume for the 125th Anniversary of Shalva Nutsubidze (1888-1969). BRILL. Leiden. §REF§ The Himyarite army adopted Judaism as its official religion at the start of the fifth century CE. §REF§ (Brook 2006, 264-265) Kevin Alan Brook. 2006. The Jews of Khazaria. Second Edition. Rowman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham. §REF§
Christianity also was present in Himyar at least from the first half of the 4th century §REF§ (Tubach 2015, 363-363) Johann Jurgen Tubach. Aramaic Loanwords In Geez. Aaron Michael Butts. ed. 2015. Semitic Languages in Contact. BRILL. Leiden. §REF§ when the Christian missionary Theophilus arrived and ""complained that he found a great number of Jews"". §REF§ (Maroney 2010, 93) Eric Maroney. 2010. The Other Zions: The Lost Histories of Jewish Nations. Roman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham. §REF§ By 350 CE Christian communities were becoming established and over the next 100 years, ""missionaries systematically converted many Arabian tribes from their traditional polytheistic practices to monotheistic Christianity"". §REF§ (Romano 2004, 13) Amy Romano. 2004. A Historical Atlas of Yemen. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. New York. §REF§ It is also suggested that the rulers were not Jewish but Monophysite Christians. According to Friedman (2006) Himyarite colonists, the Axumites, in the land of Cush (Ethiopia) ""which they renamed Axum ... converted to Monophysite Christianity at the beginning of the fourth century. Between 340 to 378, the Axumites returned to Yemen and imposed their rule and religion over the Himyarites. Although the interregnum was short-lived, the impact of the Axumites was very profound. Yemen was a Christian land, with churches and a cathedral in San'a, and all but one of the restored Himyarite monarchs (378-525) were Monophysite Christians. The lone heretic was Dhu-Nuwas who, for unknown reasons, hated Christians and converted to Judaism."" §REF§ (Friedman 2006, 106) Saul S. Friedman. 2006. A History of the Middle East. McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. Jefferson. §REF§ However, Christians appear to have been repressed due to a perceived association with influence of the Byzantine Empire: ""in the 470s ... a priest named Azqir was executed for active proselytisation in Najran"". §REF§ (Hoyland 2001, 51) Robert G Hoyland. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. London. §REF§ Hitti also mentions the 340-378 CE period of Abyssinian rule. §REF§ (Hitti 2002, 60) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§
An inscription dated to 378 CE claimed ""the completion of buildings by a Himyar monarch had been accomplished 'through the power of their lord of sky and heaven,' and phrases such as 'the owner of the sky and earth,' and the expression 'the Merciful' also were used. §REF§ (Maroney 2010, 93) Eric Maroney. 2010. The Other Zions: The Lost Histories of Jewish Nations. Roman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham. §REF§ It has been suggested that the Himyarite ""profession of monotheism, and later full-fledged Judaism, distanced the Himyarites from the Christianity of the Byzantines and their Ethiopian allies and the Zoroastrianism of the Persians"" §REF§ (Maroney 2010, 93) Eric Maroney. 2010. The Other Zions: The Lost Histories of Jewish Nations. Roman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham. §REF§ so that their strategically located state had an independent or neutral identity. Written sources mention the presence of synagogues in Zafar and Najran. §REF§ (Haas 2014, 38-39) Christopher Haas. Geopolitics and Georgian Identity in Late Antiquity: The Dangerous World of Vakhtang Gorgasali. Tamar Nutsubidze. Cornelia B Horn. Basil Lourie. eds. 2014. Georgian Christian Thought and Its Cultural Context. Memorial Volume for the 125th Anniversary of Shalva Nutsubidze (1888-1969). BRILL. Leiden. §REF§
As trade revenues flatlined, the increasing persecution and then massacre of Christians by king Dhu Nuwas §REF§ (Burrows 2010, xxiii) Robert D Burrows. 2010. Historical Dictionary of Yemen. Second Edition. The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham. §REF§ lead to a foreign intervention. The Byzantine Empire in alliance with the Aksumite Kingdom invaded the Himyarite kingdom and Dhu Nuwas was removed. Himyar and the Red Sea Coast was thereafter ruled directly by the Christian Ethiopians until the Persian conquest in 570 CE, interrupted by the Christian Ethiopian governor-general Abraha's declaration of independence between 550-553 CE. §REF§ (Caton 2013, 47) Steven C Caton ed. 2013. Yemen. ABC-Clio. Santa Barbara §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",12.0,Yemeni Coastal Plain,Arabia,43.315739000000,14.850891000000,Sanaa,YE,Yemen,Southwest Asia,44,Arabia,Arabian Peninsula,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
354,YeHmyr2,378,525,Himyar II,ye_himyar_2,LEGACY,"In 115 BCE the Himyarites were a tribe from the southwestern highlands of Yemen. They formed, with Saba, the dual kingdom of Saba and Dhu-Raydan §REF§ (Burrows 2010, 140) Robert D Burrows. 2010. Historical Dictionary of Yemen. Second Edition. The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham. §REF§ §REF§ (Bryce 2009, 602) Trevor Bryce. 2009. The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia. The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the fall of the Persian Empire. Routledge. Abingdon. §REF§ after the Roman attacks in 25 BCE emboldened the Himyarites who ""siezed the Sabaean homelands and made the population subject to a new Saba-Himyar regime."" §REF§ (McLaughlin 2014, 136) Raoul McLaughlin. 2014. The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: The Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia and India. Pen and Sword Military. Barnsley. §REF§ They used the royal title 'king of Saba and dhu-Raydan' with Raydan later becoming known as Qataban. §REF§ (Hitti 2002, 55) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ Dhu-Raydan (Zafar), the Himyarite capital, was located in the highlands near modern Yarim. §REF§ (Burrows 2010, 161) Robert D Burrows. 2010. Historical Dictionary of Yemen. Second Edition. The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham. §REF§
The Roman discovery of the Indian Ocean trade winds around 100 CE signaled the end of many great civilizations in South Arabia that used overland trade routes; §REF§ (Burrows 2010, xxiii) Robert D Burrows. 2010. Historical Dictionary of Yemen. Second Edition. The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham. §REF§ but the Himyarite state was initially an exception, and prospered. For a time the Himyarites were a subject tribe of the Romans §REF§ (Friedman 2006, 105) Saul S. Friedman. 2006. A History of the Middle East. McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. Jefferson. §REF§ and they possessed colonies which seeded the Abyssinian Kingdom in Ethiopia. §REF§ (Hitti 2002, 56) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ The wealth of the Himyar state, similarly acquired as other local kingdoms from the trade of incense and spices, came from trading overseas routes. While during the second millennium CE Saba split from Himyar the Himyarites later benefited immensely at the expense of their rival kingdoms as the overland routes became increasingly less efficient and disrupted by warfare, especially in the third century CE, which involved Himyar, Saba, Hadramawt and Aksum.
The Himyarites had a much more centralized polity than Saba throughout the early first millennium §REF§ (Korotayev 1996, 47) Andrey Vitalyevhich Korotayev. 1996. Pre-Islamic Yemen. Socio-political Organization of the Sabaean Cultural Area in the 2nd and 3rd Centuries AD. Harrassowitz Verlag. Wiesbaden. §REF§ but could not hold back the Abyssinians who invaded and occupied the tihama (Red Sea littoral) from the 2nd century CE; the Ethiopians conquered the Himyarite capital in 240 CE, but agreeing an alliance with Himyar withdraw from the Arabian peninsular §REF§ (Caton 2013, 45-46) Steven C Caton ed. 2013. Yemen. ABC-Clio. Santa Barbara §REF§ in about 270 CE. §REF§ (Orlin et al. 424) Eric Orlin. Lisbeth S Fried. Jennifer Wright Knust. Muchael L Satlow. Michael E Pregill. eds. 2016. The Routledge Encyclopedia of Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Routledge. New York. §REF§ The Himyar-Abyssinain alliance or vassalage ended about 298 CE. §REF§ (Syvanne 2015, 133) Ilkka Syvanne. 2015. Military History of Late Rome 284-361. Pen and Sword. Barnsley. §REF§ Himyar ""reached the peak of its power in the third century as a result of a successful series of wars against the local heathen tribes and the African realm of Ethiopia."" §REF§ (285) Norman Roth ed. 2016. Routledge Revivals: Medieval Jewish Civilization (2003): An Encyclopedia. Routledge. §REF§ Between 270-280 CE the Sabaean Kingdom was annexed by the Himyarites. §REF§ (Caton 2013, 45-46) Steven C Caton ed. 2013. Yemen. ABC-Clio. Santa Barbara §REF§ Hadramawt was conquered by 300 CE. §REF§ (Hitti 2002, 60) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ Throughout this period the profits from the incense trade were in a progressive decline as the rise of Christianity in the west had reduced demand for a product that was most commonly used in pagan rituals. When in 395 CE the Roman emperor Theodosius declared Christianity to be the official state religion of the Roman Empire the trade ceased entirely. §REF§ (Romano 2004, 13) Amy Romano. 2004. A Historical Atlas of Yemen. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. New York. §REF§
At this same time Himyarites also were undergoing their own seismic shift in religious belief system - rapidly converting from their pagan polytheistic belief system to monotheistic religious doctrines by the late 4th century CE. §REF§ (Kaye 2007, 168) L E Kogan. A V Korotayev. Epigraphic South Arabian Morphology. Alan S Kaye ed. 2007. Morphologies of Asia and Africa. Volume 1. Eisenbrauns. Winona Lake. §REF§ ""There is significant archaeological evidence of the abandonment of pagan temples toward the conclusion of the fourth century and of the almost complete disappearance of expressions of devotion to the old tribal gods shortly thereafter."" §REF§ (Maroney 2010, 93) Eric Maroney. 2010. The Other Zions: The Lost Histories of Jewish Nations. Roman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham. §REF§ ""From the 4th century on the Himyarite kings were either full members or sympathizers of Judaism"" and the Jewish faith became ""the dominant religion"" in South Arabia. §REF§ (Tubach 2015, 363-365) Johann Jurgen Tubach. Aramaic Loanwords In Geez. Aaron Michael Butts. ed. 2015. Semitic Languages in Contact. BRILL. Leiden. §REF§ In the later fourth century there was a Jewish dynasty of kings known as the Tabbai'a. §REF§ (Haas 2014, 38-39) Christopher Haas. Geopolitics and Georgian Identity in Late Antiquity: The Dangerous World of Vakhtang Gorgasali. Tamar Nutsubidze. Cornelia B Horn. Basil Lourie. eds. 2014. Georgian Christian Thought and Its Cultural Context. Memorial Volume for the 125th Anniversary of Shalva Nutsubidze (1888-1969). BRILL. Leiden. §REF§ A list of Himyarite's known Jewish kings include: Yassirum Yohre'am (from 270 CE); 'Amr-Shlomo ben David (325-330 CE); Malki Kariba Juha'min (378-385 CE); Abu Kariba As'as (385-420 or 445 CE); Shurihbi'il Yakkuf (468-480 CE); Martad Ilan ('Judaized' 495-515 CE); Yusuf Ash'ar Dhu Nuwas (515-525 CE). §REF§ (Brook 2006, 264-265) Kevin Alan Brook. 2006. The Jews of Khazaria. Second Edition. Rowman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham. §REF§ §REF§ (Haas 2014, 38-39) Christopher Haas. Geopolitics and Georgian Identity in Late Antiquity: The Dangerous World of Vakhtang Gorgasali. Tamar Nutsubidze. Cornelia B Horn. Basil Lourie. eds. 2014. Georgian Christian Thought and Its Cultural Context. Memorial Volume for the 125th Anniversary of Shalva Nutsubidze (1888-1969). BRILL. Leiden. §REF§ The Himyarite army adopted Judaism as its official religion at the start of the fifth century CE. §REF§ (Brook 2006, 264-265) Kevin Alan Brook. 2006. The Jews of Khazaria. Second Edition. Rowman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham. §REF§
Christianity also was present in Himyar at least from the first half of the 4th century §REF§ (Tubach 2015, 363-363) Johann Jurgen Tubach. Aramaic Loanwords In Geez. Aaron Michael Butts. ed. 2015. Semitic Languages in Contact. BRILL. Leiden. §REF§ when the Christian missionary Theophilus arrived and ""complained that he found a great number of Jews"". §REF§ (Maroney 2010, 93) Eric Maroney. 2010. The Other Zions: The Lost Histories of Jewish Nations. Roman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham. §REF§ By 350 CE Christian communities were becoming established and over the next 100 years, ""missionaries systematically converted many Arabian tribes from their traditional polytheistic practices to monotheistic Christianity"". §REF§ (Romano 2004, 13) Amy Romano. 2004. A Historical Atlas of Yemen. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. New York. §REF§ It is also suggested that the rulers were not Jewish but Monophysite Christians. According to Friedman (2006) Himyarite colonists, the Axumites, in the land of Cush (Ethiopia) ""which they renamed Axum ... converted to Monophysite Christianity at the beginning of the fourth century. Between 340 to 378, the Axumites returned to Yemen and imposed their rule and religion over the Himyarites. Although the interregnum was short-lived, the impact of the Axumites was very profound. Yemen was a Christian land, with churches and a cathedral in San'a, and all but one of the restored Himyarite monarchs (378-525) were Monophysite Christians. The lone heretic was Dhu-Nuwas who, for unknown reasons, hated Christians and converted to Judaism."" §REF§ (Friedman 2006, 106) Saul S. Friedman. 2006. A History of the Middle East. McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. Jefferson. §REF§ However, Christians appear to have been repressed due to a perceived association with influence of the Byzantine Empire: ""in the 470s ... a priest named Azqir was executed for active proselytisation in Najran"". §REF§ (Hoyland 2001, 51) Robert G Hoyland. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. London. §REF§ Hitti also mentions the 340-378 CE period of Abyssinian rule. §REF§ (Hitti 2002, 60) Philip K Hitti. 2002 (1937). History of the Arabs. 10th Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§
An inscription dated to 378 CE claimed ""the completion of buildings by a Himyar monarch had been accomplished 'through the power of their lord of sky and heaven,' and phrases such as 'the owner of the sky and earth,' and the expression 'the Merciful' also were used. §REF§ (Maroney 2010, 93) Eric Maroney. 2010. The Other Zions: The Lost Histories of Jewish Nations. Roman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham. §REF§ It has been suggested that the Himyarite ""profession of monotheism, and later full-fledged Judaism, distanced the Himyarites from the Christianity of the Byzantines and their Ethiopian allies and the Zoroastrianism of the Persians"" §REF§ (Maroney 2010, 93) Eric Maroney. 2010. The Other Zions: The Lost Histories of Jewish Nations. Roman & Littlefield Publishes, Inc. Lanham. §REF§ so that their strategically located state had an independent or neutral identity. Written sources mention the presence of synagogues in Zafar and Najran. §REF§ (Haas 2014, 38-39) Christopher Haas. Geopolitics and Georgian Identity in Late Antiquity: The Dangerous World of Vakhtang Gorgasali. Tamar Nutsubidze. Cornelia B Horn. Basil Lourie. eds. 2014. Georgian Christian Thought and Its Cultural Context. Memorial Volume for the 125th Anniversary of Shalva Nutsubidze (1888-1969). BRILL. Leiden. §REF§
As trade revenues flatlined, the increasing persecution and then massacre of Christians by king Dhu Nuwas §REF§ (Burrows 2010, xxiii) Robert D Burrows. 2010. Historical Dictionary of Yemen. Second Edition. The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham. §REF§ lead to a foreign intervention. The Byzantine Empire in alliance with the Aksumite Kingdom invaded the Himyarite kingdom and Dhu Nuwas was removed. Himyar and the Red Sea Coast was thereafter ruled directly by the Christian Ethiopians until the Persian conquest in 570 CE, interrupted by the Christian Ethiopian governor-general Abraha's declaration of independence between 550-553 CE. §REF§ (Caton 2013, 47) Steven C Caton ed. 2013. Yemen. ABC-Clio. Santa Barbara §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",12.0,Yemeni Coastal Plain,Arabia,43.315739000000,14.850891000000,Sanaa,YE,Yemen,Southwest Asia,44,Arabia,Arabian Peninsula,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
471,CnHChin,1895,1941,Hmong - Early Chinese,cn_hmong_2,LEGACY,"The Hmong are an agricultural people who have inhabited southern China for about 2000 years. §REF§ (Diamond 2009, 3) Diamond, Norma. 2009. “Culture Summary: Miao.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X. §REF§ Made up of several distinct cultures, they are also known as the 'Miao', an insulting term that loosely translates to 'barbarians' or 'bumpkins'. §REF§ (Fadiman 1997) Fadiman, Anne. 1997. The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down: A Hmong Child, Her American Doctors, and the Collision of Two Cultures. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. §REF§ The Qing Dynasty was marked by a series of Hmong uprisings, first in western Hunan from 1795 to 1806 CE, and then in Guizhou from 1854 to 1872. §REF§ (Diamond 2009, 3) Diamond, Norma. 2009. “Culture Summary: Miao.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X. §REF§
Population and political organization
Throughout most of Hmong history, Chinese governmental control was imposed indirectly through native headmen known as tusi, who were responsible for keeping the peace, tax collection and organizing corvée labour. §REF§ (Diamond 2009, 3) Diamond, Norma. 2009. “Culture Summary: Miao.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X. §REF§ During the Republican period, the Chinese government attempted to assimilate the Hmong as much as possible and heavily discouraged displays of Hmong ethnicity. §REF§ (Diamond 2009, 3) Diamond, Norma. 2009. “Culture Summary: Miao.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X. §REF§
In 1954, the population of the Hmong was estimated at 150,000. §REF§ (Graham 1954, 1) Graham, David Crockett. 1954. Songs and Stories of the Ch’uan Miao. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TWKSXKI8. §REF§ Secure population estimates for earlier periods are lacking but the Hmong may have numbered around 200,000 during the Qing Dynasty.",,,,2024-01-17T15:41:17.246418Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",22.0,Southern China Hills,South China,103.991730960000,27.538834142800,Guizhou,YUN,China,East Asia,59,South China,Yangtze Basin and South China,"{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
470,CnHQngL,1701,1895,Hmong - Late Qing,cn_hmong_1,LEGACY,"The Hmong are an agricultural people who have inhabited southern China for about 2000 years. §REF§ (Diamond 2009, 3) Diamond, Norma. 2009. “Culture Summary: Miao.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X. §REF§ Made up of several distinct cultures, they are also known as the Miao, an insulting term that loosely translates to 'barbarians' or 'bumpkins'. §REF§ (Fadiman 1997) Fadiman, Anne. 1997. The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down: A Hmong Child, Her American Doctors, and the Collision of Two Cultures. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. §REF§ The Qing Dynasty was marked by a series of Hmong uprisings, first in western Hunan from 1795 to 1806 CE, and then in Guizhou from 1854 to 1872. §REF§ (Diamond 2009, 3) Diamond, Norma. 2009. “Culture Summary: Miao.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X. §REF§
Population and political organization
Throughout most of Hmong history, Chinese governmental control was imposed indirectly through native headmen known as tusi, who were responsible for keeping the peace, tax collection and organizing corvée labour. §REF§ (Diamond 2009, 3) Diamond, Norma. 2009. “Culture Summary: Miao.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X. §REF§ During the Republican period, the Chinese government attempted to assimilate the Hmong as much as possible and heavily discouraged displays of Hmong ethnicity. §REF§ (Diamond 2009, 3) Diamond, Norma. 2009. “Culture Summary: Miao.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ae05-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z9NGT72X. §REF§
In 1954, the population of the Hmong was estimated at 150,000. §REF§ (Graham 1954, 1) Graham, David Crockett. 1954. Songs and Stories of the Ch’uan Miao. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TWKSXKI8. §REF§ Secure population estimates for earlier periods are lacking but the Hmong may have numbered around 200,000 during the Qing Dynasty.",,,,2024-01-17T15:40:48.319562Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",22.0,Southern China Hills,South China,103.991730960000,27.538834142800,Guizhou,YUN,China,East Asia,59,South China,Yangtze Basin and South China,"{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
561,us_hohokam_culture,300,1500,Hohokam Culture,us_hohokam_culture,LEGACY,"
The term ‘Hohokam’ was applied to the culture group by archaeologists, and is borrowed from the Uto-Aztecan language, O'odham. However it does not refer to a tribe or peoples, but rather a site where there are “earthen buildings, red on buff pottery, and extensive canals”.§REF§”History & Culture - Casa Grande Ruins National Monument (U.S. National Park Service)”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HJU2S97P§REF§ Instead the peoples that created and lived in the Hohokam culture are now referred to as ancestral Sonoran Desert people. There is evidence of the Sonoran Desert people being active in the Hohokam sites from around 5,500 BCE, however the Hohokam culture period runs from c. 300-1500 CE.§REF§“The Ancestral Sonoran Desert People - Casa Grande Ruins National Monument (U.S. National Park Service),”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HZ95455H§REF§
Hohokam sites and the people who lived there were based in the “Phoenix Basin along the Gila and Salt Rivers, in southern Arizona along the Santa Cruz and San Pedro Rivers, and north on the Lower Verde River and along the New and Agua Fria Rivers.”§REF§“Hohokam Culture (U.S. National Park Service)”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/34YMDDCN§REF§ Their settlements can be traced to around 300 CE, and their society flourished for around one thousand years until around 1375 when sites became abandoned, and their sophisticated canal and irrigation systems fell into disrepair. The Sonoran Desert people gradually left their ancestral areas and by 1450, when the Spanish arrived, there were only a few small communities of their descendants remaining in the area.§REF§Barnhart 2018: 144. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VPVHH2HJ§REF§
Though it is not known exactly what caused the dispersion of these people, speculations have included that there may have been drought, famine, other natural disasters, or internal warfare.§REF§“The Ancestral Sonoran Desert People - Casa Grande Ruins National Monument (U.S. National Park Service),”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HZ95455H§REF§ There is also evidence that their extensive canals and irrigation systems suffered widespread erosion from as early as 1020-1160 CE.§REF§Snow et al. 2020: 198. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5T4C9IQT§REF§
The period of the Hohokam culture are usually divided up as follows:§REF§McGuire 2018: 5-6. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/C9FB2IXT§REF§
Pioneer Period: 150 – 725 CE
Colonial Period (Gila Butte phase): 725 – 825 CE
Colonial Period (Santa Cruz phase): 825 – 1000 CE
Sedentary Period (Sacaton phase): 1000-1100 CE
Classic Period (Soho phase): 1111 - 1300 CE
Classic Period (Civano phase): 1300 - 1450 CE",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,25,Western North America,"West Coast, the Rockies, and the American SouthWest","{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
800,de_empire_3,1255,1453,Holy Roman Empire - Fragmented Period,de_empire_3,OTHER_TAG,"The Holy Roman Empire from 1255 to 1453 was characterized by internal restructuring, the assertion of princely and municipal autonomy, and the ongoing negotiation of power between secular and ecclesiastical authorities. This period is marked by significant transitions and the interplay of imperial ambition, regional princely power, and the persistent influence of the Papacy. §REF§Stollberg-Rilinger, Das Heilige Römische Reich Deutscher Nation. Zotero link: FA7D8TKC§REF§
Following the Interregnum, a time characterized by a lack of clear imperial leadership after the fall of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, the Empire sought to re-establish its coherence under new leadership. This era is defined by the gradual emergence of territorial principalities and the increasing importance of cities and towns, reflecting a shift towards more localized forms of governance within the imperial framework and a reduction of central Imperial power and cohesion. The election of Rudolf I of Habsburg in 1273 brought some stability after years of internal strife and fragmentation. The Habsburg ascendancy marked the beginning of a dynasty that would later come to play a pivotal role in European politics. The immediate impact was a consolidation of power and establishing dynastic territories in Austria and surrounding regions, marking the beginning of the rise of Austria.§REF§Kaufhold, Deutsches Interregnum Und Europäische Politik. Zotero link: 3VKQVTUM§REF§
The period also witnessed the continuation of the struggle between the Empire and the Papacy, a remnant of the Investiture Conflict. While the overt conflict over investitures had diminished, the broader contest for influence between secular and ecclesiastical authorities persisted, influencing the political landscape of the Empire and beyond.§REF§Stollberg-Rilinger, Das Heilige Römische Reich Deutscher Nation. Zotero link: FA7D8TKC§REF§
The 14th and 15th centuries saw the rise of the Hanseatic League, a commercial and defensive alliance of merchant guilds and market towns in Northwestern and Central Europe. This development underscored the growing economic power of cities within the Empire and their increasing role in shaping regional politics and trade routes.§REF§Dollinger, Henn, and Dollinger, Die Hanse. Zotero link: I7DL372B§REF§
The Golden Bull of 1356 was a landmark event, establishing a constitutional structure for the Empire and formalizing the electoral process for the selection of the Emperor.It formalized the creation of an Electoral College, consisting of seven prince-electors who were granted the exclusive right to elect the Emperor. These electors included the Archbishops of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne, the King of Bohemia, the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the Duke of Saxony, and the Margrave of Brandenburg. It also underscored the autonomy of the Emperor from the Papacy, stipulating that the election of the Emperor by the prince-electors was final and did not require papal approval.§REF§Hergemöller, Fürsten, Herren Und Städte Zu Nürnberg, 1355/56. Zotero link: IZGE7CTD§REF§This decree aimed to balance the power among the leading princes and the Emperor, laying the groundwork for the political system that would define the Empire's later stages.The late medieval period was also marked by external pressures, notably the Ottoman Empire's expansion into Europe. The fall of Constantinople in 1453, while not directly involving the Holy Roman Empire, signaled a significant shift in the balance of power and posed a looming threat to Christendom, including the territories of the Empire.§REF§“Fall of Constantinople | Facts, Summary, & Significance | Britannica.” Zotero link: CEWT25UW§REF§",,,2024-01-26T14:16:47.880799Z,2024-02-28T14:43:34.181125Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
807,de_empire_2_sub,1198,1215,Holy Roman Empire - Hohenstaufen Faction,de_empire_2_sub,OTHER_TAG,"This period commenced with the death of Emperor Henry VI in 1197, precipitating a succession crisis due to the lack of a clear heir. In 1198, the empire's electors split, leading to the dual election of Philip of Swabia, of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, and Otto IV, affiliated with the Welf family. Philip's claim was bolstered by his election by a faction of prince-electors and his possession of the Imperial Regalia, symbols of legitimate imperial authority. The Hohenstaufen Faction, under Philip's leadership, garnered substantial support within the southern regions of the empire, notably among the Swabian nobility and other allies loyal to the Hohenstaufen lineage. The faction's legitimacy was further reinforced by strategic marriages and alliances, extending its influence beyond the empire's borders. Philip's reign, however, was marred by ongoing conflict with Otto IV's faction and the fluctuating support of the papacy, which initially backed Otto IV but later distanced itself due to Otto's policies in Italy. The assassination of Philip of Swabia in 1208 marked a critical point for the Hohenstaufen Faction, yet it did not lead to its dissolution. Instead, the faction's resilience was demonstrated by the eventual rise of Frederick II, Philip's younger brother, who was elected king in 1212. Frederick's coronation in 1215 in Aachen symbolically concluded the factional dispute, as he managed to consolidate support from various quarters of the empire, thereby restoring a semblance of unity to the Holy Roman Empire.§REF§Peter Csendes, Philipp von Schwaben: Ein Staufer Im Kampf Um Die Macht (Darmstadt: Primus Verlag, 2003). Zotero link: L7ELHNJU§REF§",,,2024-02-19T11:22:09.856796Z,2024-02-25T09:35:52.979531Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
799,de_empire_2,1126,1254,Holy Roman Empire - Hohenstaufen and Welf Dynasties,de_empire_2,OTHER_TAG,"The Holy Roman Empire during the Hohenstaufen and Welf dynasties (1126 to 1254) represented a period of both significant internal strife and expansion. Spanning regions that include modern-day Germany, Italy, and parts of Eastern and Central Europe. The period is defined by an ongoing competition between the House of Welf and the Hohenstaufen dynasty. This rivalry, deeply rooted in contesting claims to territories and power, significantly influenced the Empire's internal dynamics.§REF§Odilo Engels, Die Staufer, 9., erg. Aufl., Kohlhammer-Urban-Taschenbücher Geschichte, Politikwissenschaft Bd. 154 (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2010). Zotero link: HINBRJJK§REF§
This period begins after the death of the last Salian emperor, Henry V, in 1125. He had no heirs, and a period of intra-elite conflict followed, with rival factions supporting the Saxon noble Lothair III and Conrad III, of the Hohenstaufen dynasty. In 1138, Conrad III was elected king, shifting the centre of imperial power to Swabia. Unlike the Ottonian and Salian rulers who preceded them, the Hohenstaufens faced challenges in asserting their control over the Empire's semi-autonomous territories. The lack of a central capital and unified legal system continued to characterize the Empire, with German kings maintaining their tradition of being crowned as Roman Emperors, a practice that underscored the Empire's claim to the Roman legacy. The House of Welf, wielding significant influence and territorial control, particularly in Saxony and Bavaria, emerged as formidable contenders to Hohenstaufen authority.§REF§Odilo Engels, Die Staufer, 9., erg. Aufl., Kohlhammer-Urban-Taschenbücher Geschichte, Politikwissenschaft Bd. 154 (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2010). Zotero link: HINBRJJK§REF§
Frederick I Barbarossa, one of the most renowned Hohenstaufen emperors. His reign (1152-1190) was distinguished by efforts to assert imperial authority in Italy, leading to prolonged conflicts with the Lombard League and the Papacy.§REF§Knut Görich, Friedrich Barbarossa: Eine Biographie (München: C.H. Beck, 2011). Zotero link: 9TFKFYQP§REF§ The period was also notable for the Crusades, with emperors like Frederick I and Frederick II participating in these expeditions, which, while aimed at expanding Christendom, also served to enhance the imperial prestige. Frederick II (1212-1250), in particular, stood out for his cultural patronage and administrative reforms, earning him the title Stupor Mundi (""Wonder of the World""). However, his reign was also marked by continuous conflicts with the Papacy and internal princely factions, underscoring the fractious nature of imperial authority.§REF§“Crusades - Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, Mediterranean | Britannica,” accessed February 4, 2024, https://www.britannica.com/event/Crusades/The-Crusade-of-Frederick-II. Zotero link: VBH9IK4D§REF§The struggle for control in Italy, especially over the Kingdom of Sicily, which was under Hohenstaufen rule through marriage alliances, further complicated the Empire's internal dynamics. These Italian campaigns drained the Empire's resources and diverted attention from northern territories, leading to increased autonomy for local princes and a gradual weakening of central authority.§REF§PAOLO GRILLO, LEGNANO 1176;UNA BATTAGLIA PER LA LIBERTA ([S.l.]: EDITORI LATERZA, 2012). Zotero link: 49Y52W3A§REF§§REF§Herbert Grundmann and Friedrich Baethgen, Deutsches Archiv Für Erforschung Des Mittelalters, 24 (Köln ; Graz: Böhlau, 1968) Zotero link: PG54JSAE§REF§
The death of Frederick II and the subsequent demise of his heirs led to the Interregnum (1254-1273), a period of significant political fragmentation and decline in imperial power. This era saw the rise of princely states and the increasing irrelevance of the imperial title.§REF§Martin Kaufhold, Deutsches Interregnum Und Europäische Politik: Konfliktlösungen Und Entscheidungsstrukturen 1230-1280, Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Schriften Bd. 49 (Hannover: Hahnsche Buchhandlung, 2000). Zotero link: 3VKQVTUM§REF§",,JR 14.03.24: changing start date from 1138 to 1126 based on discussion with Jakob Zsambok. Previously there was a gap between de_empire_1 and de_empire_2. Also updated the GD.,2024-01-26T14:15:08.249726Z,2024-04-15T14:59:04.617758Z,"{'id': 21, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
857,de_empire_minor_1,1454,1648,Holy Roman Empire - Minor Imperial States I,de_empire_minor_1,OTHER_TAG,,Holy Roman Empire Minor States,,2024-04-10T10:18:20.620179Z,2024-04-10T10:18:20.620217Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
858,de_empire_minor_2,1649,1806,Holy Roman Empire - Minor Imperial States II,de_empire_minor_2,OTHER_TAG,,Holy Roman Empire Minor States,,2024-04-10T10:18:57.364554Z,2024-04-10T10:18:57.364567Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
797,de_empire_1,919,1125,Holy Roman Empire - Ottonian-Salian Dynasty,de_empire_1,OTHER_TAG,"The Holy Roman Empire encompassed, at various times, the present-day countries of Germany, Austria, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Poland and Switzerland. It had no central capital. The Emperor did not rule the individual nations in the coalition; thus, it was not a unitary state, but a confederation of constituent polities. It did not have common laws, language or customs. What did unite the countries of the empire was the Catholic faith, under the twin leadership of the papacy, and an emperor, the ‘Defender of the Roman Catholic Faith’. Though there was no centralised governance, it was Germany and its kings, who emerged as the core region of the empire. By 1030 German kings were consistently crowned as the Holy Roman Emperor. §REF§Wilson 2016: 5-7. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N5M9R9XA§REF§
At an earlier stage, the Empire consisted of the Kingdoms of Germany, Italy and Burgundy (from 1052) and was known more commonly as the Ottonian Empire. It wasn’t until the mid-twelfth century that historians generally consider it to be the Holy Roman Empire when other states such as Bohemia and Hungary were taken within its borders.§REF§Power 2006: 17, 210. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4V4WE3ZK.§REF§
There is a lack of literature on the HRE as a single entity: “A major reason for the Empire’s relative scholarly neglect is that its history is so difficult to tell. The Empire lacked the things giving shape to conventional national history: a stable heartland, a capital city, centralized political institutions and, perhaps most fundamentally, a single ‘nation’. It was also very large and lasted a long time. A conventional chronological approach would become unfeasibly long, or risk conveying a false sense of linear development and reduce the Empire’s history to a high political narrative.” §REF§Wilson 2016: 5. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N5M9R9XA§REF§
Because the Holy Roman Empire was such an inchoate polity, assigning its start and end dates, by necessity, involves a degree of arbitrariness. The origins of this polity go back to East Francia, which formed after the division of the Carolingian Empire in 843. In 919 the kingship of this polity passed from the Carolingian to the Ottonian dynasty. The first ruler of the Kingdom of Germany was the Duke of Saxony Henry the Fowler. His son, Otto I the Great, was crowned as Roman Emperor in 963. Thus, the medieval German Empire formed in stages between 843 and 963; we chose to assign the beginning date to 919, thus designating East Francia, ruled by Charlemagne descendants, to a separate Seshat polity.
The Ottonian period was generally characterized by (relative) internal peace and territorial expansion, and is considered as one of the three medieval renaissances.
When the last Ottonian emperor, Henry II, died childless, the imperial princes elected Conrad II as emperor. As a result, the empire passed from the Ottonian to Salian dynasty, the latter being based in Franconia. The Salian dynasty produced four Emperors.
Towards the end of the Salian rule, the Empire was riven by multiple conflicts between the emperor and the pope, imperial bishops, and secular princes. The last Salian emperor, Henry V, died childless in 1125, and the empire passed on to the Hohenstaufen dynasty.",,,2024-01-20T14:26:17.780985Z,2024-08-08T09:42:28.140806Z,"{'id': 13, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
95,InHoysa,1108,1346,Hoysala Kingdom,in_hoysala_k,LEGACY,"The Hoysala dynasty ruled over a territory roughly equivalent to the southern Indian state of Karnataka, plus the eastern and southeastern margins of Andhra Pradesh and the northwest corner of Tamil Nadu. §REF§ (Kamath 1980) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ For much of the 12th century CE, the Hoysalas were mere provincial rulers within the wider Chalukya empire, §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 130-32) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ but they rebelled and wrested control over the region from the Chalukyas in 1191. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 96) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. A History of Karnataka. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ They lost their empire with the death of Emperor Vira Virupaksha in 1346. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 136) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ Under Hoysala rule, literature and the arts flourished, particularly architecture, as testified by the Hoysala temples at Halebidu, Belur and Somanathapura. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 111) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. A History of Karnataka. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§
Population and political organization
As with most preceding South Indian polities, the Hoysala ruler held judiciary, executive and legislative powers §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 123) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. A History of Karnataka. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ and was also the polity's supreme military leader. §REF§ (Derrett 1957, 105) J. Duncan M. Derrett. 1957. The Hoysalas: A Medieval Indian Royal Family. Madras: Oxford University Press. §REF§ He was assisted at court by several ministers §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 137) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. A History of Karnataka. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ and in the provinces by governors. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 124) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. A History of Karnataka. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§
No population estimates for this period could be found in the literature.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",15.0,Deccan,Central India,76.625407000000,15.386856000000,Kampli,DEC,India,South Asia,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
811,hu_later_dyn,1302,1526,Hungary Kingdom - Anjou and Later Dynasties,hu_later_dyn,OTHER_TAG,"Following the Árpád dynasty's end, Hungary entered a period marked by the Angevin and Jagiellonian dynasties, leading up to the significant Battle of Mohács in 1526.§REF§László Kontler, Millennium in Central Europe: A History of Hungary (Budapest: Atlantisz, 1999). Zotero link: CSSN8HUW§REF§The Angevin kings, notably Charles I and Louis I, expanded Hungary's influence in Central Europe through military campaigns and administrative reforms, enhancing the kingdom's power. The era saw Hungary's involvement in European politics intensify, especially under the rule of Sigismund of Luxembourg, who linked Hungary with Bohemia and Poland, aiming to strengthen royal authority and address external threats, notably from the Ottoman Empire.§REF§Pál Engel, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526 (London ; New York, NY: I.B. Tauris, 2005). Zotero link: 9BBKM3AR§REF§ The period was characterized by dynastic changes, efforts towards centralization, and significant cultural developments, yet it also faced challenges such as internal strife and the looming threat of Ottoman conquest. This era concluded with the devastating defeat at Mohács,§REF§ Gábor Ágoston and Bruce Alan Masters, eds., Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, Facts on File library of world history (New York, NY: Facts On File, 2009). Zotero link: KJPGPVLD§REF§ leading to Hungary's fragmentation and marking the end of medieval Hungarian sovereignty.",,,2024-03-01T11:47:44.608679Z,2024-03-11T12:59:02.413834Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
810,hu_arpad_dyn,1000,1301,Hungary Kingdom - Árpád Dynasty,hu_arpad_dyn,OTHER_TAG,"The Árpád dynasty played a key role in forming the Kingdom of Hungary into an important Christian state in medieval Europe. This period began with Saint Stephen I's coronation, signifying the transition from a collection of Magyar tribes to a unified Christian monarchy. The Magyars, who settled in the Carpathian Basin at the end of the 9th century, were a group of nomadic tribes known for their raids across Europe. These tribes were eventually consolidated into a single nation, adopting Christianity as the central religion. This transformation laid the foundations for the modern Hungarian state, encompassing areas that today include Austria, Croatia, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, and Slovenia.§REF§Pál Engel, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526 (London ; New York, NY: I.B. Tauris, 2005). Zotero link: 9BBKM3AR§REF§The legal and administrative systems of Hungary during this period were codified in the ""laws of the king,""§REF§László Kontler, Millennium in Central Europe: A History of Hungary (Budapest: Atlantisz, 1999). Zotero link: CSSN8HUW§REF§ which sought to integrate Christian principles with existing tribal customs. Latin was used for administrative and religious purposes, while various dialects were spoken among the populace. The common customs and laws varied significantly across the realm.§REF§Pál Engel, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526 (London ; New York, NY: I.B. Tauris, 2005). Zotero link: 9BBKM3AR§REF§Roman Catholicism, served as the cornerstone of the kingdom's identity, with the Hungarian monarchs championing the faith and the construction of monumental religious buildings. This alliance with the Roman Catholic Church was instrumental in shaping the kingdom politically and culturally and made it a part of the Christian Kingdoms in central Europe. This alliance also brought conflict at times with the still pagan tribal people of the Kingdom.§REF§Gyula Kristó, Magyarország története 895-1301, Osiris tankönyvek (Budapest: Osiris kiadó, 2003). Zotero link: 4YU2XJ8C§REF§
Hungary's history during the Árpád dynasty was marked by internal strife among the nobility and external threats from invaders such as the Mongols, who devastated the kingdom in 1241.§REF§Peter Jackson, The Mongols and the West, 1221-1410, The medieval world (Harlow, England ; New York: Pearson Longman, 2005). Zotero link: GNAFQ557§REF§ The Árpád dynasty's decline began in the late 13th century, leading to a period of interregnum and the eventual rise of the Angevin dynasty.§REF§Pál Engel, The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526 (London ; New York, NY: I.B. Tauris, 2005). Zotero link: 9BBKM3AR§REF§",,,2024-03-01T11:39:00.642109Z,2024-03-03T20:47:24.766769Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
154,IdBrokL,1841,1987,Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial,id_iban_2,LEGACY,"The Kapuasi basin is located in Western Kalimantan, in Borneo, and has long been inhabited by the Iban or Dayak. These are a river people whose culture emphasizes individual resourcefulness, egalitarianism, personal mobility, and opening new land for settlement. §REF§ (Sandin 1980, xi) Sandin, Benedict. 1980. Iban Adat And Augury. Penang: Penerbit Universiti Sains Malaysia for School of Comparative Social Sciences. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3I4RXPUZ. §REF§ The Iban in fact trace their origins to the Kapuasi basin, and it was from there that they aggressively expanded their territory between the 17th and the 19th centuries, practising headhunting and slavery. §REF§ (Sutlive and Beierle 1995) Sutlive Jr., Vinson H., and John Beierle. 1995. “Culture Summary: Iban.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oc06-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B4RV87D4. §REF§ In 1841, Iban expansion was checked by British adventurer James Brooke, of the so-called Brooke Raj. This pushed some Iban westward, while others became part of the Raj itself. The governed Iban communities were relatively autonomous in the regulation of local matters, although a colonial administrative structure was superimposed onto the Iban system. The White Rajahs sought to suppress infighting and mobilize Iban communities for their own military interests. §REF§ (Gomes 1911, 77) Gomes, Edwin H. 1911. Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo: A Record of Intimate Association with the Natives of the Bornean Jungles. Philadelphia, PA: J. B. Lippincott & Co. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N6JNADA8. §REF§ With the exception of a period of Japanese control during the Second World War, §REF§ (Andaya and Andaya 2016, 261-68) Andaya, Barbara Watson, and Leonard Y. Andaya. 2016. A History of Malaysia. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VXPWW92R. §REF§ the British maintained control over this particular region up until Brunei's independence in 1984. §REF§ (Andaya 2008, 455) Andaya, Barbara Watson. 1992. “Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries.” In The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. 1: From Early Times to C. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 402-59. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UQTUBXM2. §REF§
Population and political organization
Before the establishment of the Brooke Raj, there were no permanent leaders among the Iban: instead, groups of family leaders directed the affairs of each house. Warriors, bards, augurs and other specialists could all become men of influence. James Brooke, as Rajah of Sarawak, created political positions, such as headman, regional chief and paramount chief, to better control Iban society, particularly in terms of extracting taxes and suppressing headhunting. Iban political organization also changed profoundly with the creation of permanent political positions and the establishment of political parties in the early 1960s. §REF§ (Sutlive and Beierle 1995) Sutlive Jr., Vinson H., and John Beierle. 1995. “Culture Summary: Iban.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oc06-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B4RV87D4. §REF§
It seems that the Iban lived in autonomous longhouse communities of about 500 inhabitants each, both before and probably for some time after the imposition of Brooke Raj authority. §REF§ (Sutlive and Beierle 1995) Sutlive Jr., Vinson H., and John Beierle. 1995. “Culture Summary: Iban.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oc06-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B4RV87D4. §REF§ More recently, we know that the 1985 census for Sarawak estimates the number of Iban at around 439,000 people. §REF§ (Davison and Sutlive 1991, 158) Davison, Julian, Vinson H. Sutlive, and Vinson H. Sutlive. 1991. “Children of Nising: Images of Headhunting and Male Sexuality in Iban Ritual and Oral Literature.” In Female and Male in Borneo: Contributions and Challenges to Gender Studies, 153-230. Williamsburg, VA: Borneo Research Council. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5U8X7Q5P. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",19.0,Kapuasi Basin,Indonesia,112.405971685000,0.774120813650,Borneo,KAL,Indonesia,Southeast Asia,42,Maritime Southeast Asia,"Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
153,IdBrokE,1650,1841,Iban - Pre-Brooke,id_iban_1,LEGACY,"The Kapuasi basin is located in Western Kalimantan, in Borneo, and has long been inhabited by the Iban or Dayak. These are a river people whose culture emphasizes individual resourcefulness, egalitarianism, personal mobility, and opening new land for settlement. §REF§ (Sandin 1980, xi) Sandin, Benedict. 1980. Iban Adat And Augury. Penang: Penerbit Universiti Sains Malaysia for School of Comparative Social Sciences. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3I4RXPUZ. §REF§ The Iban in fact trace their origins to the Kapuasi basin, and it was from there that they aggressively expanded their territory between the 17th and the 19th centuries, practising headhunting and slavery. §REF§ (Sutlive and Beierle 1995) Sutlive Jr., Vinson H., and John Beierle. 1995. “Culture Summary: Iban.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oc06-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B4RV87D4. §REF§ In 1841, Iban expansion was checked by British adventurer James Brooke, of the so-called Brooke Raj. This pushed some Iban westward, while others became part of the Raj itself. The governed Iban communities were relatively autonomous in the regulation of local matters, although a colonial administrative structure was superimposed onto the Iban system. The White Rajahs sought to suppress infighting and mobilize Iban communities for their own military interests. §REF§ (Gomes 1911, 77) Gomes, Edwin H. 1911. Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo: A Record of Intimate Association with the Natives of the Bornean Jungles. Philadelphia, PA: J. B. Lippincott & Co. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/N6JNADA8. §REF§ With the exception of a period of Japanese control during the Second World War, §REF§ (Andaya and Andaya 2016, 261-68) Andaya, Barbara Watson, and Leonard Y. Andaya. 2016. A History of Malaysia. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VXPWW92R. §REF§ the British maintained control over this particular region up until Brunei's independence in 1984. §REF§ (Andaya 2008, 455) Andaya, Barbara Watson. 1992. “Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries.” In The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. 1: From Early Times to C. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 402-59. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UQTUBXM2. §REF§
Population and political organization
Before the establishment of the Brooke Raj, there were no permanent leaders among the Iban: instead, groups of family leaders directed the affairs of each house. Warriors, bards, augurs and other specialists could all become men of influence. James Brooke, as Rajah of Sarawak, created political positions, such as headman, regional chief and paramount chief, to better control Iban society, particularly in terms of extracting taxes and suppressing headhunting. Iban political organization also changed profoundly with the creation of permanent political positions and the establishment of political parties in the early 1960s. §REF§ (Sutlive and Beierle 1995) Sutlive Jr., Vinson H., and John Beierle. 1995. “Culture Summary: Iban.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oc06-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B4RV87D4. §REF§
It seems that the Iban lived in autonomous longhouse communities of about 500 inhabitants each, both before and probably for some time after the imposition of Brooke Raj authority. §REF§ (Sutlive and Beierle 1995) Sutlive Jr., Vinson H., and John Beierle. 1995. “Culture Summary: Iban.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oc06-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B4RV87D4. §REF§ More recently, we know that the 1985 census for Sarawak estimates the number of Iban at around 439,000 people. §REF§ (Davison and Sutlive 1991, 158) Davison, Julian, Vinson H. Sutlive, and Vinson H. Sutlive. 1991. “Children of Nising: Images of Headhunting and Male Sexuality in Iban Ritual and Oral Literature.” In Female and Male in Borneo: Contributions and Challenges to Gender Studies, 153-230. Williamsburg, VA: Borneo Research Council. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5U8X7Q5P. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",19.0,Kapuasi Basin,Indonesia,112.405971685000,0.774120813650,Borneo,KAL,Indonesia,Southeast Asia,42,Maritime Southeast Asia,"Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
115,IsCommw,930,1262,Icelandic Commonwealth,is_icelandic_commonwealth,LEGACY,"Settlers arrived in Iceland in significant numbers starting from the late 9th century CE, mostly from Norway and the Norse colonies in Scotland and Ireland, bringing with them many people indigenous to the latter. However, language and culture were strongly Norse.
The Icelandic Commonwealth (Icel. íslenska þjóðveldið), occasionally called 'free state' or 'republic' (not to be confused with the modern republic) was established in 930 CE according to 12th-century historical documents. It was the first polity to cover the whole of Iceland and the smaller surrounding islands. Its territory did not change during its lifetime.
Icelandic society during the Commonwealth was strongly rural and never developed significant urbanization. However, centres of power, wealth and learning gradually emerged in the two bishoprics, monasteries and the homes of the greatest secular lords.
Iceland was mostly pagan in the early period but Christianity was accepted in 1000 and the first bishopric established in 1056. This not only brought Iceland closer to Europe but also introduced European culture and learning, and from the early 12th century the Icelanders started to produce significant works of literature in the vernacular but written in the Latin alphabet (sagas). The sagas are usually (at least recently) considered the greatest achievement of the Commonwealth and they flourished in the 13th century (both before and after 1262). However, this was also a time of war and loss of independence, making it difficult to assign it a 'peak' status.
Population and political organization
There are no reliable figures for the total population in Iceland during this period. Common estimates range from 5,000-20,000 in 930 to 40,000-70,000 at the end. The only statistic that is somewhat reliable states that the number of tax-paying farmers around 1100 AD was 4,560. The relationship between this number and the whole population is uncertain.
The Commonwealth functioned as a federation of smaller political units with no fixed borders, the godords/chieftaincies (goðorð), with alliances between households led by a chieftain (goði or goðorðsmaður). Laws were common to all and there was a common judiciary system. In Lögrétta leaders of all the godords met once a year to decide on laws, forming the most important part of the proceedings of the Alþingi ('general assembly'), held in summer at Thingvellir. However, there was no common executive branch of government, leaving the godords quite autonomous.
The godords started to congeal into territorial lordships with fixed borders in the 12th century (the first one perhaps in the late 11th century), but this process was most rapid around 1200 CE and by 1220 they covered most of Iceland. These lordships functioned as practically independent tiny polities (or 'proto-states') and proceeded to fight each other for supremacy. The ensuing civil wars (Sturlungaöld) ended in 1262 when the Icelanders swore allegiance to the Norwegian crown.
This description was provided by Axel Kristinsson and edited by Jenny Reddish.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",3.0,Iceland,Northern Europe,-21.891497000000,64.133088000000,Reykjavik,IS,Iceland,Europe,17,Northern Europe,"Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
218,MaIdris,789,917,Idrisids,ma_idrisid_dyn,LEGACY,,,,,2024-11-11T11:21:33.252126Z,"{'id': 117, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,3,Maghreb,From Morocco to Libya,"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
646,so_ifat_sultanate,1280,1375,Ifat Sultanate,so_ifat_sultanate,POL_AFR_EAST,"The Ifat Sultanate was one of the earliest Sultanates to be established in the Shoan region of present-day Ethiopia. The Sultanate was founded by Umar Walasma in 1280. The subsequent leaders of this sultanate were thus part of the Walasma Dynasty §REF§ (Hassen 2016, Encyclopedia of Empire) Hassen, Mohammed, 2016. ‘Ifat Sultanate.’ In J. Mackenzie Encyclopedia of Empire. Wiley. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXDQBFFT/library §REF§ The Ifat Sultanate became one of the most powerful kingdoms in the region as it took control over the Shoa Sultanate in 1285. §REF§ (Tamrat 2008, 140) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list §REF§ The capital of the Ifat Sultanate was also called Ifat which was located in the Shoan plateau situated to the Awadi River (a tributary of the larger Awash River). §REF§ (Fauvelle et al. 2017, 239-295) Fauvelle, François-Xavier et al. 2007. “The Sultanate of Awfāt, its Capital and the Necropolis of the Walasma”, Annales Islamologiques. Vol. 51. Pp 239-295. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HJCMAMX7/library §REF§ The Ifat Sultanate was prosperous due to extensive caravan routes and the important port city of Zeila on the Gulf of Aden.
By the early fourteenth century, the Ethiopian Christian king Amda Siyon launched attackts into Muslim territory coming into conflict with the Ifat Sultanate. By 1329, Ifat was defeated by Amda Siyon’s army and was controlled by the Christian King. The Ifat Sultanate was still maintained for a period under the suzerainty of the Ethiopian Christian kingdom with the Walasma rulers continuing to lead the sultanate.
In the late fourteenth century, the Ifat leader Haqadin II lead a revolt again the Christian Ethiopian Kingdom and declared Ifat’s independence. Haqadin moved his capital to the Adal region in 1374/5. While the Walasma Dynasty carried on, the Ifat Sultanate became eclipsed by the new Adal Sultanate. §REF§ (Hassen 2016, Encyclopedia of Empire) Hassen, Mohammed, 2016. ‘Ifat Sultanate.’ In J. Mackenzie Encyclopedia of Empire. Wiley. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXDQBFFT/library §REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
667,ni_igala_k,1600,1900,Igala,ni_igala_k,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
660,ni_igodomingodo,900,1450,Igodomingodo,ni_igodomingodo,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
172,IrIlkhn,1256,1339,Ilkhanate,ir_il_khanate,LEGACY,"The Ilkhanate was a state that began under Mongol commander Hulegu who founded the House of Hulegu. §REF§ (Marshall 1993, 229) Robert Marshall. 1993. Storm from the East: From Ghengis Khan to Khubilai Khan. University of California Press. §REF§ The nearly eighty years the dynasty lasted was a time of general economic prosperity for the 5 million inhabitants of Persia. The end of the Ilkhanate came when Abu Said, who it is said ""ruled during what was described as the 'best period of the domination of the Mongols"". §REF§ (Marshall 1993, 229) Robert Marshall. 1993. Storm from the East: From Ghengis Khan to Khubilai Khan. University of California Press. §REF§ , died without an heir, which resulted in the Jalayirids becoming the strongest faction in the region. §REF§ (Morgan 2015, 78) David Morgan. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge. §REF§
The Mongol invaders assimilated to the local culture in Persia. They converted to Islam, used the local languages (Persian and Arabic), and maintained existing Persian administrative practices, the financing of which was underpinned by iqta land grants awarded to senior bureaucrats and army officers. §REF§ (Morgan 2007, 134-148) David Morgan. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ §REF§ (Amitai 2012) Reuven Amitai. 2012. Il-Khanids. Dynastic History. IranicaOnline. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history §REF§ According to the Persian historian Rashid al-Din, who was chief minister to Ghazan §REF§ (Marshall 1993, 228) Robert Marshall. 1993. Storm from the East: From Ghengis Khan to Khubilai Khan. University of California Press. §REF§ , the Mongols assessed the vizier (chief of the bureaucracy) on his ability to extract revenue. §REF§ (Morgan 2015, 67) David Morgan. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge. §REF§ Even so, previously better known in the region as barbarians bent on destruction, the Mongols rebuilt many hospitals, mosques, and observatories, and impressive mausoleums to the rulers appeared in the cities. §REF§ (Amitai 2012) Reuven Amitai. 2012. Il-Khanids. Dynastic History. IranicaOnline. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history §REF§ §REF§ (Morgan 2007, 134-148) David Morgan. The Mongols. 2nd ed. The Peoples of Europe. Malden, MA; Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§
During this period, Sultaniya was a famous commercial center and after the intense building activities of Oljetu (r.1304-1316 CE) the 'great city' became the capital. As a result of the work, the circumference of the outer walls almost tripled in length, containing within new fabulous palaces, gardens, and a purpose-built quarter of a thousand houses. §REF§ (Marozzi 2004, 133-135) J Marozzi. 2004. Tamerlane. HarperCollinsPublishers. London. §REF§ The largest city in the Ilkhanate at this time was probably Tabriz which also ""developed into a great metropolis"". §REF§ (Morgan 2015, 69) David Morgan. 2015. Medieval Persia 1040-1797. Routledge. §REF§ Tabriz had a cistern for drinking water and baths with hot water. §REF§ (Houtsma et al. 1993, 586) M Th. Houtsma. A J Wensinck. H A R Gibb. W Heffening. E Levi-Provencal. First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913-1936. E.J. Brill. Leiden. §REF§ In 1300 CE Tabriz may have contained 100,000-200,000 inhabitants.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",9.0,Susiana,Levant-Mesopotamia,48.235564000000,32.382851000000,Susa (Shush),IR,Iran,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
661,ni_oyo_emp_2,1601,1835,Ilú-ọba Ọ̀yọ́,ni_oyo_emp_2,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
680,se_futa_toro_imamate,1776,1860,Imamate of Futa Toro,se_futa_toro_imamate,POL_AFR_WEST,"The Imamate of Futa Toro was situated along the Senegal River in present-day northern Senegal and southern Mauritania. The Futa Toro region is south of the Sahara Desert linking it to vital trade routes. §REF§ (Clark, 2005) Clark, Andrew F. 2005. ‘Futa Toro’ In Encyclopedia of African History Volume 1: A-G. Edited by Kevin Shillington. London: Taylor and Francis. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/GDPPE8E5/collection §REF§ The Imamate of Futa Toro was first established in 1776 CE, when Muslim clerics also known as torodbe, overthrew the rulers of the Empire of Great Fulo. §REF§ (Klein 1972, 429) Klein, Martin A. 1972. ‘Social and Economic Factors in the Muslim Revolution in Senegambia.’ The Journal of Africa History. Vol. 13:3. Pp 419-441. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZJRN8UJ8/collection §REF§ The Muslim clerics established an Imamate with an Almamy or Imam as ruler. During the beginning of the nineteenth century the Almamy began to lose power to elite local aristocracy or chieftains who controlled most of the land in the region. During this time many non-Muslims in the region migrated from Futa Toro. In 1860 CE during the Senegambian Jihad of al-Hajj Umar, the French took control over the Futa Toro region as it was crucial for trade along the Senegal River, therefore with the French occupation the Imamate of Futa Toro ended. §REF§ (Lapidus, 2014) Lapidus, Ira M. 2014. A History of Islamic Societies. Third Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Lapidus/titleCreatorYear/items/5HAADQHE/item-list §REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
711,om_busaidi_imamate_1,1749,1895,Imamate of Oman and Muscat,om_busaidi_imamate_1,OTHER_TAG,,,,2023-10-25T14:02:36.369281Z,2023-10-25T14:02:36.369294Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,44,Arabia,Arabian Peninsula,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
83,PeInca*,1375,1532,Inca Empire,pe_inca_emp,LEGACY,"The Inkas or Incas were just one of the multiple chiefdoms competing for power after the collapse of the Wari and Tiwanaku polities of the Middle Horizon. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2002, 48) Terence D'Altroy. 2002. The Incas. Oxford: Blackwell. §REF§ And yet, they developed to become the largest indigenous empire in the Americas, known as Tawantinsuyu ('the four parts together'). §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 2) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ Growing from the Killke confederation, they started to expand in the Cuzco Valley and beyond over the late 14th and 15th centuries CE. §REF§ (Farrington 2013, 25) Ian Farrington. 2013. Cusco: Urbanism and Archaeology in the Inka World. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. §REF§ Over a short period from 1480 to 1532, three successive rulers ‒ Pachakuti, Thupa Inka Yupanqui and Huayna Capac ‒ pursued an expansionary policy which saw the empire stretch from southern Colombia to central Chile, covering most of the Andes. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 96) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ Its geographical extent may have covered between 500,000 and 2 million square kilometres, §REF§ Alan Covey 2017, personal communication §REF§ including dry coastal deserts, snow-capped mountains, and the fringes of the Amazon rainforest.
Because of their expansionary policy over huge swathes of land, the Inkas needed to establish adequate ruling strategies. They could exert indirect control through their hegemony over local allies. At Farfán in northern Peru, the blend of Chimú and Inka architectural styles may indicate that local elites were the vessel through which Inka rule was manifested. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 382) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ Over the areas they conquered by force, the Inkas established new settlements and imposed their own regional administrators. Near Cañete, they massacred the local Guarco population and installed their own colonists at the site of Cerro Azul. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 100) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ The dispersion and relocation of unruly people was one of their strategies to avoid uprisings, and could also serve to foster the empire's productivity. Indeed, resettled populations could be clustered to create specialized centres of production, such as the weavers and potters of Milliraya, Bolivia. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 374) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§
In addition to these violent methods, however, the Inka elite used ideological strategies to create a sense of community among conquered populations. Inka art employed a uniform geometric style, easily recognizable throughout the empire. Apart from the fine textiles and metals crafted for the royal lineages by chosen craftspeople, the rest of their ceramics and textiles were mass-produced and mass-distributed. §REF§ (D'Altroy and Schreiber 2004, 267) Terence N. D'Altroy and Katherine Schreiber. 2004. 'Andean Empires', in Andean Archaeology, edited by H. Silverman, 255‒79. Oxford: Blackwell. §REF§ This meant that Inka identity could be easily replicated and grafted onto existing cultures. The Inka 'package' included ceremonial vessels known as k'eros and aribalos, §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 443) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ used to distribute maize beer or chicha in state-sponsored feasts. The Inkas also reused previously important ceremonial shrines (wak'as) ‒ Muyu Orco, for example, was revered from the Late Formative period to the arrival of the Spanish. §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 44) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ ‒ and incorporated them into the network of shrines (z'eque) radiating outwards from Cuzco. §REF§ (Bauer 1998, 3-5) Brian S. Bauer. 1998. The Sacred Landscape of the Inca: The Cusco Ceque System. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ Every year, important state rituals manifested this state ideology on an impressive scale: the Inti Raymi or solstice festival was a grand state ceremony lasting for eight or nine days. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 262-63) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ Cuzco acted as a great ceremonial centre with its sacred precincts; provincial administrators could be formally installed during the course of some of these rituals. §REF§ Alan Covey 2017, personal communication §REF§
The empire is also known for its elaborate infrastructure works. The royal highway, known as Qhapaq Ñan, was composed of two north/south axes linked by 20 east/west segments, and stretched over 40,000 kilometres. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 5) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ Empire-sponsored storage facilities were located near every major town and village along the Inka roads. These units, known as tampus, were located no further than 15-25 kilometres apart, §REF§ (Hyslop 1984, 303) John Hyslop. 1984. The Inka Road System. New York: Academic Press. §REF§ a distance that corresponds to a day's walk and facilitated the transport of armies and commodities throughout the empire. A highly efficient courier system was also in place, whereby messengers called chaski were stationed every 6-9 kilometres to relay messages, §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 370) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ allowing information and commands to travel 250 kilometres in a day. §REF§ (Marchetti and Ausubel 2012, 26) Cesare Marchetti and Jesse H. Ausubel. 2012. 'Quantitative Dynamics of Human Empires'. International Journal of Anthropology 27 (1-2): 1-62. §REF§
Population and political organization
The Inka empire was unprecedented in the Andean region in its ambition and scale. §REF§ (Schreiber 1992, 282-83) Katherine J. Schreiber. 1992. 'Wari Imperialism in Middle Horizon Peru'. Anthropological Papers, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan. 87. §REF§ Working backwards from colonial estimates, archaeologists and historians have estimated that its population in the early 16th century could have reached between 6 §REF§ (Cook 2004, 113) Noble David Cook. 2014. Demographic Collapse: Indian Peru, 1520-1620. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and 14 million. §REF§ (McEwan 2006, 96) Gordon F. McEwan. 2006. The Incas: New Perspectives. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. §REF§ The capital, Cuzco, was a thriving city of 20,000 people §REF§ (Bauer 2004, 189, 227) Brian S. Bauer. 2004. Ancient Cuzco: Heartland of the Inca. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ divided into two moieties, hanan and hurin, which represented both status divisions and geographical origin. §REF§ (Farrington 2013, 221) Ian Farrington. 2013. Cusco: Urbanism and Archaeology in the Inka World. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. §REF§
At the top of the religious, military and administrative hierarchy was the the emperor, the Sapa Inka. Considered to be the Son of the Sun, he was believed to control supernatural powers. §REF§ Alan Covey 2015, personal communication. §REF§ After their deaths, Inka rulers were still venerated as mummies and their cults were managed by descendants from the same lineage. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 176) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§
The Inkas used a 10-tiered administrative system, with 80 provinces administered by a governor in a local urban settlement. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 354-55) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ They implemented a characteristic mode of production known as mit'a ('to take a turn'). §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 395-96) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ This built on Andean notions of reciprocal exchange to extract corvée service from heads of households for two or three months each year, ensuring that the state could rely on constant labour on a rotating basis.
The empire came to an abrupt end at the beginning of the 16th century. The Sapa Inka at this time, Huayna Khapaq, was stricken with disease ‒ possibly smallpox that had spread southwards from Central America, where it had been introduced by European invaders ‒ and died in 1528 CE. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 107) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ His sons Waskhar and Atawallpa both claimed the throne, and the empire was soon weakened by civil war and disease. The Spanish. arrived in 1532 and conquered the Inka empire in a few years. It took several decades for them to assert their authority over the impressive geographical extent of the former Inka territory: by 1572, they had subdued the last bastion of Inka power at Vilcabamba. §REF§ (D'Altroy 2014, 21) Terence N. D'Altroy. 2014. The Incas. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. §REF§ However, indigenous resistance continued until Peru obtained its independence in 1821.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",30.0,Cuzco,Andes,-72.067772000000,-13.477380000000,Cuzco,PE,Peru,South America,32,Andes,From Ecuador to Chile,"{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}"
126,PkIndGr,-180,-10,Indo-Greek Kingdom,pk_indo_greek_k,LEGACY,"The Indo-Greek 'kingdom' was created after the Greco-Bactrians invaded northern India from 180 BCE. It consisted of a number of dynastic polities that ruled from regional capitals and formed a single entity only to the extent their rulers were able to collaborate. More than 30 kings are known, who were often in conflict with each other. §REF§ (Bernard 2012, 42-52) Paul Bernard. 'Ai Khanum: A Greek Colony in Post-Alexandrian Central Asia, or How to Be Greek in an Oriental Milieu.' in Elisabetta Valtz Fino. Joan Aruz. ed. 2012. Afghanistan: Forging Civilizations Along the Silk Road. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York. §REF§
Bopearachchi suggests the period was founded by two kings, Demetrius I and Agathocles, who ruled around 185 BCE, but Jakobsson (2009) believes that a later king known as Menander was ""instrumental in the creation of the era."" §REF§ (Jakobsson 2009) Jakobsson, Jens. Who Founded the Indo-Greek Era of 186/5 B.C.E.? Dec 2009. The Classical Quarterly. New Series. Vol. 59. No.2. pp. 505-510. §REF§ The lack of consistent or reliable sources from either Western or Chinese sources means that much of what we know is speculative and reliant on numismatic evidence. §REF§ (Guillaume 1986, 1-16) Olivier Guillaume. 1986. ""An Analysis of the Modes of Reconstruction of the Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek History."" Studies in History 2, no. 1 §REF§
It is likely the rulers, who simultaneously produced their own coinage, ruled different parts of the Indo-Greek polity and employed their own administrators. §REF§ (Jakobsson 2009. 505-510) Jens Jakobsson. Who Founded the Indo-Greek Era of 186/5 B.C.E.? Dec 2009. The Classical Quarterly. New Series. Vol. 59. No.2. §REF§ Governance of the Indo-Greek region was for the most part through personal kingship and organization extended only to the limits of a particular king's power. §REF§ (Jakobsson 2009, 505-510) Jens Jakobsson, Jens. Who Founded the Indo-Greek Era of 186/5 B.C.E.? Dec 2009. The Classical Quarterly. New Series. Vol. 59. No.2. §REF§
After 145 BCE, Successive nomadic invasions by Scythians and other nomads isolated the Indo-Greeks from the wider Hellenic world. By the beginning of the first century CE, the Greco-Bactrian state was extinguished as an independent entity. §REF§ (Bernard 2012, 42-52) Paul Bernard. 'Ai Khanum: A Greek Colony in Post-Alexandrian Central Asia, or How to Be Greek in an Oriental Milieu.' in Elisabetta Valtz Fino. Joan Aruz. ed. 2012. Afghanistan: Forging Civilizations Along the Silk Road. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York. §REF§
Of the legacy of the civilization, the Greek alphabet survived until the Islamic conquest as the script of the Bactrian language, and the conversion of a Indo-Greek King to Buddhism became a part of the zeitgeist of the Indian collective historical memory. §REF§ (Bernard 2012, 42-52) Paul Bernard. 'Ai Khanum: A Greek Colony in Post-Alexandrian Central Asia, or How to Be Greek in an Oriental Milieu.' in Elisabetta Valtz Fino. Joan Aruz. ed. 2012. Afghanistan: Forging Civilizations Along the Silk Road. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York. §REF§",,,,2023-11-20T10:59:20.104782Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",13.0,Kachi Plain,Indo-Gangetic Plain,67.628836000000,29.377664000000,Mehrgarh,PK,Pakistan,South Asia,38,Pakistan,Pakistan,"{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
352,PkIndPR,-12,100,Indo-Parthian Kingdom,pk_indo_parthian_k,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,38,Pakistan,Pakistan,"{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
7,MxInitl,-2000,-1201,Initial Formative Basin of Mexico,mx_basin_of_mexico_2,LEGACY,"The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Initial Formative period (c. 2000-1201 BCE). At the start of this period, maize, squash, and other food crops had been domesticated; however, the earliest known pottery and the earliest known settled villages in the region date to a few centuries later, between 1600 and 1400 BCE. §REF§ (Pool 2012: 171) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6. §REF§
No population estimates could be found in the consulted literature; however, knowing that the site of Tlatilco (which was rather large for its time, and which was settled toward the end of this period) covered about 65 hectares (i.e. 160 acres), §REF§ (Coe 1994: 46) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5DJ2S5IF. §REF§ we may estimate that it had a population of between 3,000 and 13,000 people, assuming between 50 and 200 per hectare. No information could be found on the political organisation of settlements at the time, though it is worth noting that, beginning in 1500 BCE, the Basin developed a two-tiered settlement system, §REF§ (Evans 2004: 124) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EWW3Q2TA. §REF§ suggesting perhaps a hierarchical relationship between larger settlements and smaller ones. Moreover, the ability of certain segments of the population to intensify and control access to staples and ceremonial foods likely led to the earliest emergence of social inequalities and political hierarchies. §REF§ (Pool 2012: 171) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",27.0,Basin of Mexico,Mexico,-99.130000000000,19.430000000000,Ciudad de Mexico,MX,Mexico,North America,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
594,at_interwar_austria,1918,1938,Interwar Austria,at_interwar_austria,LEGACY,,,,,2024-03-12T11:14:57.668315Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
757,ir_pahlavi_dyn,1926,1979,Iran Pahlavi Dynasty,ir_pahlavi_dyn,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
36,KhMekIA,-500,224,Iron Age Cambodia,kh_cambodia_ia,LEGACY,"Provide a descriptive paragraph detailing the key features of the polity, which will help understanding the codes below.",,,,2025-04-17T14:02:19.011128Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",17.0,Cambodian Basin,Siam,103.866700000000,13.412500000000,Angkor Wat,KH,Cambodia,Southeast Asia,41,Mainland Southeast Asia,"Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
654,so_isaaq_sultanate,1300,1886,Isaaq Sultanate,so_isaaq_sultanate,POL_AFR_EAST,"The Isaaq Sultanate or clan group originated roughly around the fourteenth century with the arrival of Sheikh Isaq, the founder of the Isaaq Somali people, from the Arabian Peninsula. Sheikh Isaq settled in the northeast coast of Somalia at the town of Mait. Today Shiekh Isaq’s domed tomb is still venerated. ref> (Lewis 2002, 22-23) Lewis, Ioan M. 2002. A Modern History of the Somali: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/KHB7VSJK/collection §REF§ The Isaaq Sultanate was a Sunni Islamic clan who practiced Sha afi Islamic law. §REF§ (Lewis 2008, 1-2) Lewis, Ioan M. 2008. Understanding Somalia and Somaliland: Culture, History, Society. New York, Columbia University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Understanding%20Somalia/titleCreatorYear/items/7J425GTZ/item-list §REF§ By the late nineteenth century, the Isaaq Sultanate was absorbed into British Somaliland officially ending the sultanate. §REF§ (Albaharna et. al. 1986, 88) Albaharna, Husain M. 1986. The Legal Status of the Arabian Gulf States: A Study of Their Treaty Relations and Their International Problems. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/G6NP7HE4/collection §REF§",,,,2024-11-19T11:19:16.124833Z,"{'id': 136, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
478,IqIsinL,-2004,-1763,Isin-Larsa,iq_isin_larsa,LEGACY,"There were four main settlement types during the Old Babylonian period: large cities, secondary provincial cities, smaller towns, and villages. §REF§ (Liverani 2014, 186) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani. §REF§ §REF§ Ur 2013, 143-144 §REF§
While the temples still held great importance as in previous polities, the state administration of the entire state was under control of the king. However, over the course of this period imperial control over surrounding regions began to break down, increasing the number of small autonomous states who began competing with each other for other cities. §REF§ (Liverani 2014, 187) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",8.0,Southern Mesopotamia,Levant-Mesopotamia,44.420000000000,32.470000000000,Babylon (Hillah),IQ,Iraq,Southwest Asia,62,Mesopotamia,"Iraq, Kuwait","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
767,pk_pakistan_islamic_rep,1947,2020,Islamic Republic of Pakistan,pk_pakistan_islamic_rep,OTHER_TAG,,,,,2023-10-27T10:35:38.492054Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,38,Pakistan,Pakistan,"{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
548,ItRomLA,476,489,Italian Kingdom Late Antiquity,it_italy_k,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
593,it_republic_restoration,1309,1378,Italian Republic Restoration Period,it_republic_restoration,LEGACY,,,,,2024-07-16T10:08:12.369839Z,"{'id': 74, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",1.0,Latium,Southern Europe,12.486948000000,41.890407000000,Rome,IT,Italy,Europe,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
634,sl_jaffa_k,1310,1591,Jaffna,sl_jaffa_k,POL_SA_SI,,,,,2025-04-15T09:41:14.733829Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,63,Sri Lanka,Sri Lanka,"{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
738,jp_japan_contemporary,1952,2020,Japan,jp_japan_contemporary,OTHER_TAG,,,,,2024-08-09T15:15:08.509261Z,"{'id': 78, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,14,Northeast Asia,"Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
151,JpAzMom,1568,1603,Japan - Azuchi-Momoyama,jp_azuchi_momoyama,LEGACY,"The Azuchi-Momoyama period (1568-1603 CE), also known as the Shokuho period, is named for the castles built by the warrior rulers Oda Nobunaga (Azuchi) and Toyotomi Hideyoshi (Momoyama). §REF§ (Deal 2005, 11) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The Azuchi-Momoyama period marked the beginning of a process of national unification after the disorder of the Warring States period. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 12) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The period starts with the rise to power of the military commander and regional lord Oda Nobunaga. With his defeat of the shogun Ashikaga Yoshiaki, he set about bringing the lesser daimyō (lords) under the control of a single military command. §REF§ (Hall 2008, 1) John Whitney Hall. 2008. 'Introduction', in The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 4: Early Modern Japan, edited by Kozo Yamamura, 1-39. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Deal 2005, 11) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ In 1568 Nobunaga marched on, and occupied, the imperial capital of Kyoto, gaining effective control of the government. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 11) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
After the death of Nobunaga in 1582, his general Toyotomi Hideyoshi continued this process, gaining control of most of Japan by 1590 CE. In an attempt to expand Japan's territory overseas, Hideyoshi led two unsuccessful invasions of Korea in 1592 and 1597. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 11) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Hideyoshi's death in 1598, leaving a council of lords in charge until his young son came of age, sparked off a succession struggle. The general Tokugawa Ieyasu, a former ally of Oda Nobunaga, emerged victorious from the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, cementing his power. After his victory, he was appointed shogun in 1603, founding the Tokugawa Shogunate which would dominate Japan for the next 200 years. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 12, 17) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
While the generals Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu consolidated power into a military confederation, the emperor remained the nominal head of state throughout the period. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 3) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Although the older social order remained largely intact, with peasants subservient to feudal lords, Oda Nobunaga's policy of annexing lands and awarding them to his loyal retainers reshaped the power relations between lords and enabled the consolidation of his own power. §REF§ (Hall 2008, 1) John Whitney Hall. 2008. 'Introduction', in The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 4: Early Modern Japan, edited by Kozo Yamamura, 1-39. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Toyotomi Hideyoshi was instrumental in creating a strict and finely graded social hierarchy of warriors, farmers, artisans, and merchants, a structure that would be institutionalized in the succeeding Tokugawa period. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 12) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
Population estimates for the area under Azuchi-Momoyama control range from roughly 17 million in 1500 CE to 22 million in 1600 CE. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 181) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. London: Penguin Books. §REF§ The imperial capital, Kyoto, remained the largest settlement with approximately 300,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Chandler 1987) Tertius Chandler. 1987. Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census. Lewiston, NY: The Edwin Mellen Press. §REF§",,,,2023-11-17T10:42:30.255657Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",21.0,Kansai,Northeast Asia,135.762200000000,35.025280000000,Kyoto,JP,Japan,East Asia,14,Northeast Asia,"Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
140,JpJomo3,-5300,-3500,Japan - Early Jomon,jp_jomon_3,LEGACY,"""Consistent warming and a rising sea level pushed the coastal population farther inland during the Early Jomon period, with the temperature peaking several degrees higher than today toward the end of this stage. Water flooded low valleys, and some Kanto sites are as much as fifty kilometers from the present shore. [...].
""The shell mounds of this stage contain chiefly freshwater clams (Yamato shijimi or Corbicula japonica, and marine haigai or Anada granosa) and oysters (magaki or Crossostrea gigas). Animal bones - not numerous - are chiefly those of deer, boars, flying squirrels, and Siberian mountain lions. Investigations indicate that mainly older deer were hunted, that the fast-breeding wild boars were killed indiscriminately, and that mountain lions were dying out. In the more isolated areas of western Japan, animal life was reduced, leaving fewer resources for human survival. The higher temperature encouraged the growth of the evergreen oak forests (Quercus) that covered much of west Japan.
""The warmer temperature was also conducive to the growth of warm-water Anadara granosa as far north as the Daigi shell mound near Matsushima Bay, although its habitat is now south of Tokyo. On the other hand, the coldwater mollusk (Pecten yesoensis), now thriving in northeast Honshu, could not stand the warmth and is therefore missing from the Early Jomon shell mounds of that area.
""Around the middle of the Early Jomon, reliable food sources and somewhat longer stays near the coast produced a dramatic increase in population. According to Koyama's calculations, the Early Jomon population numbered around 106,000, or five times that of the Earliest Jomon, an increase unmatched at any other stage of the Jomon period.
""Small Early Jomon villages, developed on bluffs, had pit houses grouped in the form of a horseshoe. The presence of pottery of several successive types at a single site indicates continuous habitation. As this occurred, family demands fostered advances in house construction. The older, poorer shelters or huts were now transformed by the introduction of substantial inner posts strong enough to hold a roof over a rectanguloid floor. Rainwater shed by the pitched roof was drained off through surrounding ditches. Kaya (a miscanthus) was probably the roofing grass, fifteen centimeters of which would have been enough to keep the interior dry. Toward the end of the Early Jomon, the inner space took the form of a square with rounded corners. Some fireplaces were moved inside, though rarely were placed in the middle of the floor. Indoor living now offered more attractions.
""Houses were occasionally extended to accommodate growing families, but archaeological evidence reveals few repairs and almost no overlapped houses so often found at Middle Jomon sites. The forty-eight houses of the Minabori shell mound, located on a rather level plateau in Yokohama and distributed to form a rough arc, had doors facing an open space to the north. Because successive rebuilding did not alter this fundamental plan, it is thought that use of the common area had become well established. An improving economy is suggested by storage pits found both inside and outside houses. Such pits were lined by alternating layers of leaves and nuts in order to keep most of the pit's contents dry, allowing cupboard raids to expose only a little at a time.
""Most of the house pits of Minabori contained Kurohama-type pottery belonging to the middle years of the Early Jomon. These flat-bottomed pots were designed for cooking, and their new shapes made them more practical for indoor living on intensely used floors that were tamped hard. A short-lived spell of tempering the clay with small fibers - a practice that perhaps started in the Tohoku and moved south - may have been connected with attempts to strengthen the walls of the pots when increasing their size and experimenting with flat bottoms. Heavy cord marking is typical, and before the Early Jomon phase was over, Moroiso-type pottery appeared, bearing imprinted and incised decorative arcs and parallel lines made with the end of a small split bamboo stick.
""Recent excavations at the Torihama shell mound in Mikata-cho of Fukui Prefecture point up hitherto unknown advances in the Early Jomon. One of the rather few kitchen middens found on the west side of Japan, it lies beside the Hasu River in a laurel (laurilignosa) forest area dominated by oak. These excavations show that boars, deer, monkeys, raccoon-dogs, bear, serows, otters, martens, and badgers were hunted; several kinds of fish were caught; and a variety of freshwater shellfish, saltwater mollusks, clams, oysters, and ark shells were collected. Walnuts, hazelnuts, and acorns were also gathered. But of special interest are the bottle gourds {Lagenaria siceraria) and ""green beans"" (Phaseolus sp.) that were pea shaped and found in long narrow pods averaging eleven centimeters in length and thirteen beans to a pod. Many Japanese archaeologists regard both as cultivated plants, indeed suggesting that pollen changes indicate environmental alterations caused by clearing and that trees of foothill forests were cut and used for building materials, wooden tools, and firewood.
""Preserved remarkably well are ropes, reed baskets, and many wooden objects, including oars, boards, adzes, bows, and carved bowls and a comb which are the oldest pieces of lacquer ever found in Japan. Other innovations were polished stone axes, bone needles, and thimblelike bone rings. Vertically angled blades were changed to adze-shaped tools by the use of right-angled tree forks, probably for better hacking and digging of new forms of vegetation.
""Torihama is no longer an isolated case. Gourd seeds have also been found in the Early and Latest Jomon sites of Gifu and Saitama. The Middle Jomon Idojiri ""bread,"" which has long defied analysis, is now thought to have contained some eight skins of beans. The Middle Jomon Tsurune settlement site in Takayama City, Gifu Prefecture, yielded two carbonized beans (Leguminosae) that are reportedly similar to a cultivated continental Asian bean for which there was nothing comparable in Japan."" §REF§ (Kidder, Jr. 2008, 62-65) §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",21.0,Kansai,Northeast Asia,135.762200000000,35.025280000000,Kyoto,JP,Japan,East Asia,14,Northeast Asia,"Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
143,JpJomo6,-1200,-300,Japan - Final Jomon,jp_jomon_6,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",21.0,Kansai,Northeast Asia,135.762200000000,35.025280000000,Kyoto,JP,Japan,East Asia,14,Northeast Asia,"Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
138,JpJomo1,-13600,-9200,Japan - Incipient Jomon,jp_jomon_1,LEGACY,"""Following the discovery of 'pre-Jomon' pottery in Kyushu and elsewhere, Yamanouchi added an earlier stage that he called Soso-ki (the 'grass-roots' stage). It has been adopted by some and rejected by others on the ground that the pottery is not 'Jomon' and that the subsistence system of this phase was Paleolithic-style hunting. Some Westerners use this term, which I call Subearliest in order to distin- guish the phase from, and to show its relationship to, Earliest Jomon. Some prefer 'Incipient'.
""[...]
""By and large, the sites of this phase are rather few, and their cultural content is relatively meager. Bone fishhooks, usually not barbed, were rapidly improved along the northern coast. Arrowheads were small, used more frequently by inland hunters. Plant bulbs and starchy roots were dug with large, adzlike tools that were made of sandstone, slate, or other soft stone. Nuts and possibly seeds were pulverized with grinding stones. Hanawadai in Ibaragi Prefecture is the first recognizable Earliest Jomon community site. Five house pits lying about 10 meters apart contained two successive Hanawadai pottery subtypes, probably meaning that not more than three houses were occupied at any one time. The little bands of occupants could hardly have numbered more than ten or fifteen. One pit is not quite square, measuring 4.6 by 3.8 meters, and has twelve holes for posts. Outdoor fireplaces were used. Seemingly inconvenient bullet-shaped pots stood upright in the soft, loose surface soil. Dogs were kept around the house, the Canis familiaris japonica (small, short-haired, Spitz-like dogs) that were perhaps ancestors of the present-day Shiba.
""Most of the few human skeletons excavated from sites of this phase have been found intentionally buried among the shells, lying on their backs in flexed positions. They dramatize the severe conditions faced by the people of that day. The earliest known Jomon man was uncovered in 1949 below a shell layer in the Hirasaka shell mound in Yokohoma City. He stood rather tall for a Jomon person: about 163 centimeters. His lower left molars were worn down to the jawbone, probably caused by years of pulling leather thongs across them, and X-rays of his bones showed growth interruptions, interpreted as near-fatal spells of extreme malnutrition during childhood. The joints testify to early aging. Virtually unused wisdom teeth are partial evidence for a life expectancy of about thirty years, an estimated average through the Middle Jomon, with an increase of only one year during the next two millennia, until the adoption of rice as a dietary staple.
""[...]
""Koyama Shuzo calculated the population of the Earliest Jomon to be around 21,900. Inhabitants had moved to higher land in the valleys of the lower-central mountains and established communities to the north-east. Concentration in these areas throughout most of the Jomon period can be accounted for by a variety and abundance of plant, mammal, and sea life, where northern and southern environmental zones overlap in central Japan. With the exception of the Latest Jomon, and possibly the Middle Jomon, the Kanto sites are usually more numerous and frequently larger. Over half of the Earliest Jomon population was strung out along the banks of Kanto streams, with ready access to water supplies, for the same reason that earlier and later people - amounting to teeming millions in modern times - congregated there."" §REF§ (Kidder, Jr. 2008, 60-61) §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",21.0,Kansai,Northeast Asia,135.762200000000,35.025280000000,Kyoto,JP,Japan,East Asia,14,Northeast Asia,"Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
139,JpJomo2,-9200,-5300,Japan - Initial Jomon,jp_jomon_2,LEGACY,"""Following the discovery of 'pre-Jomon' pottery in Kyushu and elsewhere, Yamanouchi added an earlier stage that he called Soso-ki (the 'grass-roots' stage). It has been adopted by some and rejected by others on the ground that the pottery is not 'Jomon' and that the subsistence system of this phase was Paleolithic-style hunting. Some Westerners use this term, which I call Subearliest in order to distin- guish the phase from, and to show its relationship to, Earliest Jomon. Some prefer 'Incipient'.
""[...]
""By and large, the sites of this phase are rather few, and their cultural content is relatively meager. Bone fishhooks, usually not barbed, were rapidly improved along the northern coast. Arrowheads were small, used more frequently by inland hunters. Plant bulbs and starchy roots were dug with large, adzlike tools that were made of sandstone, slate, or other soft stone. Nuts and possibly seeds were pulverized with grinding stones. Hanawadai in Ibaragi Prefecture is the first recognizable Earliest Jomon community site. Five house pits lying about 10 meters apart contained two successive Hanawadai pottery subtypes, probably meaning that not more than three houses were occupied at any one time. The little bands of occupants could hardly have numbered more than ten or fifteen. One pit is not quite square, measuring 4.6 by 3.8 meters, and has twelve holes for posts. Outdoor fireplaces were used. Seemingly inconvenient bullet-shaped pots stood upright in the soft, loose surface soil. Dogs were kept around the house, the Canis familiaris japonica (small, short-haired, Spitz-like dogs) that were perhaps ancestors of the present-day Shiba.
""Most of the few human skeletons excavated from sites of this phase have been found intentionally buried among the shells, lying on their backs in flexed positions. They dramatize the severe conditions faced by the people of that day. The earliest known Jomon man was uncovered in 1949 below a shell layer in the Hirasaka shell mound in Yokohoma City. He stood rather tall for a Jomon person: about 163 centimeters. His lower left molars were worn down to the jawbone, probably caused by years of pulling leather thongs across them, and X-rays of his bones showed growth interruptions, interpreted as near-fatal spells of extreme malnutrition during childhood. The joints testify to early aging. Virtually unused wisdom teeth are partial evidence for a life expectancy of about thirty years, an estimated average through the Middle Jomon, with an increase of only one year during the next two millennia, until the adoption of rice as a dietary staple.
""[...]
""Koyama Shuzo calculated the population of the Earliest Jomon to be around 21,900. Inhabitants had moved to higher land in the valleys of the lower-central mountains and established communities to the north-east. Concentration in these areas throughout most of the Jomon period can be accounted for by a variety and abundance of plant, mammal, and sea life, where northern and southern environmental zones overlap in central Japan. With the exception of the Latest Jomon, and possibly the Middle Jomon, the Kanto sites are usually more numerous and frequently larger. Over half of the Earliest Jomon population was strung out along the banks of Kanto streams, with ready access to water supplies, for the same reason that earlier and later people - amounting to teeming millions in modern times - congregated there."" §REF§ (Kidder, Jr. 2008, 60-61) §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",21.0,Kansai,Northeast Asia,135.762200000000,35.025280000000,Kyoto,JP,Japan,East Asia,14,Northeast Asia,"Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
142,JpJomo5,-2500,-1200,Japan - Late Jomon,jp_jomon_5,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",21.0,Kansai,Northeast Asia,135.762200000000,35.025280000000,Kyoto,JP,Japan,East Asia,14,Northeast Asia,"Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
141,JpJomo4,-3500,-2500,Japan - Middle Jomon,jp_jomon_4,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",21.0,Kansai,Northeast Asia,135.762200000000,35.025280000000,Kyoto,JP,Japan,East Asia,14,Northeast Asia,"Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
46,IdCJBun,-400,500,Java - Buni Culture,id_buni,LEGACY,"The archaeological culture known as the Buni culture left material remains across the coastal plain of northwestern Java, some of them dating to the first or second century CE §REF§ (Miksic in Glover and Bellwood 2004, 237) §REF§ , though in all likelihood the Buni had existed since the third century BCE. §REF§ (Zahorka 2007, 27) §REF§ These remains include ceramics of various kinds (usually gray, burnished, and undecorated), a number of foreign items (for example, Romano-Indian ceramics), polished stone axes, and ceramic net sinkers, which point to the importance of fishing for the Buni economy. §REF§ (Bulbeck in Peregrine and Ember 2000, 108) §REF§
Population and political organization
No information could be found in the specialist literature, either on the political organization of the Buni, or on their population numbers.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",18.0,Central Java,Indonesia,110.403498000000,-6.985678000000,Semarang,JV,Indonesia,Southeast Asia,42,Maritime Southeast Asia,"Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
369,IrJalay,1336,1393,Jayarid Khanate,ir_jayarid_khanate,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
427,MlJeJe1,-250,49,Jenne-jeno I,ml_jenne_jeno_1,LEGACY,"The archaeological site of Jenne-jeno (or Djenné-djenno) is a mound located in the Niger Inland Delta, a region of West Africa just south of the Sahara and part of modern-day Mali, characterized by lakes and floodplains. It was continuously inhabited between 250 BCE and 1400 CE. 'Jenne-jeno I' refers to the period of earliest occupation, from 250 BCE to 50 CE. During this time, the site's inhabitants fished, gathered wild plants, hunted, and cultivated rice (as well as millet and sorghum). They also made and used pottery, and smelted, smithed and used iron, though they probably imported the raw material for the latter from far afield. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 174-75) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. Ancient Middle Niger. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
There does not seem to be enough data to reconstruct Jenne-jeno's political or social organization at this time, but even for later periods, there is a lack of archaeological evidence for 'coercive' centralized control or the development of hierarchical social structures. §REF§ (Reader 1998, 225, 228) John Reader. 1998. Africa: A Biography of the Continent. London: Penguin Books. §REF§ It is also unclear how many people were living at Jenne-jeno or at the surrounding sites. However, one of the site's excavators, Roderick McIntosh, does say that the founding population was probably not inconsiderable, and expanded rapidly. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 174-75) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. Ancient Middle Niger. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",6.0,Niger Inland Delta,Sahel,-3.041703000000,16.717549000000,Timbuctu,ML,Mali,Africa,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
428,MlJeJe2,50,399,Jenne-jeno II,ml_jenne_jeno_2,LEGACY,"The archaeological site of Jenne-jeno (or Djenné-djenno) is a mound located in the Niger Inland Delta, a region of West Africa just south of the Sahara and part of modern-day Mali, characterized by lakes and floodplains. It was continuously inhabited between 250 BCE and 1400 CE. 'Jenne-jeno II' refers to the period from 50 to 400 CE. During this time, the site's inhabitants fished, gathered wild plants, hunted, and cultivated rice (as well as millet and sorghum). They also made and used pottery, and smelted, smithed and used iron, though they probably imported the raw material for the latter from far afield. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 174-75) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. Ancient Middle Niger. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
It appears that the heterarchical organization that characterized Jenne-jeno in later times developed during this period. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, xv) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. Ancient Middle Niger. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ As for population, it is unclear how many people were living at Jenne-jeno or at the surrounding sites at this time, but a relatively rapid demographic increase is also likely. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 174-75) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. Ancient Middle Niger. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",6.0,Niger Inland Delta,Sahel,-3.041703000000,16.717549000000,Timbuctu,ML,Mali,Africa,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
430,MlJeJe3,400,899,Jenne-jeno III,ml_jenne_jeno_3,LEGACY,"The archaeological site of Jenne-jeno (or Djenné-djenno) is a mound located in the Niger Inland Delta, a region of West Africa just south of the Sahara and part of modern-day Mali, characterized by lakes and floodplains. It was continuously inhabited between 250 BCE and 1400 CE. 'Jenne-jeno III' refers to the period from 400 to 900 CE. This roughly corresponds to the region's 'urban prosperity' phase. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 175-76) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. Ancient Middle Niger. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Though subsistence strategies remained largely unchanged, a number of important transformations occurred: the inhabitants of Jenne-jeno grew in number, established long-distance trade networks, and developed more sophisticated metalworking techniques. §REF§ (McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 1) Roderick J. McIntosh and Susan K. McIntosh. 1981. 'The Inland Niger Delta before the Empire of Mali: Evidence from Jenne-jeno'. Journal of African History 22 (1): 1-22. §REF§ §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 175-76) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. Ancient Middle Niger. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
Between 400 and 800 CE, Jenne-jeno grew from 25 to 33 hectares. Population density was likely high, and a conservative estimate puts the population of Jenne-jeno and its satellites within a one-kilometre radius at 10,000-26,000 people around 800 CE. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 174-75) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. Ancient Middle Niger. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
The political organization of Jenne-jeno may have been quite different from that of other ancient cities. In several decades of excavation, clear evidence for hierarchies of any kind has yet to be unearthed: it seems that Jenne-jeno had no palaces, rich tombs, temples, public buildings, or monumental architecture. Indeed, the city's very layout ‒ an assemblage of dispersed clusters ‒ suggests a resistance to centralization. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 189) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. Ancient Middle Niger. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ It is possible that, at this time, Niger Inland Delta society was organized 'heterarchically' rather than hierarchically: that is, it was divided into multiple components, each deriving authority from separate or overlapping sources, with mechanisms in place to prevent any one group from monopolizing power. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 228-29) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. Ancient Middle Niger. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",6.0,Niger Inland Delta,Sahel,-3.041703000000,16.717549000000,Timbuctu,ML,Mali,Africa,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
431,MlJeJe4,900,1300,Jenne-jeno IV,ml_jenne_jeno_4,LEGACY,"The archaeological site of Jenne-jeno (or Djenné-djenno) is a mound located in the Niger Inland Delta, a region of West Africa just south of the Sahara and part of modern-day Mali, characterized by lakes and floodplains. It was continuously inhabited between 250 BCE and 1300 CE. 'Jenne-jeno IV' refers to the period from 900 to 1300 CE. This roughly corresponds to the tail end of the region's 'urban prosperity' phase, and the beginning of the 'urban shake-up'. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 175-76) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. Ancient Middle Niger. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ By this period, the inhabitants of Jenne-jeno had established long-distance trade networks and developed bronzeworking. Around 1000, they started working with brass, and the population continued to grow, reaching its peak between 1100 and 1200. They also produced an impressive corpus of terracotta figurines. However, in the 13th century, the population decreased rapidly, eventually leading to the abandonment of several sites, Jenne-jeno included, by 1400. The reasons for the decline are unclear, but they may include climate change, pandemic diseases such as plague, cultural upheaval deriving from the arrival of Islam and horses, and the emergence of the great West African empires of Ghana, Mali and Songhai. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 176-177) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. Ancient Middle Niger. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
No population estimates could be found specifically for this period. However, the combined population of Jenne-jeno and its satellites within a one-kilometre radius had probably reached 10,000-26,000 people by 800 CE. The population continued to grow until 1200, and then rapidly declined in the 13th and 14th centuries. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 174-77) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. Ancient Middle Niger. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
The political organization of Jenne-jeno may have been quite different from that of other ancient cities. In several decades of excavation, clear evidence for hierarchies of any kind has yet to be unearthed: it seems that Jenne-jeno had no palaces, rich tombs, temples, public buildings, or monumental architecture. Indeed, the city's very layout ‒ an assemblage of dispersed clusters ‒ suggests a resistance to centralization. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 189) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. Ancient Middle Niger. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ It is possible that, at this time, Niger Inland Delta society was organized 'heterarchically' rather than hierarchically: that is, it was divided into multiple components, each deriving authority from separate or overlapping sources, with mechanisms in place to prevent any one group from monopolizing power. §REF§ (McIntosh 2006, 228-29) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. Ancient Middle Niger. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§",,,,2024-01-08T14:01:23.818586Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",6.0,Niger Inland Delta,Sahel,-3.041703000000,16.717549000000,Timbuctu,ML,Mali,Africa,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
245,CnJinSA,-780,-404,Jin,cn_jin_spring_and_autumn,LEGACY,"The Spring and Autumn period was a period of the Eastern Zhou dynasty in which strong vassal states competed for dominance. §REF§ (Encyclopedia Britannica n.d.) “Spring and Autumn Period.” Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Spring-and-Autumn-Period. Accessed June 5, 2017. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z2EVWH4P. §REF§ When King You of Zhou was killed by an allied force of Quan Rong barbarians and the state of Shen, King Ping moved the capital to Luoyang in 770 BCE and founded the Eastern Zhou dynasty. §REF§ (Hsu 1999, 545) Hsu, C-y. 1999. “The Spring and Autumn Period,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 545-86. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW. §REF§ The weak Eastern Zhou state was responsible for diplomacy and rituals, while governmental authority lay in the hands of large vassal states. §REF§ (Encyclopedia Britannica n.d.) “Spring and Autumn Period.” Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Spring-and-Autumn-Period. Accessed June 5, 2017. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z2EVWH4P. §REF§ There were 15 major vassal states in the Spring and Autumn period, but by the mid-7th century BCE the region was dominated by the Qi, Jin, Qin, and Chu states. §REF§ (Hsu 1999, 559) Hsu, C-y. 1999. “The Spring and Autumn Period,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 545-86. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW. §REF§ The period is marked by constant warfare between different states. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 13) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9. §REF§
The Spring and Autumn period takes its name from the Confucian book Chunqiu, which chronicles events from 722 to 429 BCE. §REF§ (Encyclopedia Britannica n.d.) “Spring and Autumn Period.” Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Spring-and-Autumn-Period. Accessed June 5, 2017. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z2EVWH4P. §REF§ During this time, the moral values of Confucius helped bring China into the 'Axial Age'. §REF§ (Hsu 1999, 545) Hsu, C-y. 1999. “The Spring and Autumn Period,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 545-86. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW. §REF§ The use of bronze agricultural tools became more widespread in China and there is evidence of the use of steel and iron in the middle and late Spring and Autumn period. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 13) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9. §REF§ Coinage appeared in this period, and there are some indications that individuals could own land. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 14) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9. §REF§
The Jin state dominated the Spring and Autumn period from 636 to 628 BCE. Duke Xian of Jin (676-651 BCE) conquered 16 small states in modern Shanxi. §REF§ (Hsu 1999, 559) Hsu, C-y. 1999. “The Spring and Autumn Period,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 545-86. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW. §REF§ His son, Duke Wen, was given the title of ba ('senior' or 'hegemon') §REF§ (Lewis 2000, 365) Lewis, Mark Edward. 2000. “The City-State in Spring-and-Autumn China.” In A Comparative Study of Thirty City-State Cultures: An Investigation Conducted by the Copenhagen Polis Centre, edited by Mogens Herman Hansen. Copenhagen: The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DXXZV8CS. §REF§ by the Zhou king after defeating the encroaching state of Chu in 632 BCE. §REF§ (Hsu 1999, 559) Hsu, C-y. 1999. “The Spring and Autumn Period,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 545-86. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW. §REF§
The Jin state covered an estimated 160,000 square kilometres. The state was located in modern Shanxi, §REF§ (Theobald 2010) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “The Feudal State of China.” Chinaknowledge.de http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/rulers-jin.html Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8735F2AW. §REF§ and extended east and north from the Yellow River. §REF§ (Eno 2010) Eno, Robert. 2010. Spring and Autumn China. Indiana University, History G380, Class Text Readings. http://www.iub.edu/~g380/1.7-Spring_Autumn_Narrative-2010.pdf Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/32FGZ2UI. §REF§
Population and political organization
The multi-state Spring and Autumn system changed the feudal structure of China. In the Western Zhou period, the political elite was made up of kings, feudal lords, and hereditary ministers. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 13) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9. §REF§ In the Spring and Autumn period, a class of knights and warriors became the political ruling class. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 13) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9. §REF§ Intellectuals served as both government officials and 'cultural carriers'. §REF§ (Hsu 1999, 549) Hsu, C-y. 1999. “The Spring and Autumn Period,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 545-86. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW. §REF§ States became more centralized as the central government continued to weaken. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 13) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9. §REF§
In the ba system, first institutionalized in 651 BCE, the Zhou king bestowed the title of ba on the ruler of the vassal state that represented the Zhou court in war. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 13) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9. §REF§ §REF§ (Hsu 1999, 562) Hsu, C-y. 1999. “The Spring and Autumn Period,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 545-86. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW. §REF§ However, this system of political organization began to weaken in the 6th century BCE. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 13) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9. §REF§ §REF§ (Hsu 1999, 562) Hsu, C-y. 1999. “The Spring and Autumn Period,” in M. Loewe and E. L. Shaughnessy, eds. The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 545-86. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MMECH3VW. §REF§
Substantiated estimates for the population of the Jin state are lacking.",,,,2024-05-22T14:21:57.861969Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",20.0,Middle Yellow River Valley,North China,112.517587000000,34.701825000000,Luoyang,CN,China,East Asia,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
266,CnLrJin,1115,1234,Jin Dynasty,cn_later_great_jin,LEGACY,"The Jin Dynasty (also known as the Great Jin or Jurchen Dynasty) ruled north China from 1115 to 1234 CE. §REF§ (Perkins 1999, 246) Dorothy Perkins. 1999. Encyclopedia of China. New York: Routledge. §REF§ The dynasty was founded by a confederation of Jurchen tribes from around Manchuria that defeated the Liao in 1115 CE and then ousted the Northern Song. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 167) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
Jin forces captured the Northern Song capital of Kaifeng and forced the Song south in 1127 CE. §REF§ (Perkins 1999, 246) Dorothy Perkins. 1999. Encyclopedia of China. New York: Routledge. §REF§ The Jin territory included part of Korea in northeast Asia, and Uighur and Tibetan land in western China. In 1153 CE, the Jurchen government moved its capital from Manchuria to modern-day Beijing.
This period was marked by conflict with the Southern Song and the Mongols. The Jurchen government also struggled with economic inflation and flooding. §REF§ (Perkins 1999, 246) Dorothy Perkins. 1999. Encyclopedia of China. New York: Routledge. §REF§ In 1233 CE, the dynasty was conquered by Mongol forces, who then ruled as the Yuan dynasty. §REF§ (Perkins 1999, 246) Dorothy Perkins. 1999. Encyclopedia of China. New York: Routledge. §REF§
Population and political organization
The traditional Jurchen system of hereditary military chieftains was maintained by the first Jin ruler, Emperor Taizu. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Jin Empire Government, Administration and Law'. Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Song/jinn-admin.html. Accessed 15 March 2017. §REF§ After conquering the Liao and Northern Song, later rulers adopted a Chinese-style imperial central government, which was accepted as legitimate by Chinese Confucian scholars. §REF§ (Holcombe 2011, 135) Charles Holcombe. 2011. A History of East Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The Jin imperial government copied a number of Song institutions, including the nine-rank system for officials and recruitment by civil service examinations. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Jin Empire Government, Administration and Law'. Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Song/jinn-admin.html. Accessed 15 March 2017. §REF§
The Jin Dynasty was the first period in Chinese history in which large populations of ethnic Han citizens were ruled by an outsider government. §REF§ (Perkins 1999, 246) Dorothy Perkins. 1999. Encyclopedia of China. New York: Routledge. §REF§ While many Jurchen people moved from Manchuria into China during Jin rule, §REF§ (Holcombe 2011, 135) Charles Holcombe. 2011. A History of East Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ they still only made up about 10 percent of the population of Jin Dynasty China. §REF§ (Holcombe 2011, 135) Charles Holcombe. 2011. A History of East Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The population of the Jin dynasty was between 45 million and 54 million people in 1200 CE. §REF§ 中國文明史‧宋遼金時期‧金代》〈第十一章 民俗文化與社會精神風貌〉: 第2001頁－第2022頁 §REF§ §REF§ 中国人口发展史》.葛剑雄.福建人民出版社. §REF§",,"JR: this was previously called ""Later Jin"", but Ruth Mostern pointed out that ""Later Jin"" is used by Chinese historians to refer to a 17th-c dynasty https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Later_Jin_(1616%E2%80%931636) Request for MB: change polID to cn_later_great_jin",,2024-04-15T14:46:16.796074Z,"{'id': 18, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",20.0,Middle Yellow River Valley,North China,112.517587000000,34.701825000000,Luoyang,CN,China,East Asia,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
679,se_jolof_emp,1360,1549,Jolof Empire,se_jolof_emp,POL_AFR_WEST,"The Jolof Empire was a Wolof Kingdom that originated as early as the thirteenth century by the leader Ndiadiane N’Diaye. Ndiadine N’Diaye was also the founder of the other Wolof Kingdoms of Waalo and Cayor. Around 1360 CE, the Jolof Empire grew in influence out of the decline of the Mali Empire. The Jolof Empire created a confederation of five kingdoms which included Waalo, Cayor, Baol, Sine and Saloum. All five kingdoms paid tribute and contributed to defensive matters. §REF§ (Fage 2008, 484-486) Fage, J.D. 2008. ‘Upper and Lower Guinea’ In The Cambridge History of Africa c. 1050 – c. 1600. Edited by Roland Oliver. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/search/Fage/titleCreatorYear/items/9V3CTHZ9/item-list §REF§ In the fifteenth century, the Jolof Empire established important trade relations with the Portuguese. §REF§ (Gijanto 2016, 30-32) Gijanto, Liza. 2016. The Life of Trade: Events and Happenings in the Niumi’s Atlantic Center. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/7XNBIF95/collection §REF§ However, competition between European traders and their trading interests caused the Jolof Empire to decline. §REF§ (Fage 2008, 508) Fage, J.D. 2008. ‘Upper and Lower Guinea’ In The Cambridge History of Africa c. 1050 – c. 1600. Edited by Roland Oliver. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/search/Fage/titleCreatorYear/items/9V3CTHZ9/item-list §REF§ In 1549, the Empire broke down and split into five independent kingdoms, after the ruler of Cayor led a rebellion against the Jolof. §REF§ (Aderinto 2017, 281) Aderinto, Saheed. 2017. African Kingdoms: An Encyclopedia of Empires and Civilizations. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/4E8Q8Z29/collection §REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
270,KrJoseon,1392,1567,Joseon Dynasty,kr_joseon,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,14,Northeast Asia,"Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
608,gm_kaabu_emp,1500,1867,Kaabu,gm_kaabu_emp,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
117,PkAcerN,-7500,-5500,Kachi Plain - Aceramic Neolithic,pk_kachi_enl,LEGACY,"The Kachi Plain, in modern-day Pakistan, is hemmed in on two of its three sides by the mountains of Baluchistan, while its southeastern side opens up to the Indus Valley. §REF§ (Jarrige & Enault 1976, 29) Jarrige, Jean-François, and Jean-François Enault. 1976. “Fouilles de Pirak - Baluchistan.” Arts Asiatiques 32 (1): 29-70. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Q32UJUPX. §REF§ The earliest evidence for agriculture here was found in Mehrgarh and dates to 7000 BCE. It is impossible to say whether Mehrgarh was part of a wider network of agricultural communities in the region, or whether it was unique and/or isolated. Besides agriculture, the inhabitants of Mehrgarh also relied, at this time, on hunting and gathering, but not yet on pastoralism. §REF§ (McIntosh 2008, 57-61) McIntosh, Jane. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8. §REF§
Population and political organization
It is not possible to give an accurate estimate of the region's population at this time, §REF§ (Possehl 1999, 472) Possehl, Gregory L. 1999. Indus Age: The Beginnings. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IWNUD7IH. §REF§ and the size of occupied Mehrgarh is uncertain, as the population shifted over time and part of the site has been cut away by the Bolan River. §REF§ (Jarrige 2013, 135-154) Jarrige, J.-F. 2013. Mehrgarh Neolithic. Paris: Éditions de Boccard. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4MKZA34B. §REF§ Similarly, the literature does not provide many clues as to the political organization of Mehrgarh or any other site in the region at this time.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",13.0,Kachi Plain,Indo-Gangetic Plain,67.628836000000,29.377664000000,Mehrgarh,PK,Pakistan,South Asia,38,Pakistan,Pakistan,"{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
118,PkCeraN,-5500,-4000,Kachi Plain - Ceramic Neolithic,pk_kachi_lnl,LEGACY,"The Kachi Plain, in modern-day Pakistan, is hemmed in on two of its three sides by the mountains of Baluchistan, while its southeastern side opens up to the Indus Valley. §REF§ (Jarrige & Enault 1976, 29) Jarrige, Jean-François, and Jean-François Enault. 1976. “Fouilles de Pirak - Baluchistan.” Arts Asiatiques 32 (1): 29-70. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Q32UJUPX. §REF§ The earliest evidence for agriculture here was found in Mehrgarh and dates to 7000 BCE. By 5500, the people of Mehrgarh had begun to rely more on bovine and ovicaprine pastoralism for their meat, as opposed to hunting. Starting from around this time, there is also an increase in the number of known farming settlements in the region, most notably Kili Ghul Mohammad, Anjira, Siah Damb, and Rana Gundai. There is evidence for an increased range of craft activities and the first granaries appeared in Mehrgarh, as well as, perhaps, small-scale irrigation. §REF§ (McIntosh 2008, 57-61) McIntosh, Jane. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8. §REF§
Population and political organization
It is not possible to give an accurate estimate of the region's population at this time, §REF§ (Possehl 1999, 472) Possehl, Gregory L. 1999. Indus Age: The Beginnings. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IWNUD7IH. §REF§ and the size of occupied Mehrgarh is uncertain, as the population shifted over time and part of the site has been cut away by the Bolan River. §REF§ (Jarrige 2013, 135-154) Jarrige, J.-F. 2013. Mehrgarh Neolithic. Paris: Éditions de Boccard. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4MKZA34B. §REF§ Similarly, the literature does not provide many clues as to the political organization of Mehrgarh or any other site in the region during the period, although the appearance of granaries at Mehrgarh may suggest increasing social complexity. §REF§ (McIntosh 2008, 61) McIntosh, Jane. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",13.0,Kachi Plain,Indo-Gangetic Plain,67.628836000000,29.377664000000,Mehrgarh,PK,Pakistan,South Asia,38,Pakistan,Pakistan,"{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
119,PkChalc,-4000,-3200,Kachi Plain - Chalcolithic,pk_kachi_ca,LEGACY,"The Kachi Plain, in modern-day Pakistan, is hemmed in on two of its three sides by the mountains of Baluchistan, while its southeastern side opens up to the Indus Valley. §REF§ (Jarrige & Enault 1976, 29) Jarrige, Jean-François, and Jean-François Enault. 1976. “Fouilles de Pirak - Baluchistan.” Arts Asiatiques 32 (1): 29-70. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Q32UJUPX. §REF§ The earliest evidence for agriculture here was found in Mehrgarh and dates to 7000 BCE. The occupation of the settlement continued throughout the period under consideration here, between the 4th and the 2nd millennia BCE. In the region generally, the number of sites increased, the sites themselves became larger, and they expanded into the Indus Basin; notable sites include Periano Ghundai, Mundigak, Faiz Mohammad, Togau, and Sheri Khan Tarakai. Mehrgarh itself became an important centre for craft production, and excavations suggest increased diversity in burial rites. Agriculture remained the main economic activity in the region and oats, a new variety of barley and two new varieties of bread wheat became new staple cultivars. §REF§ (McIntosh 2008, 57-61) McIntosh, Jane. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8. §REF§
Population and political organization
It is not possible to give an accurate estimate of the region's population at this time, §REF§ (Possehl 1999, 472) Possehl, Gregory L. 1999. Indus Age: The Beginnings. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IWNUD7IH. §REF§ and the size of occupied Mehrgarh is uncertain, as the population shifted over time and part of the site has been cut away by the Bolan River. §REF§ (Jarrige 2013, 135-154) Jarrige, J.-F. 2013. Mehrgarh Neolithic. Paris: Éditions de Boccard. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4MKZA34B. §REF§ Similarly, the literature does not provide many clues as to the political organization of Mehrgarh or any other site in the region during this period.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",13.0,Kachi Plain,Indo-Gangetic Plain,67.628836000000,29.377664000000,Mehrgarh,PK,Pakistan,South Asia,38,Pakistan,Pakistan,"{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
123,PkPostU,-1800,-1300,Kachi Plain - Post-Urban Period,pk_kachi_post_urban,LEGACY,"The Kachi Plain, in modern-day Pakistan, is hemmed in on two of its three sides by the mountains of Baluchistan, while its southeastern side opens up to the Indus Valley. §REF§ (Jarrige & Enault 1976, 29) Jean-Francois Jarrige and Jean-Francois Enault. 1976. Fouilles de Pirak. Arts Asiatiques 32: 29-70. §REF§ Here, the settlement of Pirak was established not long after the beginning of the second millennium BCE, and it was continuously occupied from that time up until the sixth or seventh century BCE. Here we consider Pirak I, that is, the phase of Pirak's occupation that corresponds to the best part of the second millennium BCE. §REF§ (Jarrige & Enault 1976, 32-33) Jean-Francois Jarrige and Jean-Francois Enault. 1976. Fouilles de Pirak. Arts Asiatiques 32: 29-70. §REF§ It seems very likely that Pirak was part of a larger assemblage of culturally similar settlements, but, perhaps due to the erosive effects of nearby rivers, only Pirak remains. §REF§ (Jarrige & Enault 1976, 45-46) Jean-Francois Jarrige and Jean-Francois Enault. 1976. Fouilles de Pirak. Arts Asiatiques 32: 29-70. §REF§ Notable archaeological finds from the site at this time include terracotta seals, horse and camel figurines, and zoomorphic game pieces, and the site's architecture and agricultural infrastructure is somewhat reminiscent of the Indus Valley Civilization. §REF§ (Jarrige & Enault 1976, 33-36) Jean-Francois Jarrige and Jean-Francois Enault. 1976. Fouilles de Pirak. Arts Asiatiques 32: 29-70. §REF§
Population and political organization
Not much appears to be known about Pirak's political organization, although the retrieval of terracotta seals §REF§ (Jarrige & Enault 1976, 36) Jean-Francois Jarrige and Jean-Francois Enault. 1976. Fouilles de Pirak. Arts Asiatiques 32: 29-70. §REF§ suggests perhaps the existence of some form of bureaucracy.
The scholarly literature does not provide population estimates.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",13.0,Kachi Plain,Indo-Gangetic Plain,67.628836000000,29.377664000000,Mehrgarh,PK,Pakistan,South Asia,38,Pakistan,Pakistan,"{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
120,PkPreUr,-3200,-2500,Kachi Plain - Pre-Urban Period,pk_kachi_pre_urban,LEGACY,"The Pre-Urban period in the Indus Valley, also known as the Early Harappan or Early Indus, started around 3200 and ended around 2600 BCE. Here we extend it to include the transitional century or so between the Early and the Mature Harappan. This period was characterized by the spread of farming communities across the Indus Basin, reaching as far as the Upper Ganga-Yamuna Doab in modern-day North India. Overall, this was not a period of great innovation, but precursors of writing appear to have emerged at this time, and, together with the appearance of seals and weights, these point to a shift in organizational complexity. §REF§ (McIntosh 2008, 67-72) McIntosh, Jane. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8. §REF§
Population and political organization
No population estimates could be found in the literature. There is also no clear picture of political organization at this time - seals have been found in relevant archaeological contexts, but the existence of a bureaucratic apparatus remains unlikely. §REF§ A. Ceccarelli, personal communication to E. Cioni, February 2017. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",13.0,Kachi Plain,Indo-Gangetic Plain,67.628836000000,29.377664000000,Mehrgarh,PK,Pakistan,South Asia,38,Pakistan,Pakistan,"{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
124,PkProto,-1300,-500,Kachi Plain - Proto-Historic Period,pk_kachi_proto_historic,LEGACY,"The Kachi Plain, in modern-day Pakistan, is hemmed in on two of its three sides by the mountains of Baluchistan, while its southeastern side opens up to the Indus Valley. §REF§ (Jarrige & Enault 1976, 29) Jean-Francois Jarrige and Jean-Francois Enault. 1976. Fouilles de Pirak. Arts Asiatiques 32: 29-70. §REF§ Here, the settlement of Pirak was established not long after the beginning of the second millennium BCE, and it was continuously occupied from that time up until the sixth or seventh century BCE. Here we consider Pirak II and III, that is, the phases of Pirak's occupation that go from the end of the second millennium to the middle of the first millennium BCE. §REF§ (Jarrige & Enault 1976, 32-33) Jean-Francois Jarrige and Jean-Francois Enault. 1976. Fouilles de Pirak. Arts Asiatiques 32: 29-70. §REF§ It seems very likely that Pirak was part of a larger assemblage of culturally similar settlements, but, perhaps due to the erosive effects of nearby rivers, only Pirak remains. §REF§ (Jarrige & Enault 1976, 45-46) Jean-Francois Jarrige and Jean-Francois Enault. 1976. Fouilles de Pirak. Arts Asiatiques 32: 29-70. §REF§ Notable archaeological finds from the site at this time include terracotta seals, horse and camel figurines, and zoomorphic game pieces, and the site's architecture and agricultural infrastructure is somewhat reminiscent of the Indus Valley Civilization. §REF§ (Jarrige & Enault 1976, 33-36) Jean-Francois Jarrige and Jean-Francois Enault. 1976. Fouilles de Pirak. Arts Asiatiques 32: 29-70. §REF§
Population and political organization
Not much appears to be known about Pirak's political organization, although the retrieval of terracotta seals §REF§ (Jarrige & Enault 1976, 36) Jean-Francois Jarrige and Jean-Francois Enault. 1976. Fouilles de Pirak. Arts Asiatiques 32: 29-70. §REF§ suggests perhaps the existence of some form of bureaucracy.
The scholarly literature does not provide population estimates.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",13.0,Kachi Plain,Indo-Gangetic Plain,67.628836000000,29.377664000000,Mehrgarh,PK,Pakistan,South Asia,38,Pakistan,Pakistan,"{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
121,PkUrbn1,-2500,-2100,Kachi Plain - Urban Period I,pk_kachi_urban_1,LEGACY,"The Mature Harappan culture, also known as the Indus Civilization, emerged around 2500 BCE and, from its core in the Indus and Saraswati Valleys, expanded to the Kachi plain and the Makran coast in the west, to Gujarat in the south, and to the foothills of the Himalayas and the northern borders of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab in the north and east. This civilization was characterized by the establishment of several large cities, most notably Mohenjo-daro, the largest of these centres and the one best positioned to control trade and communications throughout the region. Rather than being united by a single shared ideology, it appears that the Indus people had a wide range of beliefs and/or religions. §REF§ (McIntosh 2008, 83-84) McIntosh, Jane. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8. §REF§ Around 1900 or 1800 BCE, the Indus Civilization began to decline, possibly due to environmental factors. §REF§ (McIntosh 2008, 396-400) McIntosh, Jane. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8. §REF§
Population and political organization
There is no clear or explicit evidence for the existence of rulers during the Mature Harappan period, though archaeologists have suggested a number of different possible ways its cities - or perhaps its entire territory - may have been governed, ranging from heterarchy to theocracy. §REF§ (McIntosh 2008, 391-92) McIntosh, Jane. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8. §REF§ Certainly the Harappans could boast a well developed bureaucracy, as suggested by seals, tablets, and other inscribed artefacts. §REF§ (McIntosh 2008, 212) McIntosh, Jane. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8. §REF§
The scholarly literature does not appear to provide population estimates for the Indus Valley as a whole, but one source suggests a population of 100,000 for the largest Harappan city, Mohenjo-daro. §REF§ (McIntosh 2008, 214) McIntosh, Jane. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",13.0,Kachi Plain,Indo-Gangetic Plain,67.628836000000,29.377664000000,Mehrgarh,PK,Pakistan,South Asia,38,Pakistan,Pakistan,"{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
122,PkUrbn2,-2100,-1800,Kachi Plain - Urban Period II,pk_kachi_urban_2,LEGACY,"The Mature Harappan culture, also known as the Indus Civilization, emerged around 2500 BCE and, from its core in the Indus and Saraswati Valleys, expanded to the Kachi plain and the Makran coast in the west, to Gujarat in the south, and to the foothills of the Himalayas and the northern borders of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab in the north and east. This civilization was characterized by the establishment of several large cities, most notably Mohenjo-daro, the largest of these centres and the one best positioned to control trade and communications throughout the region. Rather than being united by a single shared ideology, it appears that the Indus people had a wide range of beliefs and/or religions. §REF§ (McIntosh 2008, 83-84) McIntosh, Jane. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8. §REF§ Around 1900 or 1800 BCE, the Indus Civilization began to decline, possibly due to environmental factors. §REF§ (McIntosh 2008, 396-400) McIntosh, Jane. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8. §REF§
Population and political organization
There is no clear or explicit evidence for the existence of rulers during the Mature Harappan period, though archaeologists have suggested a number of different possible ways its cities - or perhaps its entire territory - may have been governed, ranging from heterarchy to theocracy. §REF§ (McIntosh 2008, 391-92) McIntosh, Jane. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8. §REF§ Certainly the Harappans could boast a well developed bureaucracy, as suggested by seals, tablets, and other inscribed artefacts. §REF§ (McIntosh 2008, 212) McIntosh, Jane. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8. §REF§
The scholarly literature does not appear to provide population estimates for the Indus Valley as a whole, but one source suggests a population of 100,000 for the largest Harappan city, Mohenjo-daro. §REF§ (McIntosh 2008, 214) McIntosh, Jane. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8. §REF§",,,,2024-11-21T15:04:18.717297Z,"{'id': 116, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",13.0,Kachi Plain,Indo-Gangetic Plain,67.628836000000,29.377664000000,Mehrgarh,PK,Pakistan,South Asia,38,Pakistan,Pakistan,"{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
91,InKadam,345,550,Kadamba Empire,in_kadamba_emp,LEGACY,"The Kadamba dynasty ruled over a region that largely falls within the boundaries of the modern-day Indian states of Karnataka and Maharashtra. §REF§ (Moraes [1931] 1990, 47) George Moraes. 1990. The Kadamba Kula. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. §REF§ An absolute start date could not be found in the specialist literature. However, much is known about this polity's monarchs. Most notably, Kakushtavarma, widely regarded as the greatest Kadamba king, concluded marriage alliances with prominent ruling families (thus extending Kadamba influence over much of the subcontinent) and created an internal police force to ensure the safe movement of people from one part of the empire to another. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 47) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. A History of Karnataka. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ After Kakushtavarma, the empire was temporarily split among his heirs, each division with its own capital: Halsi for the north and west, Triparvata for the south, and Uchchangi for the east. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 49) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. A History of Karnataka. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ The empire was partly reunited a generation later under Ravivarma. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 48) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. A History of Karnataka. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ However, the polity disintegrated rapidly under Harivarma, and much of its territory was seized by the Chalukyas of Badami in the 540s CE. §REF§ (Kadambi 2007, 178) Hemanth Kadambi. 2007. 'Negotiated Pasts and Memorialized Present in Ancient India', in Negotiating the Past in the Past: Identity, Memory, and Landscape in Archaeological Research, edited by Norman Yoffee, 155-82. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
In imitation of the Satavahanas, the Kadambas referred to their leader as dharmamaharaja §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 38) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ The dharmamaharaja was assisted at court by a royal council and the crown prince, and in the provinces he was represented by viceroys and governors. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 38) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§
No population estimates for this period could be found in the specialist literature.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",15.0,Deccan,Central India,76.625407000000,15.386856000000,Kampli,DEC,India,South Asia,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
407,InKakat,1175,1324,Kakatiya Dynasty,in_kakatiya_dyn,LEGACY,,,,,2025-04-15T09:37:23.132198Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
703,in_kalabhra_dyn,200,600,Kalabhra Dynasty,in_kalabhra_dyn,POL_SA_SI,"The Kalabhra Dynasty ruled from the 3rd century CE to the late 6th or early 7th centuries CE in the Tamil Nadu region of southern India. This period of Kalabhra rule is also known as the Kalabhra Interregnum and is considered the ‘Dark Age’ of Tamil history. §REF§ (Ganesh 2013, 26) Ganesh, K.N. 2013. ‘Transition in Early Tamil Society: A Hypothesis on the Formation of Tamil Region’ Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol 74. Pp 23-47. Seshat URL:https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/EJ9WSE3H/collection §REF§ The Kalabhra Dynasty had its first capital in Kaveripumpattinam and its final capital in Madurai. §REF§ (Gupta 1989, 24) Gupta, Parmanand. 1989. Geography from Ancient Indian Coins and Seals. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5Z4TFP7P/collection §REF§ It is believed that the Kalabhra Dynasty promoted the Buddhist and Jain religions and may have been less favourable to the Brahmanical religion. §REF§ (Jankiraman, 2020) Jankiraman, M. 2020. Perspectives in Indian History: From the Origins to AD 1857. Chennai: Notion Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/N3D88RXF/collection §REF§ By the end of the 6th or early 7th centuries, the Kalabhra Dynasty was taken over by the kingdoms of Pandyas and Pallavas of south and north Tamil. §REF§ (Gupta 1989, 24) Gupta, Parmanand. 1989. Geography from Ancient Indian Coins and Seals. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/5Z4TFP7P/collection §REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
406,InKalch,1157,1184,Kalachuris of Kalyani,in_kalachuri_emp,LEGACY,,,"Changing name from ""Kalachuri Empire"" to ""Kalachuris of Kalyani"" to distinguish from other Kalachuri dynasties",,2025-04-08T15:47:53.046421Z,"{'id': 68, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
47,IdKalin,500,732,Kalingga Kingdom,id_kalingga_k,LEGACY,"Kalingga, or Ho-ling, is a rather enigmatic polity that seems to be mostly known through contemporary Chinese documents. According to these annals, Kalingga was one of two Javanese coastal centres that interacted with the T'ang court in the fifth century CE, the other one being Ho-lo-tan, in the Tarum basin. §REF§ (Tarling 1993, 203) §REF§ A North Indian Buddhist monk named Gunavarman wrote about his visit to Kalingga in 422, and we know that the polity sent envoys to China in 430, 440, and in the 640s and 660s. §REF§ (Tarling 1993, 203) §REF§ §REF§ (Hall 2011, 106) §REF§ According to Chinese records, by the seventh century, Kalingga had expanded inland, and counted twenty-eight small polities as its allies. §REF§ (Hall 2011, 122) §REF§
Population and political organization
Kalingga was likely a monarchy, §REF§ (Hall 2011, 106) §REF§ but overall the sources are silent on the exact details of its political organization. Similarly, no population estimates could be found in the specialist literature.",,,,2023-10-23T16:30:35.922541Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",18.0,Central Java,Indonesia,110.403498000000,-6.985678000000,Semarang,JV,Indonesia,Southeast Asia,42,Maritime Southeast Asia,"Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
335,SeKalma,1397,1523,Kalmar Union,sv_kalmar_union,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,17,Northern Europe,"Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
148,JpKamak,1185,1333,Kamakura Shogunate,jp_kamakura,LEGACY,"The Kamakura period (1185-1333 CE) begins with the victory of the Minamoto family over the Taira clan in the Gempei War. In 1192 CE, Minamoto military victory received official recognition when Minatomo no Yoritomo was appointed shogun (great general) by the emperor. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 35) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Although the emperor in Kyoto remained the nominal ruler, as the first shogun, Yoritomo managed to avoid court influence and intrigues by locating his base of operations close to his traditional support base in Kamakura, near present day Tokyo, from which the period takes its name. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 3) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 35) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The Kamakura Shogunate marks the beginning of Japan's medieval era, which saw the rise of warrior rule combined with a feudal system of landholding and administration. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 3) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ While the borders to the east, west and south remained roughly constant, the exact extent of the polity's territory to the north was not rigidly defined. §REF§ (Batten 1999, 173-74) Bruce Batten. 1999. 'Frontiers and Boundaries of Pre-Modern Japan'. Journal of Historical Geography 25 (2): 166-82. §REF§
The 'peak' of the Kamakura Shogunate could be considered to coincide with the reign of the Hōjō regent Hōjō Yasutoki (r. 1224-1242 CE), who was responsible for institutionalizing the way the bakufu (military government) mediated disputes and governed. §REF§ (Mass 2008, 74) Jeffrey P. Mass. 2008. 'The Kamakura Bakufu', in The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 3: Medieval Japan, edited by Kozo Yamamura, 46-88. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The period ends in 1333 CE with the overthrow of the shogunate and the restoration of the Emperor Go-Daigo. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 4) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
The shogunate, also known as the bakufu (literally 'tent headquarters'), issued in a new period of military governance. However, many of the older institutions inherited from the Heian period persisted, albeit in weakened form. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 35) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The degree to which the imperial court lost its power is still somewhat uncertain, and some scholars have argued that there was more cooperation between the court and shogunate than previously thought. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 35-36) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The central political relationship now became that between the lord and his vassals: loyalty, either willing or enforced, formed the basis of governance. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 88) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The shogun rewarded loyalty with grants of estates and offices. Vassals collected taxes but retained a portion, depleting the revenue of the central government. Warriors became the political, social and economic elite, drawing their economic power from their landholdings. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 2, 4) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
Echoing developments in the preceding Heian period, when imperial power was tempered by that of powerful regents, the shogun became functionally subordinate to hereditary regents from the Hōjō family (who lacked the necessary social rank to become shoguns in their own right) after the death of Yoritomo in 1199. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 4-5) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ In 1274 and 1281 CE, there were two failed Mongol invasions; this external threat may have helped to mute any internal dissent until the restoration of Emperor Go-Daigo. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 37-38) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§
The historian William Wayne Farris gives an estimate of between five and six million for the population of the Kamakura Shogunate. §REF§ (Farris 2006, 9, 100) William Wayne Farris. 2006. Japan's Medieval Population: Famine, Fertility, and Warfare in a Transformative Age. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",21.0,Kansai,Northeast Asia,135.762200000000,35.025280000000,Kyoto,JP,Japan,East Asia,14,Northeast Asia,"Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
389,InKamar,350,1130,Kamarupa Kingdom,in_kamarupa_k,LEGACY,,,,,2023-11-14T13:29:27.949671Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,37,Eastern South Asia,"Bangladesh + Indian states of West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and Sikkim","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
96,InKampi,1280,1327,Kampili Kingdom,in_kampili_k,LEGACY,"The Kampili Kingdom was a small, short-lived polity founded along the northern shore of the Tunghabadra river. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2003, 74) Carla Sinopoli. 2003. The Political Economy of Craft Production. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ An absolute date for its founding could not be found in the specialist literature, but, in 1327 CE, the region was conquered by the Delhi Sultanate. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2003, 75) Carla Sinopoli. 2003. The Political Economy of Craft Production. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
Little is known about the sociopolitical structures of this polity, §REF§ (Sinopoli 2003, 75) Carla Sinopoli. 2003. The Political Economy of Craft Production. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and no population estimates could be found in the specialist literature.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",15.0,Deccan,Central India,76.625407000000,15.386856000000,Kampli,DEC,India,South Asia,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
614,cd_kanem,800,1379,Kanem,cd_kanem,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
220,TdKanem,850,1380,Kanem Empire,td_kanem,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,5,Sahel,"Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Chad (Arid)","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
670,ni_bornu_emp,1380,1893,Kanem-Borno,ni_bornu_emp,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
273,UzKangj,-150,350,Kangju,uz_kangju,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,13,Turkestan,"Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
417,in_kannauj_varman_dyn,650,780,Kannauj - Varman Dynasty,in_kannauj_varman_dyn,LEGACY,"The Middle Ganga corresponds to the eastern portion of the Upper Ganga Plain, in the eastern part of the north-central modern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh and the state of Bihar. Between c. 650 and 780 CE, it was under the control of the Kannauj polity.
Like many other Indian polities between the seventh and the eleventh centuries, Kannauj was ruled by a king, who received support from a number of key ministers, and who controlled provincial territories indirectly, through a hierarchy of princes and officials (higher tier, in charge of provinces) and visayapatis (lower tier, in charge of districts). §REF§ (Mishra 1977, 137-144) Shyam Manohar Mishra. 1977. Yaśovarman of Kanauj: A Study of Political History, Social, and Cultural Life of Northern India During the Reign of Yaśovarman. Abhinav Publications. §REF§
While no information on the polity's total population could be found, the imperial capital of Kannauj is thought to have had a population of 120,000 people at its peak in 620 CE. §REF§ (Chase-Dunn: pers. comm. 2011) §REF§",,,,2024-07-19T07:49:51.139664Z,"{'id': 56, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",14.0,Middle Ganga,Indo-Gangetic Plain,82.700000000000,25.750000000000,Jaunpur,UTPR,India,South Asia,64,North India,"Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
145,JpKofun,250,537,Kansai - Kofun Period,jp_kofun,LEGACY,"The Kofun period is commonly defined by the emergence and spread of mounded tombs, from which derive the word Kofun meaning ""old tumulus""(Ko (=ancient) + fun(=tumulus)). §REF§ Mizoguchi, K., 2009.Nodes and edges: A network approach to hierarchisation and state formation in Japan. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 28, 15. §REF§ §REF§ G. Barnes, 2007. State formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th-century ruling elite. Routledge, 7. §REF§ The most visually prominent type of these mounds is the monumental keyhole shaped tomb that spread from northern Kyushu to Kanto from the middle of the third century onwards. §REF§ Hirose, K. 1992. ‘Zenphkhenfun no Kinai hennen [Chronology of keyhole tombs in the Kinai]’. In Y. Kondh (ed.). Kinki-hen, pp. 24-6. §REF§ §REF§ K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 221-226. §REF§ The large-sized keyhole shaped tombs have been interpreted as the burials of regional leaders. §REF§ G. Barnes, 2007. State formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th-century ruling elite. Routledge, 7. §REF§ Most of the largest keyhole shaped tumuli are distributed in the present-day Nara basin and Osaka plain of the Kansai region, which could have played a prominent political role in Japan during the Kofun period. §REF§ Mizoguchi, K., 2009.Nodes and edges: A network approach to hierarchisation and state formation in Japan. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 28, 15. §REF§ The Kofun period is sub-divided into three sub-periods: Early (250-400 CE), Middle (400-475 CE), and Late (475-710 CE). §REF§ G. Barnes, 2007. State formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th-century ruling elite. Routledge, 9. §REF§ This sub-division is based on changes in tomb structures and their assemblages, in settlement patterns and in ruling dynasties. In fact, the seat of the political centre shifted from Miwa, during the Early Kofun, to Kawachi, in the Middle Kofun, and finally to Asuka in the Late Kofun period. §REF§ G. Barnes, 2007. State formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th-century ruling elite. Routledge, 10. §REF§
Population and political organization
The Early Kofun period is characterized by the spatial distribution of many contemporaneous large keyhole shaped tumuli, which represent the presence of several different polities and regional leaders. §REF§ Mizoguchi, K., 2009.Nodes and edges: A network approach to hierarchisation and state formation in Japan. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 28, 15. §REF§ §REF§ K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 243. §REF§ In this period, bronze mirrors, beads of jasper and green tuff, haniwa vessels, iron weapons and tools were deposited in the large mounded tombs, which likely hosted the burial of a regional chief. §REF§ K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 259-264. §REF§ The burial chambers were either cists made of slate stone in oblong plan or vertical pitsdug on the top of the mound. §REF§ K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 249-250. §REF§ The political centre was Miwa, in the south-eastern Nara basin. Thi centres incorporated the Makimuku district, which housed the large Hashikaka keyhole-shaped tomb (280 m long), considered to be the burial place of the queen Himiko. §REF§ G. Barnes, 2007. State formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th-century ruling elite. Routledge, 9. §REF§ The power was held at Miwa by the Sujin dynasty. §REF§ Kawamura, Y. 2004. ‘Shoki Wa seiken to tamazukuri shidan [Early Wa authority and bead production]’. Khkogaku Kenkyi 50 (4): 55-75. §REF§ §REF§ G. Barnes, 2007. State formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th-century ruling elite. Routledge, 9-10. §REF§
The Middle Kofun period is characterized by the spread of large keyhole-shaped mounds in the Osaka Plains.The grave assemblage met substantial change: bronze mirrors and fine beadstone objects were no longer deposited. §REF§ G. Barnes, 2007. State formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th-century ruling elite. Routledge, 10. §REF§ §REF§ K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 260-263. §REF§ Instead, the amount of iron deposited in the tombs in form of weapons and/or tools increased. §REF§ G. Barnes, 2007. State formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th-century ruling elite. Routledge, 10. §REF§ Beads, armlets and talismans begant to be made of talc, and they were not only deposited in burials but also used in landscape rituals. §REF§ K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 262. §REF§ §REF§ Barnes, G., 2006. ‘Ritualized beadstone in Kofun-period society’. East Asia Journal: studies in material culture 2(1). §REF§ §REF§ Kaner, Simon. ""The Archaeology of Religion and Ritual in the Prehistoric Japanese Archipelago."" The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of Ritual and Religion (2011): 457-469. §REF§ Horse trappings, gilt-bronze ornaments and gold jewellery began being deposited in the grave assemblage of large burial mounds. §REF§ G. Barnes, 2007. State formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th-century ruling elite. Routledge, 10. §REF§ In this period, the power was exerted by the Ojin dynasty in the centre of Kawachi, in the east central Osaka prefecture. §REF§ G. Barnes, 2007. State formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th-century ruling elite. Routledge, 10. §REF§
In the Late Kofun Period the size of the burial mounds decreased significantly and the construction of large keyhole-shaped tumuli ceased, except for the Kanto region. Thereafter, the tumuli of the regional leaders were downsized and built in a rectangular and square shape. §REF§ Shiraishi, T., 1999. ‘Kofun kara mita yamato Hken to Azuma [Viewing Yamato kingly authority and the eastern provinces from mounded tombs]’. Khkai khkogaku khza, pp. 15-17 (conference pamphlet). Maebashi: Gunma-ken Maizhbunkazai Chhsajigyhdan. §REF§ §REF§ G. Barnes, 2007. State formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th-century ruling elite. Routledge, 10-11. §REF§ §REF§ K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 297-298. §REF§ This decline was followed by the proliferation of clusters of small round tumuli called ""packed tumuli clusters"". §REF§ K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 298. §REF§ They have been interpreted as the result of the emulation of the chiefly habits by powerful extended family-scale groupings. §REF§ K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 298-299. §REF§ In this period were also introduced the corridor-chamber tombs and the cliff-cut cave tombs. §REF§ G. Barnes, 2007. State formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th-century ruling elite. Routledge, 14. §REF§ The power was held by the Keitai dinasty in the centre of Asuka, in southern Nara prefecture. §REF§ G. Barnes, 2007. State formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th-century ruling elite. Routledge, 10, 14. §REF§ The introduction of Buddhism in 552 CE, determined a new Buddhism-based culture in the area. §REF§ G. Barnes, 2007. State formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th-century ruling elite. Routledge, 14. §REF§
We have estimated the population of Kansai to be between 150,000 and 200,000 people in 300 CE, and between 1.5 million and 2 million by 500 CE. An estimated 16.8% of the Japanese population lived in Kansai from 250-599 CE. §REF§ Kidder, J. E., 2007. Himiko and Japan's elusive chiefdom of Yamatai: archaeology, history, and mythology. University of Hawaii Press, 60. §REF§ §REF§ Koyama, S., 1978. Jomon Subsistence and Population. Senri Ethnological Studies 2. Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",21.0,Kansai,Northeast Asia,135.762200000000,35.025280000000,Kyoto,JP,Japan,East Asia,14,Northeast Asia,"Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
144,JpYayoi,-300,250,Kansai - Yayoi Period,jp_yayoi,LEGACY,"The Yayoi period in the Kansai region (Yayoi period in the Kinki region) is an Iron Age period in Japan marked by the introduction of rice farming, metalworking, cloth making, and new forms of pottery from continental Asia. §REF§ (Mason 1997, 22) Mason, R,H.P and J.G. Caiger. 1997. A History of Japan. Vermont: Tuttle Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HC5A5QFR §REF§ The beginning of the Yayoi period was characterized by substantial changes and the introduction of new cultural features in the daily life. In the early Yayoi period (ca. 400 BCE - 200 BCE; 300 - 100 BCE) such innovations consisted of new type of houses, burial practices, settlement structures and more importantly of the introduction of full scale farming. §REF§ K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 79-80. §REF§ §REF§ Hudson, M. J., 2007. ""Japanese beginnings.""In: W. Tsutsui (ed.), A Companion to Japanese History. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 20. §REF§ The new type of house, consisting of a rectangular or round sub-types,spread throughout western Japan (from Kyushu to Kansai) by the end of the Early Yayoi period. In this period settlements started being enclosed by V-sectioned ditches. §REF§ K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 84-85. §REF§ Another important change was that, in a given settlement, burial grounds were separated by the dwelling area. The dead were mostly buried in rectangular ditch-enclosed burial compounds covered by low earthen mounds. The introduction of rice paddy field agriculture had big impact in the social structure of the Japanese Yayoi communities. The archaeological evidence of paddy fields suggest that Yayoi communities were able to set up paddies in different topographic and climatic environments. Their maintenance and construction required an unprecedented scale of collaboration and social organization. §REF§ K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 120. §REF§
The Middle Yayoi period saw also an increase of stone and metal tools, bronze mirrors and weapons deposited mainly as grave goods and Dokatu bronze bells deposited as ritual tools. The spread of bronze mirrors and metal objects can be interpreted as the result of trade contacts between western japanese chiefdoms and the Chinese Lelang commandery in Korean peninsula. §REF§ G. Barnes, 2007. State formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th-century ruling elite. Routledge, 61-65. §REF§ During the Late Yayoi period (1/50-200 CE; 100 - 300 CE) we have marked evidence of social stratification. §REF§ K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 202-203. §REF§
During the Yayoi/Kofun Transition Period (200-250/75 CE), according to Mizoguchi's periodization, §REF§ K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 214. §REF§ or the final Late Yayoi period, according to Barnes' periodization, in western Japan emerged the polity (perhaps a chiefdom) of Yamatai ruled by the queen Himiko. Unfortunately, the evidence of the presence of this polity come from the Chinese dynastic histories and there is not agreement among the scholars about the location of Yamatai. Some scholars located Yamatai in northern Kyushu, §REF§ Takemoto, T. 1983. ‘The Kyishi Dynasty’. Japan Quarterly 30 (4): 383-97. §REF§ while others located it in Kansai. §REF§ Miller, R. 1967. The Japanese language. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 16-18. §REF§ §REF§ Edwards, W., 1999. ‘Mirrors on ancient Yamato’. Monumenta Nipponica 54 (1, spring): 75-110. §REF§ The queen Himiko may have seized the power between the 189 and the 238 CE and her death could be dated to the 248 CE. §REF§ Kidder, J. E., 2007. Himiko and Japan's elusive chiefdom of Yamatai: archaeology, history, and mythology. University of Hawaii Press, 161. §REF§
Population and political organization
In the Early Yayoi period, significant features such as ditch-enclosed settlements, paddy fields and irrigation systems required a hierarchical structure able to mobilize the needed labour force and coordinate different tasks. As consequence, the Early Yayoi period saw the emergence of a ranked society, where members of a ""warrior class"" were responsible for guaranteeing and protecting communal interests. §REF§ K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 102. §REF§
In the Middle Yayoi period (ca. 200 BCE - 1/50 CE; 100 BCE - 100 CE) there is a significant increase in the population, which results in the emergence of large central-type settlements. Hence, there is a two-tiered settlement hierarchy characterized by larger villages acting as regional centres and smaller satellite settlements. A Middle Yayoi settlement was composed of several residential units (hamlets)that were part of a larger kin-based corporate group cross-cutting several different villages. §REF§ K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 120. §REF§ This would have favoured the relations and cooperation between villages on regional scale. There is a peer-polity interaction between the chiefdoms distributed in Western Japan. Each hamlet had its own burial ground and storage facilities and perhaps was occupied by 30 individuals. The regional centres of Western Japan often contained more than 3-4 hamlets and could reach an overall population higher than 200 inhabitants. More research is needed on total Yayoi population.
We know from the Chinese documents that the Japanese chiefs acquired the title of wang (king) ad consequence of the tribute they submitted to the Chinese Han dynasty trough the Lelang commandery. §REF§ G. Barnes, 2007. State formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th-century ruling elite. Routledge, 71. §REF§ In the Middle Yayoi period burial compounds, mortuary rectangular allotments usually enclosed by a ditch and covered by an earth mound, are introduced. The spatial distribution of these burial features (usually located beside large regional centres), their skeletal remains (almost all adult males) and their grave good assemblages (bronze weapons, bronze mirrors, cylindrical beads, etc.) suggest that the individuals buried in the compounds were regional chiefs or leaders belonging to a number of corporate groups. §REF§ Mizoguchi, K., 2002. An archaeological history of Japan, 30,000 B.P. to A.D. 700. University of Pennsylvania Press, 142-47. §REF§ §REF§ K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 150-154. §REF§ Overall, the evidence suggest that the status of the elite was achieved rather than being ascribed.
In the Late Yayoi period, the elites started showing their dominance within a settlement by living in clear marked compounds enclosed by ditches and containing raised-floor storage buildings. In addition, clustering of iron tools have been found in proximity of the elites compounds. This evidence suggest that the elites controlled the means of production and the storage and distribution of products. §REF§ K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 202-203. §REF§ In this period in the rectangular burial compounds, not only adults, but also children and infants were buried, suggesting that the elite status was no longer achieved during their lifetimes but inherited at birth. The population saw also an intensification of inter-communal competition.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",21.0,Kansai,Northeast Asia,135.762200000000,35.025280000000,Kyoto,JP,Japan,East Asia,14,Northeast Asia,"Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
294,TmKarKh,1137,1218,Kara Khitai Khanate,tm_kara_khitai_khanate,LEGACY,,,,,2023-11-14T16:27:55.321565Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,13,Turkestan,"Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
289,KgKarKh,950,1212,Kara-Khanids,kg_kara_khanid_dyn,LEGACY,"Karakhanids were a Buddhist nomadic tribe from Kashgar who converted to Islam sometime in the 950s CE §REF§ (Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton. §REF§ After their conversion, the Karakhanids ""accepted the nominal authority of the Abbasid caliphs and directly or indirectly promoted the spread of Islam among the populace of Transoxania, Kashgar, and the Tarim basin."" §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 230) Lapidus, Ira M. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§
Starr (2013) describes their polity as ""no state at all but a loose confederation of appendages, the ruling houses of which were linked by blood ties."" §REF§ (Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton. §REF§ In the mid-11th century the state was formally divided into two separate Khanates, with Western and Eastern halves. §REF§ (Davidovich 1997, 144-145) Davidovich, E A. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO. §REF§
Despite the decentralized system of government being the dominant characteristic of the Karakhanid Khanate, literature suggests there may have been a central government with a vizier §REF§ (Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton. §REF§ , and during the reign of Ibrahim in the mid-11th century ""a single system of coinage with different denominations circulated throughout the Western Karakhanid Khanate, creating good, stable market conditions."" §REF§ (Davidovich 1997, 136) Davidovich, E A. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO. §REF§
Never entirely an independent polity, after the regress of the Abbasid Caliphate the Western Karakhanids became ""dependent on the Seljuqs"" who ""placed on the Karakhanid throne in Samarkand whichever members of the dynasty they required. The vassal status of the Western Karakhanids is also reflected in the coinage, some of which bears the names of Seljuq sultans."" §REF§ (Davidovich 1997, 138) Davidovich, E A. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO. §REF§
Central Asia is considered to have reached its 'golden age' in its civilizational achivement during the Karakhanid period. Davidovich describes the complexity of life in its populous cities, which may have exceeded 300,000 inhabitants:
""To the best of our knowledge, strenuous efforts were made to keep the towns clean. It was forbidden to throw rubbish into the streets and alleyways, which were considered to be public property. Deep wells for rubbish and sewage, covered by earthenware or wooden lids, were provided in private courtyards as well as in public places, houses and palaces, according to the archaeological evidence. Archaeologists have discovered ceramic water pipes and segments of paved streets and courtyards dating from the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Blown window glass was also in use at the time."" §REF§ (Davidovich 1997, 148) Davidovich, E A. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",23.0,Sogdiana,Turkestan,66.938170000000,39.631284000000,Samarkand,UZ,Uzbekistan,Central Eurasia,13,Turkestan,"Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
686,Karagwe,1500,1916,Karagwe,tz_karagwe_k,POL_AFR_EAST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
395,InKarkt,625,1339,Karkota Dynasty,in_karkota_dyn,LEGACY,,,,,2023-11-14T13:37:34.845893Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,64,North India,"Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
410,InKashm,1346,1580,Kashmiri Sultanate,in_kashmiri_sultanate,LEGACY,,,,,2023-11-14T14:44:29.459436Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,64,North India,"Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
342,IqBabKs,-1595,-1150,Kassite Babylonia,iq_babylonia_2,LEGACY,"The Kassites invaded Babylon from the north-west after the Hittites ended the First Empire. The Hittites did not establish their presence in Babylonia and, instead, the Kassites took the throne and ruled over Babylonia, although it was a smaller empire than the First Empire. §REF§ Gill, A. 2008. Gateway of the Gods: The Rise and Fall of Babylon. London: Quercus. p.66 §REF§ The Kassite Dynasty is notable for the unification of Sumer and Babylon to create the Empire. It was marked by large building projects, especially in old Sumerian cities such as Ur, Uruk and Eridu. §REF§ Stein, D. L. 1997. Kassites. In Meyers, E. (ed.) The Oxford Encylopedia of Archaeology in the Near East. Volume 3. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p.272 §REF§ The Babylonian Empire was at this time secondary to the powerful surrounding states Egypt and Assyria. The Kassites had a reasonably good relationship with Egypt; there were several intermarriages and gifts were given and recieved. On the other side, they constantly fought with Assyria until the Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I captured the Babylonian king, Kashtiliash IV and conquered Babylon. Assyrians ruled Babylon for seven years. Elam also started invading Babylonian territory in the latter Kassite Dynasty, eventually setting Kutir-Nahhunte on the throne in the north, leaving the Kassites surviving in power in the south. Not many years later Kuti-Nahhunte conquered the whole of Babylon, ended the rule of the Kassite Dynasty and took their god, Marduk, to Susa. §REF§ Liverani, M. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge. p.364-366 §REF§
The period was characterised by the overall population decline occurring across the Near East. Border towns and villages were abandoned and irrigation became less successful. Much of the administration was undertaken by or in the temples who effectively owned most of the land; however, another type of land ownership developed, which was the land gifted by the king to religious, military and administrative elites. The non-elites, on the other hand, suffered during this period, becoming markedly impoverished as they became unimportant in social government. §REF§ Liverani, M. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge. p.366-7 §REF§
In general, the Kassites made only limited changes to Babylonian culture, mostly assimilating into Babylonian society. As such, it can often be difficult to ascribe evidence to the Kassites specifically, as opposed to the ongoing Babylonian empire. §REF§ Gill, A. 2008. Gateway of the Gods: The Rise and Fall of Babylon. London: Quercus. p.68 §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",8.0,Southern Mesopotamia,Levant-Mesopotamia,44.420000000000,32.470000000000,Babylon (Hillah),IQ,Iraq,Southwest Asia,62,Mesopotamia,"Iraq, Kuwait","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
892,kz_kazakh_khanate_1,1465,1718,Kazakh Khanate I,kz_kazakh_khanate_1,OTHER_TAG,,Kazakh Khanate,1718 marks breakup of the Khanate after the death of Tauke Khan,2024-07-03T14:06:58.162856Z,2024-07-03T14:06:58.162868Z,,,,,,,,,,,13,Turkestan,"Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
893,kz_kazakh_khanate_2,1719,1847,Kazakh Khanate II,kz_kazakh_khanate_2,OTHER_TAG,,Kazakh Khanate,,2024-07-03T14:08:33.641357Z,2024-07-03T14:08:33.641373Z,,,,,,,,,,,13,Turkestan,"Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
298,RuKazan,1438,1552,Kazan Khanate,ru_kazan_khanate,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,10,Pontic-Caspian,The steppe belt of Ukraine and European Russia,"{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
49,IdKedir,1049,1222,Kediri Kingdom,id_kediri_k,LEGACY,"The kingdom of Kediri ruled over a territory roughly corresponding to the modern-day province of East Java, at least based on the locations where its rulers' inscriptions have been found. §REF§ (Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (b), 707) §REF§ Midway through the eleventh century CE, the Javanese monarch Airlangga split his realm into two smaller kingdoms, each to be ruled by one of his sons: one of these kingdoms was likely Kediri §REF§ (Sedyawati in Ooi 2004 (a), 134) §REF§ . The latter rapidly overshadowed its ""twin"": it was the first Indonesian kingdom to develop stratified territorial administration, it became known for the organization of its armed forces, and it even introduced bureaucratic officials specifically tasked with the management of the polity's water resources. §REF§ (Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (b), 707) §REF§ Kediri does not appear to have collapsed: rather, in the early thirteenth century, the cente of power shifted to Singhasari, with the foundation of a new dynasty. §REF§ (Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (c), 1208) §REF§
Population and political organization
Kediri was ruled by a king, who was assisted by bureaucratic officials. Moreover, as already mentioned, Kediri was the first known Indonesian state to develop stratified territorial administration: more specifically, the polity was organized into three levels, the village, the cluster of villages, and the state. §REF§ (Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (b), 707) §REF§ This suggests that there were officials in charge of administrating both village clusters and individual villages.
According to McEvedy and Jones, §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 196-201) McEvedy, Colin. Jones, Richard. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd. London. §REF§ Indonesia had a population of four million in 1100 CE. Given the fact that Kediri occupied a small portion of the archipelago, it seems reasonable to infer a population size of a few hundred thousands.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",18.0,Central Java,Indonesia,110.403498000000,-6.985678000000,Semarang,JV,Indonesia,Southeast Asia,42,Maritime Southeast Asia,"Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
791,bd_khadga_dyn,650,700,Khadga Dynasty,bd_khadga_dyn,OTHER_TAG,,,,2023-12-07T16:13:34.676069Z,2023-12-07T16:13:34.676082Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,37,Eastern South Asia,"Bangladesh + Indian states of West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and Sikkim","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
469,UzJanid,1599,1747,Khanate of Bukhara,uz_janid_dyn,LEGACY,"""Under their rule the city and khanate crystallized into an almost classical pattern of a Muslim polity of its time, cherishing and even enhancing traditional values while ignoring or rejecting the vertiginous changes initiated by the Europeans but now reaching other parts of the world. Most khans, especially the virtuous Abdalaziz (ruled 1645-81), were devout Muslims who favored the religious establishment and adorned Bukhara with still more mosques and madrasas."" §REF§ (Soucek 2000, 177) §REF§
""(g) Janids or Ashtarkhanids (or Toqay-Timurids: descendants of Toqay-Timur, Juchi’s 13th son); Bukhara, 1599-1785; Bosworth, pp. 290-1)x. Yar Muhammad1. Jani Muhammad (1599-1603)2. Baqi Muhammad (1603-1606), his son, 2nd generation3. Vali Muhammad (1606-12), Baqi Muhammad’s brother4. Imam Quli (1612-42), their nephew, 3rd generation5. Nazr Muhammad (1642-45), his brother6. Abd al-Aziz (1645-81), Nazr Muhammad’s son, 4th generation 7. Subhan Quli (1681-1702), Abd al-Aziz’s brother8. Ubaydallah I (1702-11), Subhan Quli’s son, 5th generation9. Abu l-Fayz (1711-47), Ubaydallah’s brother10. Abd al-Mu’min (1747), his son,6th generation11. Ubaydallah II (1747-53), Abd al-Mu’min’s brotherx. [Muhammad Rahim the Manghit, in the absence of Janid incum- bency]12. Abu l-Ghazi (1758-85), from a lateral branchEnd of Genghisid rule in Transoxania"" §REF§ (Soucek 2000, 325-326) §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",23.0,Sogdiana,Turkestan,66.938170000000,39.631284000000,Samarkand,UZ,Uzbekistan,Central Eurasia,13,Turkestan,"Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
903,az_caucasus_khanates,1748,1828,Khanates of the Caucasus,az_caucasus_khanates,OTHER_TAG,,Khanates of the Caucasus,,2024-10-16T09:28:22.181427Z,2024-10-16T09:28:22.181445Z,,,,,,,,,,,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
285,RuKhazar,626,965,Khazar Empire,ru_khazar_emp,LEGACY,,,,,2024-11-26T14:07:43.196812Z,"{'id': 152, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,10,Pontic-Caspian,The steppe belt of Ukraine and European Russia,"{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
288,MnKhitn,907,1125,Khitan I,mn_khitan_1,LEGACY,"""The Khitan first appear in documentary sources in the 4th century as a people of the south-central portion of northeast China, from a region of mountains and open grasslands. Under the leadership of Abaoji, the Khitan rapidly adopted a centralized royal form of organization, with clear similarities to Chinese traditions but also incorporating some of the familiar steppe pastoralist strategies (Wittfogel and Feng 1949, pp. 59-65). Although Buddhism was a central feature of the polity, as the empire expanded into Central Asia the majority of the population was actually Muslim (Biran 2006, p. 66; Dunnell 1996, p. 4)."" §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 227) §REF§
""Liao occupation of the Central Plains, 947"" §REF§ (Standen 2009, 102) §REF§
""The Liao emperor did not conquer and govern the Central Plains directly. ... by dint of military success, he had become the legitimate emperor of the Central Plains. Familiar with T'ang protocols, and advised by formally educated ministers from both Liao and the Later Chin, Te-kuang observed such practices as declaring a new dynasty, wearing Chinese dress, and reemploying former officials. ... He appointed new governors, demoted K'ai-feng from its capital status, and established Chen-chou as a capital instead. But Te-kuang did not intend to stay. ... he treaded the conquest as a very large raid, in which public relations were irrelevant and only loot mattered. Perhaps most damaging to Te-kuang's image was the policy of ""smashing the pasture and grain"" (ta ts'ao-yu) ... The Liao armies devestated the region around the capital, foraging to supply themselves and practicing the all-too-common cruelties of soldiers in wartime. To reward his troops, claimed to number three hundred thousand, Te-kuang demanded from an already overtaxed population cash and cloth to be stockpiled for transport north. Most ambitious of all was Te-kuang's attempt to take north every material element of the Later Chin imperial institution, including palace women and eunuchs, the complete contents of the imperial storehouses, and every last bureaucrat. ... Te-kuang ... apparently wrote his younger brother listing his own three faults in this venture: demanding cash from the people. ordering indiscriminate foraging and plundering, and failing to return the governors to their provinces in good time. The letter, preserved in the Liao shih (Official history of the Liao), describes the ""foreignness"" of the Khitan: they are raiders (rather than tax collectors) and pastoralists (rather than farmers), and they keep their governors at court(rather than giving them active responsibility in their provinces)."" §REF§ (Standen 2009, 102-103) §REF§
Revolts against Liao: ""Te-kuang, preoccupied with removing himself and his plunder north to the Liao homeland, was largely unresponsive to these events, although he did make an example of Hsiang-chou2, slaughting some hundred thousand men and children, and taking away the women."" §REF§ (Standen 2009, 105) §REF§
""The Liao, for their part,did not vigorously defend the territory they had conquered. On the few occasions when they did fight, they did not try very hard."" §REF§ (Standen 2009, 105) §REF§
""The one region the Liao seemed concerned to hold was the key strategic city of Chen-chou, which controlled the main access between the Central Plains and the Liao homeland."" §REF§ (Standen 2009, 106) §REF§
Standen, N. ""The Five Dynasties."" in Twitchett, D and Smith, P J ed. 2009. The Cambridge History of China Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907-1279, Part 1. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
""The comitatus of the early Khitan, a Mongolic people, is known from the ac- counts of An Lu-shan’s Rebellion. For a detailed treatment of the later Liao Dynasty of the Khitan, including discussion of its imperial guard corps, see the outstanding early study by Wittfogel and Fêng (1949). “Each [Khitan Liao] emperor had a separate ordo, or camp, with a ‘heart and belly guard’ of 10,000 to 20,000 households. . . . The members of this guard, particularly the non-Khitans, were the emperor’s private slaves, but their proximity to him gave them high status. After the emperor’s death they guarded his mausoleum while his suc- cessor recruited a new ordo and guard” (Atwood 2004: 297). The Liao state, with its five capitals (ordo), seems to have been organized, theoretically, around the ideal of the “khan and four-bey” system. The khan of the Kereit, who were rivals of Temüjin during his rise to power, “had crack forces of ba’aturs, ‘heroes’, and a 1,000-man day guard, institutions Chinggis Khan would later imitate” (Atwood 2004: 296), along with the golden tent (ordo) connected to them."" §REF§ (Beckwith 2009, 391-392) §REF§",,,,2023-10-23T16:42:37.138401Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",24.0,Orkhon Valley,Mongolia,102.845486000000,47.200757000000,Karakorum,MN,Mongolia,Central Eurasia,9,Mongolia,"Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
43,KhCambd,1432,1594,Khmer Kingdom,kh_khmer_k,LEGACY,"This polity covers the post-Angkor period of Cambodia's history from the early 15th to the end of the 16th century CE. In 1432, the magnificent city of Angkor was sacked by the forces of King Trailok ‒ of the increasingly powerful Thai Kingdom of Ayutthaya ‒ who carried off the Khmer royal regalia as a symbol of their victory. §REF§ (Stark 2006, 146, 164) Miriam T. Stark. 2006. 'From Funan to Angkor: Collapse and Regeneration in Ancient Cambodia', in After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and John J. Nichols, 144-67. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Hall 2011, 233) Kenneth R. Hall. 2011. A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Social Development, 100-1500. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. §REF§ A Khmer royal presence continued at Angkor in reduced form until around 1504, when the rulers retreated to a site near Phnom Penh on the Mekong River, southeast of Tonlé Sap Lake. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 208-09) Michael D. Coe. 2003. Angkor and the Khmer Civilization. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ §REF§ (Andaya 1992, 402-59) Barbara Watson Andaya. 1992. 'Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ However, Thai strength in the region continued to grow at the expense of the Khmer court, and in 1594 the then-capital Lovek was also attacked by the Thais, forcing the Cambodian king to flee to Laos. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 210) Michael D. Coe. 2003. Angkor and the Khmer Civilization. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§
Due to the Angkor kings' waning fortunes and endemic warfare with Ayutthaya, §REF§ (Andaya 1992, 421) Barbara Watson Andaya. 1992. 'Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ it is difficult to identify the 'peak' of this polity. Indeed, the post-Angkor period is sometimes referred to somewhat dismissively as the 'Middle Period' of Cambodian history, §REF§ (Thompson 1997, 22) Ashley Thompson. 1997. 'Changing Perspectives: Cambodia after Angkor', in Sculpture of Angkor and Ancient Cambodia: Millennium of Glory, edited by Helen I. Jessop and Thierry Zephir, 22-32. Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art. §REF§ but it should be noted that this term tends to also encompass the span of time between 1594 and the establishment of the French Protectorate in 1863. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 195) Michael D. Coe. 2003. Angkor and the Khmer Civilization. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§
Population and political organization
Although centralized Khmer power was much weaker than in former centuries, and very few inscriptions survive to throw light on political organization, §REF§ (Thompson 1997, 22-23) Ashley Thompson. 1997. 'Changing Perspectives: Cambodia after Angkor', in Sculpture of Angkor and Ancient Cambodia: Millennium of Glory, edited by Helen I. Jessop and Thierry Zephir, 22-32. Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art. §REF§ Khmer royals did still rise up periodically to assert their authority. For instance, historical accounts indicate that a king called Ang Chan reconquered Angkor in the 16th century and built a golden palace. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 208-09) Michael D. Coe. 2003. Angkor and the Khmer Civilization. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ Meanwhile, the new capital on the lower Mekong was international in outlook, with quarters for Malay, Chinese and Japanese traders, §REF§ (Coe 2003, 208-09) Michael D. Coe. 2003. Angkor and the Khmer Civilization. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ and some post-Classic Khmer kings had Japanese and Portuguese guards in their entourage. §REF§ (Jacq-Hergoualc'h and Smithies 2007, 98) M. Jacq-Hergoualc'h and M. Smithies. 2007. The Armies of Angkor. Bangkok: Orchid Press. §REF§
More generally, this period was characterized by increasing commercial, religious and political connections within mainland Southeast Asia and greater integration into global trade networks, §REF§ (Andaya 1992, 411-12) Barbara Watson Andaya. 1992. 'Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ especially after the arrival of the Portuguese in 1511. §REF§ (Hall 2011, 35-36) Kenneth R. Hall. 2011. A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Social Development, 100-1500. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. §REF§ Wars between mainland Southeast Asian rulers did not preclude the development of a common, 'hybrid' culture among the wider population. §REF§ (Andaya 1992, 411-12) Barbara Watson Andaya. 1992. 'Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Likewise, one reason for the relocation of the Khmer capital (in addition to Thai attacks and drought coupled with 'intense monsoons') §REF§ (Buckley et al. 2010, 6748) Brendan M. Buckley, Kevin J. Anchukaitisa, Daniel Penny, Roland Fletcher, Edward R. Cook, Masaki Sano, Le Canh Nam, Aroonrut Wichienkeeo, Ton That Minh and Truong Mai Hong. 2010. 'Climate as a Contributing Factor in the Demise of Angkor, Cambodia'. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107 (15): 6748-51. §REF§ was likely 'a desire for greater participation in seaborne trade'. §REF§ (Andaya 1992, 410) Barbara Watson Andaya. 1992. 'Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",17.0,Cambodian Basin,Siam,103.866700000000,13.412500000000,Angkor Wat,KH,Cambodia,Southeast Asia,41,Mainland Southeast Asia,"Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
295,TmKhwrz,1157,1231,Khwarezmid Empire,tm_khwarezmid_emp,LEGACY,"
The Khwarezmid (Khwarazmian or Khorezmian or Khorezmshah) Empire was ruled by the Khwarazmian dynasty (also known by Khwarazmshah dynasty, Anushtegin dynasty or Anushteginids) and consisted of parts of modern-day Iran, Afghanistan and Central Asia.
The Khwarazmshah dynasty were initially vassal rulers of the Seljuqs but later established their own independent state - which quickly grew into an empire - after the death of the Seljuq Sultan, Sanjar, in 1157.
The polity ends after the Mongol conquest of the region in 1219-1221, and the death of the final Khwarazmshah, Muḥammad, Jalāl al-Dīn, in 1231.
The list of rulers are:
c. 470/c. 1077 Anūshtigin Gharcha’ī nominal Khwārazm Shāh.
490/1097 Ekinchi b. Qochqar, Turkish governor with the title Khwdrazm Shah.
490/1097 Arslan Tigin Muḥammad b. Anūshtigin, Abu ’l-Fatḥ, Quṭb al-Dín, Khwārazm Shah.
521/1127 Qïzïl Arslan Atsïz b. Muḥammad, Abu ‘l-Muẓaffar ‘Alā al-Dīn.
551/1156 Il Arslan b. Atsïz, Abu’ l-Fatḥ.
567/1172 Tekish b. Il Arslan, Abu’ l-Muẓaffar Tāj al-Dunyā wa ‘ l-Dīn.
567– 89/1172–93 Mahmūd b. Il Arslan, Abu ‘ l-Qāsim Sulṭan Shāh, Jalāl al- Dunyā wa ’l-Dīn, rival ruler in northern Khurasan, d.589/1193.
596/1200 Muḥammad b. Tekish ‘Alā’ al-Dīn.
617–28/1220–31 Mengübirti (one of the usual renderings of this cryptic Turkish name; a further possibility suggested recently by Dr Peter Jackson is Mingīrinī: ‘having a thousand men’ = the familiar Persian name Hazārmard) b. Muḥammad, Jalāl al-Dīn.
Mongol conquest of Transoxania and Persia.
§REF§Khwarazmshahs I. Descendants of the Line of Anuštigin. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U9U8ZTYS§REF§§REF§Bosworth 2012: 301-302. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B6JRSLIB§REF§§REF§ Soucek 2000: 320. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GNQIHZ4T§REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,13,Turkestan,"Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
281,AfKidar,388,477,Kidarite Kingdom,af_kidarite_k,LEGACY,"The Kidarite state in Central Asia (~ 388-477 CE) may have lasted less than 100 years, but its earliest phase under the suzerainty of the Sassanid Empire is not well known. §REF§ (Zeimal 1996, 125) E. V. Zeimal. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf §REF§ ""It has been suggested that they conquered K'ang-chu and Sogdiana in c. 300 but the literary sources have not yet been corroborated by the archaeological evidence."" §REF§ (Zeimal 1996, 124-125) E V Zeimal. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf §REF§
The most influential ruler of the Kidarites was perhaps king Kidara: narrative sources place him in the c420s CE but numismatists agree his rule began c390 CE. §REF§ (Grenet 2005) Frantz Grenet. 2005. KIDARITES. Iranicaonline. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kidarites §REF§ The Chinese chronicle Peo-Shih (Annals of the Wei Dynasty) say Kidara held ""vast territories to the north and south of the Hindu Kush"" and his most imporant city was near Peshawar, probably Purushapura, §REF§ (Zeimal 1996, 126) E V Zeimal. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf §REF§ the late capital of the Kushan Empire.
Much like the Kushan Empire little is known about how exactly they ruled their territories. The Kidarites founded new cities (Panjikent and Kushaniya), Kushaniya being a royal foundation §REF§ (Grenet 2005) Frantz Grenet. 2005. KIDARITES. Iranicaonline. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kidarites §REF§ that shows that the Kidarites attempted to draw some of their legitimacy from the preceding Kushan period. Zeimal (1996) concludes that ""It seems likely that the administrative and government structure created by the Kushans was left largely intact under the Kidarites."" §REF§ (Zeimal 1996, 132) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",23.0,Sogdiana,Turkestan,66.938170000000,39.631284000000,Samarkand,UZ,Uzbekistan,Central Eurasia,8,Afghanistan,Afghanistan,"{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
314,UaKiev1,880,1242,Kievan Rus,ua_kievan_rus,LEGACY,,,,,2024-11-18T16:37:16.777845Z,"{'id': 130, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,16,Eastern Europe,"Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
895,kz_kimek_conf,880,1227,Kimek–Kipchak Confederation,kz_kimek_conf,OTHER_TAG,,Kimek–Kipchak Confederation,,2024-07-03T14:30:47.503291Z,2024-07-03T14:30:47.503305Z,,,,,,,,,,,13,Turkestan,"Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
740,af_afghanistan_k,1927,1973,Kingdom of Afghanistan,af_afghanistan_k,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,8,Afghanistan,Afghanistan,"{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
822,gb_alba_k,900,1292,Kingdom of Alba,gb_alba_k,OTHER_TAG,,Kingdom of Alba,,2024-04-09T12:50:03.928211Z,2024-07-03T15:53:08.626528Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
880,fr_arles_k,933,1006,Kingdom of Arles,fr_arles_k,OTHER_TAG,,Kingdom of Arles,,2024-05-18T16:42:01.797477Z,2024-05-18T16:42:01.797492Z,,,,,,,,,,,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
842,es_asturias_k,718,924,Kingdom of Asturias,es_asturias_k,OTHER_TAG,,Kingdom of Asturias,,2024-04-10T08:30:50.133883Z,2024-04-10T08:30:50.133896Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
416,InAyodE,-64,34,Kingdom of Ayodhya,in_ayodhya_k,LEGACY,"The Middle Ganga corresponds to the eastern portion of the Upper Ganga Plain, in the eastern part of the north-central modern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh and the state of Bihar. From the literature consulted, it is not entirely clear which polity occupied this region between the first century BCE and the first CE, though it was likely a relatively small kingdom resulting from the fragmentation of the Sunga Empire. This should therefore be considered a temporary ""placeholder"" page.",,,,2024-07-19T07:50:20.956498Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",14.0,Middle Ganga,Indo-Gangetic Plain,82.700000000000,25.750000000000,Jaunpur,UTPR,India,South Asia,64,North India,"Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
676,se_baol_k,1550,1890,Kingdom of Baol,se_baol_k,POL_AFR_WEST,"The Kingdom of Baol became an independent kingdom after the breakup of the Jolof Empire in the mid-sixteenth century. Baol established its capital in Lambaye. §REF§ (Bigon and Ross 2020, 42) Bigon, Liora and Ross, Eric. 2020. Grid Planning in the Urban Design Practices of Senegal. London: Springer. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MM67I638/collection §REF§
Some scholars such as Fiona McLaughlin have classified the Kingdom of Baol as a Wolof kingdom while Liora Bigon and Eric Ross and Ibrahima Thiaw have grouped the Baol along with its Sereer neighbours. Nevertheless, the Kingdom of Baol had longstanding unions with the Wolof kingdom of Cayor throughout its duration and their leader was known as the damel-teen signifying the merging of both kingdoms. The Kingdom of Baol like its coastal neighbours participated in trade relations with various European partners, particularly the French. §REF§ (Ogot 1999, 138) Ogot, B. A. 1999. ‘Senegambia from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century: Evolution of Wolof, Sereer and Tukuloor.’ In General History of Africa V. from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century. Berkeley: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/862PZTJ6/collection §REF§ In 1890 CE the Kingdom of Baol became a protectorate of the French Empire. §REF§ (Glover 2009, 74) Glover, John. 2019. ‘Murid Modernity: Historical Perceptions of Islamic Reform, Sufism, and Colonization.’ In New Perspectives on Islam in Senegal: Conversion, Migration, Wealth, Power, and Femininity. Edited by Mamadou Diouf and Mara Leichtman. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ET3G9CJD/collection §REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
568,cz_bohemian_k_2,1310,1526,Kingdom of Bohemia - Luxembourgian and Jagiellonian Dynasty,cz_bohemian_k_2,LEGACY,"
“The physical setting for this history is fixed easily enough: the lands of the present-day Czech Republic, which closely correspond to the core of the historical Kingdom of Bohemia (Bohemia proper, Mora- via, and part of Silesia) lie between 51° 03’ and 48° 33’ north latitude, and 12° 05’ and 18° 51’ east longitude.”§REF§(Agnew 2004: 4) Agnew, Hugh LeCaine. 2004. The Czechs and the Lands of the Bohemian Crown. California: Hoover Institution Press. http://archive.org/details/czechslandsofboh0000agne. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6LBQ5ARI§REF§
This polity period begins and ends with the rule of the House of Luxembourg, which succeeded four centuries of the Přemyslid dynasty. “From 1310 to 1437 Bohemia was ruled by the House of Luxemburg, many of whom were Emperors of Germany as well as Kings of Bohemia.”§REF§(Thorndike 1917: 552) Thorndike, Lynn. 1917. The History of Medieval Europe. Massachusetts, USA: The Riverside Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KJSEM6KC§REF§ “Sigismund, who it will be remembered, became emperor in 1410, succeeded his brother Wenzel as King of Bohemia as well, where he reigned from 1419 to his death in 1437, so far as the Hussites, indignant at his betrayal of their leader, would let him. On Sigismund's death, Bohemia and Hungary, like the imperial office which he had held, passed for a few years to the House of Hapsburg. But then, through exercise of the old custom of election by the nobility, the two lands came under the rule of native kings and did not again come into the possession of the Austrian dynasty until well into the sixteenth century.”§REF§(Thorndike 1917: 553) Thorndike, Lynn. 1917. The History of Medieval Europe. Massachusetts, USA: The Riverside Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KJSEM6KC§REF§",,,,2024-01-26T14:05:25.538254Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
598,cz_bohemian_k_1,1198,1309,Kingdom of Bohemia - Přemyslid Dynasty,cz_bohemian_k_1,LEGACY,"The Kingdom of Bohemia under the Přemyslid dynasty from 1198 to 1309 CE was a period marked by significant development, territorial expansion, and the consolidation of royal power, which laid the foundational structures of the Bohemian state and its integration into the broader European medieval political landscape. This era witnessed the transformation of Bohemia from a duchy into a kingdom, with Prague emerging as a significant cultural and political center in Central Europe.§REF§Jaroslav Pánek and Oldřich Tůma, A History of the Czech Lands (Prague: Karolinum Press, 2009). Zotero link: 5MFK58ZP§REF§
The formal recognition of Bohemia as a kingdom came in 1198, when Duke Ottokar I assumed the title of King, a status confirmed by the Holy Roman Emperor. This elevation reflected not only the growing power and prestige of the Přemyslid rulers but also the strategic importance of Bohemia within the Holy Roman Empire.§REF§Jörg K. Hoensch, Geschichte Böhmens: von der slavischen Landnahme bis zur Gegenwart. Zotero link: APL977ZI§REF§
The Přemyslid dynasty, which traced its origins back to the 9th century, was instrumental in shaping the identity and political structures of the Bohemian state.§REF§Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Neue Deutsche Biographie. Zotero link: 2B7YCXT3§REF§
One of the most notable rulers of this period was Ottokar II (1253-1278), known as Ottokar the Great. His reign was characterized by ambitious territorial expansion, extending Bohemian control over adjacent regions, including Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, thereby significantly enhancing the kingdom's power and influence in Central Europe. Ottokar II's efforts to consolidate his rule and expand his territory brought him into conflict with other regional powers and the Holy Roman Emperor, leading to his eventual defeat and death at the Battle of Marchfeld in 1278.§REF§Hoensch, Přemysl Otakar II. von Böhmen. Zotero link: LVNSK3MW§REF§
Despite the dynastic challenges and occasional conflicts with the Holy Roman Empire, the Přemyslid dynasty succeeded in maintaining Bohemia's sovereignty and distinct identity within the imperial framework. The legal codifications and administrative reforms of this period laid the groundwork for the kingdom's future development.
The end of the Přemyslid dynasty came in 1306, following the assassination of Wenceslaus III. The subsequent period saw the rise of the Luxembourg dynasty, which would continue to shape the kingdom's trajectory in the future.§REF§Hirschbiegel, Höfe und Residenzen im spätmittelalterlichen Reich. Zotero link: R4DMTD9L§REF§",,,,2024-02-06T12:13:29.036347Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
829,ba_bosnia_k,1377,1463,Kingdom of Bosnia,ba_bosnia_k,OTHER_TAG,,Banate of Bosnia,,2024-04-09T14:07:38.781077Z,2024-04-09T14:07:38.781090Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,19,Southeastern Europe,"Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
674,se_cayor_k,1549,1864,Kingdom of Cayor,se_cayor_k,POL_AFR_WEST,"The Kingdom of Cayor was part of the Wolof kingdoms who spoke the Wolof language in northern Senegal. §REF§ (McLaughlin 2008, 93) McLaughlin, Fiona. 2008. ‘Senegal: The Emergence of a National Lingua Franca’. In Languages and National Identity in Africa. Edited by Andrew Simpson. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/7VBFQ96V/collection §REF§ The Kingdom of Cayor originate in the 11th or 12th centuries but became part of the confederacy with the Jolof Empire in 14th century. §REF§ (Barry 1999, 263) Barry, Boubacar. 1999. ‘Senegambia from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century: Evolution of the Wolof, Sereer and ‘Tukuloor.’ In General History of Africa. V: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century. Edited by B.A. Ogot. Berkely: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/24W2293H/collection §REF§ The Cayor eventually broke the confederation with the Jolof Empire around 1549 CE and became an independent kingdom from which we get its start date. §REF§ (Europa Publications 2003, 358) Europa Publications. 2003. A Political Chronology of Africa. London: Taylor and Francis. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/528D563M/collection §REF§ The capital of the Kingdom was at Mdaud. §REF§ (Reclus 1892, 159) Reclus, Elisee et al. 1892. The Earth and Its Inhabitants: West Africa. New York: D. Appleton and Company. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2494BGCZ/collection §REF§
Like its Wolof neighbours of Waalo, the kingdom of Cayor was largely involved in the slave and horse trades for the Atlantic and Saharan markets. §REF§ (Webb Jr 1993, 246) Webb Jr, James L.A. 1993. ‘The Horse and Slave Trade between the Western Sahara and Senegambia.’ Journal of African History. Vol. 34:2. Pp 221-246. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/JDZFX3SC/collection §REF§ The Kingdom of Cayor was monarchical and was ruled by the Damel or king. §REF§ (The Philanthropist no. II 1811, 204) 1811. ‘Manners and Customs of the People of Cayor, Sin and Sallum’ In The Philanthropist no. II. London: Longman and Company. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/C5553ITD/collection §REF§ For its duration, the Kingdom of Cayor worked together with the French for trade purposes, but in 1864 Senegal became a French colony. The last Damel of Cayor, Lat Dior, led a rebellion against the French and was defeated and exiled, officially ending the Kingdom’s rule. §REF§ (Europa Publications 2003, 358) Europa Publications. 2003. A Political Chronology of Africa. London: Taylor and Francis. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/528D563M/collection §REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
241,AoKngo2,1491,1568,Kingdom of Congo,ao_kongo_2,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,1,Central Africa,Angola and DRC,"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
850,cy_cyprus_k,1192,1489,Kingdom of Cyprus,cy_cyprus_k,OTHER_TAG,,Kingdom of Cyprus,,2024-04-10T10:05:59.800415Z,2024-04-10T10:05:59.800428Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,19,Southeastern Europe,"Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
873,dk_danish_k,936,1396,Kingdom of Denmark - Medieval,dk_danish_k,OTHER_TAG,,"Kingdom of Denmark, Margaret of Denmark",,2024-05-02T14:44:48.543124Z,2024-05-02T14:44:48.543137Z,,,,,,,,,,,17,Northern Europe,"Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
875,dk_danish_k_modern,1946,2020,Kingdom of Denmark - Modern,dk_danish_k_modern,OTHER_TAG,,Denmark,,2024-05-02T14:47:32.277504Z,2024-05-02T14:47:32.277518Z,,,,,,,,,,,17,Northern Europe,"Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
844,es_galicia_k,911,1111,Kingdom of Galicia,es_galicia_k,OTHER_TAG,,Kingdom of Galicia,,2024-04-10T08:35:31.790494Z,2024-04-10T08:35:31.790505Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
290,GeGeoK2,975,1243,Kingdom of Georgia II,ge_georgia_k_2,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
834,ge_georgia_k_3,1329,1463,Kingdom of Georgia III,ge_georgia_k_3,OTHER_TAG,,Kingdom of Georgia,,2024-04-09T14:57:04.368442Z,2024-04-09T14:57:04.368455Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
641,et_gomma_k,1780,1886,Kingdom of Gomma,et_gomma_k,POL_AFR_EAST,"The Kingdom of Gomma was one of the five Oromo kingdoms located in Western Ethiopia. The Kingdom of Gomma originated in the late eighteenth century CE and its capital was located at Haggaro. According to Historian Spencer Trimingham, the Kingdom of Gomma was one of the first Oromo kingdoms to embrace Islam. By 1886 CE the Kingdom of Gomma was annexed into the Ethiopian Empire under Menelik II. §REF§ (Trimingham 2013, 200) Trimingham, J. Spencer. 2013. Islam in Ethiopia. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/RB7C87QZ/collection §REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
651,et_gumma_k,1800,1897,Kingdom of Gumma,et_gumma_k,POL_AFR_EAST,"The Kingdom of Gumma was one of the five Oromo kingdoms located in Western Ethiopia. The Kingdom of Gumma originated in the early nineteenth century CE and had its capital located in Chora. §REF§ (Recluse 1892, 212) Recluse, Elisee. 1892. The Earth and Its Inhabitance: North-East Africa. Edited by A.H. Keane. New York: D. Appleton and Company. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ISD6B4K2/collection §REF§ Like its neighbouring Oromo kingdoms, the Kingdom of Gumma seemed to be politically and administratively similar to the Kingdom of Jimma. §REF§ (Lewis 2001, 124-125) Lewis, Herbert S. 2001. Jimma Abba Jifar, an Oromo Monarchy: Ethiopia, 1830-1932. Lawrenceville, New Jersey: The Red Sea Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/NRZVWSCD/collection §REF§ The Kingdom of Gumma was an Islamic kingdom and was particularly active in Jihadis movements in the second half of the nineteenth century. §REF§ (Hassen 1992, 96) Hassen, Mohammed. ‘Islam as a Resistance Ideology Among the Oromo of Ethiopia.’ In In The Shadow of Conquest: Islam in Colonial Northeast Africa. Trenton, New Jersey: The Red Sea Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/search/Hassen/titleCreatorYear/items/PJ3UMMX5/item-list §REF§ The Kingdom of Gumma was eventually annexed into the Ethiopian Empire by Menelik II at the turn of the twentieth century. §REF§ (Trimingham 2013, 200) Trimingham, Spencer. 2013. Islam in Ethiopia. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/search/Trimingham/titleCreatorYear/items/RB7C87QZ/item-list §REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
20,USKameh,1778,1819,Kingdom of Hawaii - Kamehameha Period,us_kamehameha_k,LEGACY,"Hawai'i, also known as the Big Island, is the largest island of the Hawaiian archipelago. Here, we consider the period of its history from 1778 to 1819. 1778 is the date of first European contact ‒ the arrival of Captain Cook ‒ while 1819 is the year of King Kamehameha I's death. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 170, 174) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Kirch 2000, 300) Patrick V. Kirch. 2000. On the Road of the Winds: An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands before European Contact. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Kamehameha was a war chief and keeper of the war god Kūka'ilimoku who, in 1782, rose against King Kīwala'ō and managed to seize power over the Kohala and Kona districts of the Big Island. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 118-19) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Over the next three decades, Kamehameha waged several military campaigns, eventually unifying the entire archipelago (minus Kaua'i and Ni'ihau) in 1804. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 116) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
In this period, Kamehameha I sat at the top of the political hierarchy. He was advised on secular affairs, including war, by the kālaimoku, who also oversaw the royal storehouses, while the kahuna nui was in charge of the king's sacred duties and oversaw his temples and main gods. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 50, 57) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Kamehameha did not introduce many changes to the traditional hierarchies, but he did appoint a number of governors to be his representatives on the other islands. §REF§ (Kuykendall 1938, 51) Ralph S. Kuykendall. 1938. The Hawaiian Kingdom, 1778-1854: Foundation and Transformation. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai'i Press. §REF§ Each island was divided into districts under the control of high-ranking chiefs, the ali'i 'ai moku. These districts were in turn subdivided into territories ruled by lesser chiefs, the ali'i 'ai ahupua'a. Below this level, there were the konohiki, who were in charge of the small and largely self-sufficient ahupua'a territories. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 48-49) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§
The population of the entire Hawaiian archipelago by Cook's arrival was certainly very large, but there is a long-standing debate regarding exact numbers. Estimates range between 250,000 and 800,000. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 129-130) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ The 'reasonably accurate' first census of 1832 puts the archipelago's population at around 130,000 people. However, we cannot project this figure backwards in time because the kanaka maoli (indigenous Hawaiian) population fell drastically after Europeans introduced diseases, such as smallpox, syphilis and measles, to which they had no immunity. §REF§ (La Croix and Roumasset 1990, 835) Sumner J. La Croix and James Roumasset. 1990. 'The Evolution of Private Property in Nineteenth-Century Hawaii'. The Journal of Economic History 50 (4): 829-52. §REF§ §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 129-130) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§",,,,2023-10-30T17:38:54.894666Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",33.0,Big Island Hawaii,Polynesia,-155.916989000000,19.528931000000,Kona,USHI,United States,Oceania-Australia,30,Polynesia,Polynesia,"{'id': 8, 'name': 'Oceania-Australia'}"
21,USHawai,1820,1898,Kingdom of Hawaii - Post-Kamehameha Period,us_hawaii_k,LEGACY,,,,,2023-11-20T10:37:10.262504Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",33.0,Big Island Hawaii,Polynesia,-155.916989000000,19.528931000000,Kona,USHI,United States,Oceania-Australia,30,Polynesia,Polynesia,"{'id': 8, 'name': 'Oceania-Australia'}"
746,it_italian_k,1861,1946,Kingdom of Italy,it_italian_k,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
870,il_jerusalem_k_1,1099,1187,Kingdom of Jerusalem I,il_jerusalem_k_1,OTHER_TAG,,Kingdom of Jerusalem,,2024-04-26T12:18:19.193224Z,2024-04-26T12:18:19.193238Z,,,,,,,,,,,61,Levant,"Israel/Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
871,il_jerusalem_k_2,1192,1291,Kingdom of Jerusalem II,il_jerusalem_k_2,OTHER_TAG,,Kingdom of Jerusalem,,2024-04-26T12:19:13.345642Z,2024-04-26T12:19:13.345656Z,,,,,,,,,,,61,Levant,"Israel/Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
636,et_jimma_k,1790,1932,Kingdom of Jimma,et_jimma_k,POL_AFR_EAST,"The Kingdom of Jimma is said to have formed in the late 18th century by members of the Diggo clan which was a sub-group of the Oromo people. Around the turn of the 19th century, the Diggo captured the southern Ethiopian town of Jiren along with its great market, Hirmata and made this the capital of the kingdom. In 1830, Abba Jifar, became the first monarch of the new established Jimma Abba Jifar Kingdom. The Jimma Abba Jifar was an Islamic Kingdom governed by Shari’a Law. By the late 19th century, the kingdom came under threat by the expanding Abyssinian Kingdom. In order to protect the autonomy of the Kingdom of Jimma, its last ruler Abba Jifar II had to pay tribute to the Abyssinian rulers in exchange for the Kingdom’s independence. In 1932 Emperor Halie Selassie took control of the Kingdom and incorporated the region into the Ethiopian Empire. §REF§ (Lewis 2001, 39-46) Lewis, Herbert S. 2001. Jimma Abba Jifar, an Oromo Monarchy: Ethiopia, 1830-1932. Lawrenceville, New Jersey: The Red Sea Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/NRZVWSCD/collection §REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
682,se_jolof_k,1549,1865,Kingdom of Jolof,se_jolof_k,POL_AFR_WEST,"The Kingdom of Jolof was a Wolof kingdom that originated after the breakup of the Jolof Empire in 1549. §REF§ (Searing, 2004) Searing, James. 2004. ‘Wolof and Jolof Empires.’ In Encyclopedia of African History. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/WM3HCI97/collection §REF§ The capital of the Kingdom of Jolof was Yangyang. §REF§ (Colvin 1986, 68) Colvin, Lucie G. 1986. ‘The Shaykh’s Men: Religion and Power in Senegambian Islam.’ Asian and African Studies. Vol. 20:1 Pp. 61-71. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/GZTDTN6Q/collection §REF§ After the collapse of the Jolof Empire, the independent Kingdom of Jolof never rose to the same prominence as its predecessor. With the increase of the Atlantic slave trade, the landlocked Kingdom of Jolof became less important as trade became centred around the coastal kingdoms of Waalo, Cayor, Baol, Sine and Saloum. §REF§ (Searing, 2004) Searing, James. 2004. ‘Wolof and Jolof Empires.’ In Encyclopedia of African History. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/WM3HCI97/collection §REF§ In the nineteenth century, the Jolof kingdom was increasingly involved in the marabout wars and by the mid-1860s the kingdom was ruled by the Jihadist forces of Maba Jakhu Ba which officially ended the traditional Kingdom of Jolof. §REF§ (Gellar, 2020) Gellar, Sheldon. 2020. Senegal: An African Nation Between Islam and the West. Second Edition. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZCQVA3UX/collection §REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
650,et_kaffa_k,1390,1897,Kingdom of Kaffa,et_kaffa_k,POL_AFR_EAST,"The Kingdom of Kaffa held power in southwest Ethiopia. In the late fourteenth century, the Minjo kings of Kaffa took over the throne of the Mato Dynasty and formed the Kingdom of Kaffa in 1390 CE. In total, there were between sixteen to nineteen Kaffa monarchs during the existence of the kingdom. The capital of the Kingdom of Kaffa was at Bonga, and eventually the kingdom acquired a second capital at Anderacha. The Kingdom of Kaffa controlled vast areas of land, establishing trade networks as far as Gondar in the north of Ethiopia during the mid-nineteenth century. The kingdom was home to a diverse range of forty-eight clans who practiced Islam, Christianity and indigenous religions. Kaffa was also divided into eighteen districts which were organized under minor administrative figures. The kingdom finally collapsed in 1897 when the Ethiopian Emperor Menelik II conquered Kaffa territory. §REF§ (Orent 1970, 263-293) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection §REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
906,cn_khotan_k,852,1006,Kingdom of Khotan,cn_khotan_k,OTHER_TAG,,,"Start date, 852 CE, corresponding to independence from the Tibetan Empire. 1006 CE - conquest by Kara-Khanids. The Khotan Kingdom existed before 852, but was sometimes incorporated into larger polities.",2024-10-16T09:46:26.543250Z,2024-10-16T09:46:26.543269Z,,,,,,,,,,,13,Turkestan,"Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
719,cg_lunda_k,1600,1895,Kingdom of Lunda,cg_lunda_k,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,1,Central Africa,Angola and DRC,"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
168,TrLydia,-670,-546,Kingdom of Lydia,tr_lydia_k,LEGACY,"One of a number of small kingdoms in Anatolia, the Kingdom of Lydia under the Mermnad dynasty (670-546 BCE), which began with the rule of king Gyges and ended with Croesus in the 540s BCE, came to dominate Anatolia after the conquest of Phrygia. Blessed with a rich supply of minable electrum, the natural alloy of silver and gold, Lydia is most famous for being the likely birthplace of coinage. §REF§ (Roosevelt 2012, 897-913) C H Roosevelt. 2012. Iron Age Western Anatolia. In Potts, D.T. (ed.) A Companion to the Archaeology of the Near East. London: Blackwell. §REF§
Like Phrygia archaeologists lack detailed understanding of Lydian government but they believe the rulers ruled from a Palace citadel above the capital Sardis. Some areas under Lydian control were directly ruled through appointments made by the kings: for example, Alyattes appointed his son Croesus as governor of Adramyttetion, northwest of Lydia, when Cimmerians were causing trouble there. However, the Greek city states attacked by Mermnad kings, whom were required to pay tribute, were generally never under Lydian control for long. §REF§ (Roosevelt 2012, 897-913) C H Roosevelt. 2012. Iron Age Western Anatolia. In Potts, D.T. (ed.) A Companion to the Archaeology of the Near East. London: Blackwell. §REF§
The 650 BCE and 500 BCE period was characterized by the expansion of an integrated Mediterranean trading zone §REF§ (Broodbank 2015, 508-509) Cyrprian Broodbank. 2015. The Making of the Middle Sea. Thames & Hudson. London. §REF§ and it seems that pragmatic deal-making to preserve this economic system often characterized Lydian relations with other states.
The most immediate threat appears to have been the nomadic Cimmerians who initially were expelled §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 544) Mario Liverani. Soraia Tabatabai trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§ which at times lead to an alliance with Assyria §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 495) Mario Liverani. Soraia Tabatabai trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§ which also became an enemy that required an alliance with Egypt. §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 544) Mario Liverani. Soraia Tabatabai trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§
Lydia kings often utilised marriages to secure alliances with many foreign powers, including the Persian Medians as well as Greek Ionians and Carians and the tyrant of Ephesus. §REF§ (Roosevelt 2012, 897-913) C H Roosevelt. 2012. Iron Age Western Anatolia. In Potts, D.T. (ed.) A Companion to the Archaeology of the Near East. London: Blackwell. §REF§",,,,2023-10-23T16:31:46.227128Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",11.0,Konya Plain,Anatolia-Caucasus,32.521164000000,37.877845000000,Konya,TR,Turkey,Southwest Asia,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
885,in_mysore_k,1566,1799,Kingdom of Mysore,in_mysore_k,OTHER_TAG,,Kingdom of Mysore,,2024-07-03T08:03:46.267566Z,2024-07-03T08:03:46.267580Z,,,,,,,,,,,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
851,it_naples_k,1282,1442,Kingdom of Naples,it_naples_k,OTHER_TAG,,,Kingdom of Naples,2024-04-10T10:07:22.059324Z,2024-04-10T10:07:22.059336Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
749,no_norway_k_modern,1905,1940,Kingdom of Norway - Modern,no_norway_k_modern,OTHER_TAG,,,,,2024-02-22T10:34:15.877931Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,17,Northern Europe,"Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
818,no_norway_k_1,872,1261,Kingdom of Norway I,no_norway_k_1,OTHER_TAG,,Old Kingdom of Norway,,2024-04-09T12:41:03.543975Z,2024-04-09T12:41:03.543987Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,17,Northern Europe,"Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
116,NorKing,1262,1396,Kingdom of Norway II,no_norway_k_2,LEGACY,"The Kingdom of Norway (also Norwegian Empire or Old Norse Noregsveldi) originally covered the west coast of Norway and was allied with an earldom in Þrándheimur (modern Trøndelag). It then expanded to eastern Norway in the middle of the 11th century CE, around Viken and modern-day Oslo, including Båhuslen in modern Sweden, and northwards to Hålogaland, Lofoten and Finnmark.
Orkney and Shetland became part of the kingdom as early as 875, according to legend, and became an earldom. The Faroe Islands became part of the kingdom of Norway in 1035 CE, and the Hebrides and Man in the 12th century. Iceland and Greenland were added to its territory in 1256-64 and 1262 respectively. In 1266, however, Man and the Hebrides became part of the Kingdom of Scotland. The 'peak' of the kingdom was thus in the 1260s. Each part of the kingdom had its own assembly: four in Norway and a separate assembly for each of the islands or archipelagoes in the realm. Here the chieftains gathered yearly to discuss and decide on key matters for each assembly area. The Icelandic, Faroese and Man assemblies still exist.
Population and political organization
The kingdom of Norway was originally a composite of kingdoms or earldoms, with the king of Norway a king of kings. Its extent and composition relied in large part on the fortunes of the royal dynasty, with repeated periods of partition by inheritance and reunification. A fully stable dynasty was only established in about 1240, after a long period of civil war. Royal power was instrumental in introducing Christianity to Norway around 1000, and the church was an important prop to royal power thereafter, providing the bureaucratic framework. The orientation of the Norwegian kingdom shifted after 1314, from North Atlantic expansion to an eastern emphasis, participating in intra-Scandinavian power struggles. In 1397 it joined the Kalmar Union, the kingdom covering the whole of the Swedish, Danish and Norwegian realms. From 1523 to 1814 it was a part of the Danish-Norwegian kingdom, and the Danish king was also the Norwegian king. The population reached about 400,000-600,000 in 1350, before the Black Death, but by 1520 repeated epidemics had reduced the population to around 120,000.
This description was provided by Árni Daniel Júlíusson and edited by Jenny Reddish.",,"JR: changing the end date from 1380 to 1396, taking it to just before the Kalmar Union. Variables need to be checked to see whether they still apply to the 1381-96 period",,2024-04-30T12:29:11.149067Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",3.0,Iceland,Northern Europe,-21.891497000000,64.133088000000,Reykjavik,IS,Iceland,Europe,17,Northern Europe,"Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
687,Early Niynginya,1650,1897,Kingdom of Nyinginya,Early Niynginya,POL_AFR_EAST,,,,,2024-06-13T09:26:46.862473Z,"{'id': 46, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
845,pt_portugal_k,1139,1494,Kingdom of Portugal,pt_portugal_k,OTHER_TAG,,Kingdom of Portugal,,2024-04-10T08:43:01.972155Z,2024-04-10T08:43:01.972170Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
540,YeSaRay,-110,149,Kingdom of Saba and Dhu Raydan,ye_saba_k,LEGACY,"The Yemeni Coastal Plain or Plateau is the northwestern region of modern Yemen that lies between the Red Sea and the Yemeni Mountains. Beginning in the ninth and eighth centuries BCE, this region became part of a wider ""Sabaean"" culture region (from the name of the dominant kingdom, Saba), in which many relatively small kingdoms across south and western Arabia, as well as Ethiopia, shared the same alphabet, the same iconographic repertoire (e.g. widespread depiction of animals such as ibexes and oryxes, and use of symbols such as hands, crescents, and circles), and the same vocabulary and turns of phrases in inscriptions. §REF§ (Robin 2015: 94-96) Robin, Christian Julien. 2015. “Before Himyar: Epigraphic Evidence for the Kingdoms of South Arabia.” In Arabs and Empires before Islam, edited by Greg Fisher, 91-126. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZMFH42PE. §REF§ By this time, the influence of Saba over the region had diminished. §REF§ (Korotayev 1994) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EXB5JVFN. §REF§
At this time, the largest town in the Yemeni Coastal Plain was Marib, which covered an area of 100 hectares, for a population of about 30,000-40,000. §REF§ (Edens and Wilkinson 1998: 96) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HGK23ABQ. §REF§ It is unclear, however, what the average population of a single kingdom.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",12.0,Yemeni Coastal Plain,Arabia,43.315739000000,14.850891000000,Sanaa,YE,Yemen,Southwest Asia,44,Arabia,Arabian Peninsula,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
675,se_saloum_k,1490,1863,Kingdom of Saloum,se_saloum_k,POL_AFR_WEST,"The Kingdom of Saloum was a Sereer Kingdom that originated in 1490 CE. §REF§ (Ly-Tall 1984, 183) Ly-Tall, M. 1984. ‘The Decline of the Mali Empire’. In Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. Berkeley: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/6NWXJD94/collection §REF§ The Kingdom of Saloum was part of the confederation of the Jolof Empire up until the mid-sixteenth century when it became an independent kingdom after the breakup of the Jolof Empire. The Kingdom of Saloum thus established its capital in Kahone after its independence. The Kingdom of Saloum heavily participated in trade, particularly the peanut trade, with the Dutch, French and the British. §REF§ (Bigon and Ross 2020, 42) Bigon, Liora and Ross, Eric. 2020. Grid Planning in the Urban Design Practices of Senegal. London: Springer. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MM67I638/collection §REF§ In 1863, the forces of Maba Jakhu Ba led a jihad and conquered the Kingdom of Saloum officially ending its traditional rule. §REF§ (Babou 2007, 41) Babou, Cheikh Anta Mbacke. 2007. Fighting the Greater Jihad: Amadu Bamba and the Founding of the Muridiyya of Senegal 1853-1913. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/J8IUBWDD/collection §REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
897,gb_scotland_k,1293,1706,Kingdom of Scotland,gb_scotland_k,OTHER_TAG,,Kingdom of Scotland,,2024-07-03T15:54:46.219611Z,2024-07-03T15:54:46.219627Z,,,,,,,,,,,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
326,ItSicilK,1194,1281,Kingdom of Sicily - Hohenstaufen and Angevin dynasties,it_sicily_k_2,LEGACY,,,,,2024-05-06T09:11:10.401438Z,"{'id': 37, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
677,se_sine_k,1350,1887,Kingdom of Sine,se_sine_k,POL_AFR_WEST,"The Kingdom of Sine was a Sereer kingdom that originated in the 1350s CE. §REF§ (Richard 2015, 206) Richard, Francois G. 2015. ‘The African State in Theory: Thoughts on Political Landscapes and the Limits of Rule in Atlantic Senegal (and Elsewhere).’ In Theory in Africa, Africa in Theory: Locating Meaning in Archaeology. Edited by Jeffery Fleisher et. al. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/NUNCWJJP/collection §REF§The Kingdom of Sine had been a part of the confederation of the Jolof Empire but became independent in the mid-sixteenth century after the breakup of the Jolof Empire. After its independence, the Kingdom of Sine established its capital at Diakhao. §REF§ (Bigon and Ross 2020, 42) Bigon, Liora and Ross, Eric. 2020. Grid Planning in the Urban Design Practices of Senegal. London: Springer. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MM67I638/collection §REF§The Kingdom of Sine was a monarchy ruling over a complex stratified society. §REF§ (Richard 2015, 206) Richard, Francois G. 2015. ‘The African State in Theory: Thoughts on Political Landscapes and the Limits of Rule in Atlantic Senegal (and Elsewhere).’ In Theory in Africa, Africa in Theory: Locating Meaning in Archaeology. Edited by Jeffery Fleisher et. al. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/NUNCWJJP/collection §REF§ Like its Sereer neighbours, the Kingdom of Saloum, the Sine also participated in the food trade with the Dutch, French and the British. §REF§ (Bigon and Ross 2020, 42) Bigon, Liora and Ross, Eric. 2020. Grid Planning in the Urban Design Practices of Senegal. London: Springer. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MM67I638/collection §REF§ In 1887 CE, the Kingdom of Sine officially became a French protectorate ending the Kingdoms’ reign. §REF§ (Richard 2018, 271) Richard, Francois G. 2018. Reluctant Landscapes: Historical Anthropologies of Political Experience in Siin, Senegal. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZNV5RKBU/collection §REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
750,sv_sweden_k_modern,1906,2020,Kingdom of Sweden,sv_sweden_k_modern,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,17,Northern Europe,"Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
868,sv_swedish_k_1,980,1396,Kingdom of Sweden I,sv_swedish_k_1,OTHER_TAG,,Swedish Kingdom,,2024-04-26T12:08:22.061440Z,2024-04-30T12:37:04.170914Z,,,,,,,,,,,17,Northern Europe,"Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
339,SeSwedi,1524,1610,Kingdom of Sweden II,sv_swedish_k_2,LEGACY,,,,,2024-04-26T12:12:54.009901Z,"{'id': 35, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,17,Northern Europe,"Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
678,se_waalo_k,1287,1855,Kingdom of Waalo,se_waalo_k,POL_AFR_WEST,"The Kingdom of Waalo originated in 1287 CE on Senegal River in northern Senegal. §REF§ (Himpan Sabatier and Himpan 2019, 125) Himpan Sabatier, Diane and Himpan, Brigitte. 2019. Nomads of Mauritania. Wilmington: Vernon Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/V4D4DFVG/collection §REF§ The Kingdom of Waalo was a subgroup of the Wolof people, and the people of Waalo spoke the Wolof language. §REF§ (McLaughlin 2008, 93) McLaughlin, Fiona. 2008. ‘Senegal: The Emergence of a National Lingua Franca’. In Languages and National Identity in Africa. Edited by Andrew Simpson. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/7VBFQ96V/collection §REF§ In the fourteenth century, Waalo became a vassal state within the larger Jolof Empire until its break up in the sixteenth century, when the Waalo became free from Jolof hegemony. §REF§ (Barry 1999, 263) Barry, Boubacar. 1999. ‘Senegambia from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century: Evolution of the Wolof, Sereer and ‘Tukuloor.’ In General History of Africa. V: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century. Edited by B.A. Ogot. Berkely: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/24W2293H/collection §REF§ Waalo had three capitals throughout its duration starting with Ndiourbel (Jurbel), Ndiangue and its final capital at Nder. §REF§ (Barry 2012, 43) Barry, Boubacar. 2012. The Kingdom of Waalo: Senegal Before the Conquest. New York: Diasporic Africa Press. Seshat URL:https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/9KV5MEKN/collection §REF§ §REF§ (Himpan Sabatier and Himpan 2019, 125) Himpan Sabatier, Diane and Himpan, Brigitte. 2019. Nomads of Mauritania. Wilmington: Vernon Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/V4D4DFVG/collection §REF§ §REF§ (Barry and Amin 1985, 171) Barry, Boubacar and Amin, Samir. 1985. Le Royaume du Waalo: Le Sénégal avant la conquête. Paris: Karthala. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/7FSQKPU9/collection §REF§ The Waalo was a monarchical society, but it was matrilineal in decent as the children of the king’s sister inherited the throne, not the offspring of the ruler. §REF§ (Barry 2012, 33) Barry, Boubacar. 2012. The Kingdom of Waalo: Senegal Before the Conquest. New York: Diasporic Africa Press. Seshat URL:https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/9KV5MEKN/collection §REF§Waalo was a major trade kingdom, particularly in the slave trade, as the kingdom exported many slaves to the French for the Atlantic market, but also to the western Sahara trade routes linking to north Africa. §REF§ (Webb Jr 1993, 235) Webb Jr, James L.A. 1993. ‘The Horse and Slave Trade between the Western Sahara and Senegambia.’ Journal of African History. Vol. 34:2. Pp 221-246. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/JDZFX3SC/collection §REF§ The Kingdom of Waalo collapsed in 1855 CE as the French took control over the region. §REF§ (Amin 1972, 517) Amin, Samir. 1972. ‘Underdevelopment and Dependence in Black Africa – Origins and Contemporary Forms.’ The Journal of Modern African Studies. Vol 10:4. Pp 503-524. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MR883K86/collection §REF§",,,,2024-10-17T09:23:07.963472Z,"{'id': 93, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
819,fr_burgundian_k,411,534,Kingdom of the Burgundians,fr_burgundian_k,OTHER_TAG,,Burgundian Kingdom,,2024-04-09T12:45:40.170715Z,2024-04-09T12:45:40.170727Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
859,rs_gepid_k,454,567,Kingdom of the Gepids,rs_gepid_k,OTHER_TAG,,Kingdom of the Gepids,,2024-04-10T10:20:25.826079Z,2024-04-10T10:20:25.826096Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,19,Southeastern Europe,"Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
280,HuKHuns,376,469,Kingdom of the Huns,hu_hun_k,LEGACY,"
“The historical reality seems to be that the Huns, a Turkic people from the Central Asian steppes, began to move west around the year 370 and attack the Ostrogothic kingdom in the area of the modern Ukraine. What caused this movement is unclear, but it may have been pressure from other tribes further east. The Ostrogoths were defeated again and again and forced to leave their homes and farms in panic. A vast number of them crossed the Danube into the Balkans, still ruled at this time by the Roman Empire. Here the fugitive Goths, in their desperation, inflicted a massive defeat on the Roman army at Adrianople In 376, when their cavalry ran down the last of the old Roman legions. Now that their horizons were expanded there was no stopping the Huns. They raided the Balkans in the aftermath of the Roman defeat but also attacked the rich provinces of the east, coming through the Caucasus and Anatolia to pillage the rich lands of Syria.”§REF§(Kennedy 2002: 25-26) Kennedy, Hugh. 2002. Mongols, Huns and Vikings: Nomads at War. London: Cassell. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZN9N624X§REF§
“The Huns were far from invincible, however, and in 439 the Visigoths of Toulouse showed their power by defeating Litorius' attempt to take the city and killing the dux himself. Throughout this time, the Huns in Gaul acted as mercenary soldiers and, as far as we can tell, they had no territorial or political ambitions in the region. All this changed with Attila's rise to power. It was Attila who gave the Huns a clear identity and made them, briefly, into a major political power. After his death, they disintegrated with remarkable speed.”§REF§(Kennedy 2002: 37) Kennedy, Hugh. 2002. Mongols, Huns and Vikings: Nomads at War. London: Cassell. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZN9N624X§REF§
“After Attila’s death his sons divided up the subject nations equally among themselves, so that, as a shocked Goth puts it, ‘warlike kings with their peoples should be divided among them like a family estate’. We do not know how many sons there were: we only have Jordanes’ statement that ‘through the boundlessness of [Attila’s] lust, they were almost a people in themselves’. At any rate, this was the only occasion in Hun history, so far as we know, when a father’s kingdom was thus shared out by his sons… It was not many months after their father’s death that they began to quarrel. As to the cause of their quarrel, it would seem that one or more tried to dispossess the others from their share of the inheritance, and that several great battles were fought between them as a result.”§REF§(Thompson 2004: 167-168) Thompson, E.A. 1996. The Huns. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/49W8PAAS§REF§",,,,2024-03-12T09:43:08.114380Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
820,pt_suebi_k,409,584,Kingdom of the Suebi,pt_suebi_k,OTHER_TAG,,Kingdom of the Suebi,,2024-04-09T12:48:20.240492Z,2024-04-09T12:48:20.240504Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
877,it_two_sicilies_k,1816,1861,Kingdom of the Two Sicilies,it_two_sicilies_k,OTHER_TAG,,,,2024-05-06T09:20:22.545715Z,2024-05-06T09:20:22.545730Z,,,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
464,UzKok01,-1400,-1000,Koktepe I,uz_koktepe_1,LEGACY,"""Pre-Achaemenid period. Before the arrival of Iranian peoples in Central Asia, Sogdiana had already experienced at least two urban phases. The first was at Sarazm (4th-3rd m. BCE), a town of some 100 hectares has been excavated, where both irrigation agriculture and metallurgy were practiced (Isakov). It has been possible to demonstrate the magnitude of links with the civilization of the Oxus as well as with more distant regions, such as Baluchistan. The second phase began in at least the 15th century BCE at Kok Tepe, on the Bulungur canal north of the Zarafsan River, where the earliest archeological material appears to go back to the Bronze Age, and which persisted throughout the Iron Age, until the arrival from the north of the Iranian-speaking populations that were to become the Sogdian group. It declined with the rise of Samarkand (Rapin, 2007). Pre-Achaemenid Sogdiana is recalled in the Younger Avesta (chap. 1 of the Vidēvdād, q.v.) under the name Gava and said to be inhabited by the Sogdians. §REF§ (De la Vaissière, Encyclopedia Iranica online, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology) §REF§
""Archaeologists are now generally agreed that the Andronovo culture of the Central Steppe region in the second millennium BC is to be equated with the Indo-Iranians. However, no matter how pastorally oriented these people's culture probably was, they were no nomads. They lived in permanent houses, not on wagons or in tents as the earliest nomads are known to have done."" §REF§ (Beckwith 2009, 49) Beckwith, Christopher I. 2009. Empires of the Silk Road. A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. Princeton University Press. Princeton. §REF§
According to Claude Rapin, for ""the complex question relating to the Early Iron Age in Central Asia"" read this (and another 2001 work)
Francfort, H. -P. 1989. Fouilles de Shortugai. Recherches sur l'Asie central protohistorique, Memoires de la Mission archeologique francaise en Asie centrale 2, Paris.
""it can be provisionally assumed that the two earlier Iron Age phases distinguished at Koktepe could represent the first manifestations of local agricultural development. Maurizio Tosi has proposed that for the southern slopes of the Zerafshan valley, along the Dargom canal, this economic system could have developed from an earlier period, when irrigation was limited to the natural flows of water from the foothills (Koktepe I period), to a later irrigation system, mainly exemplified by the excavation of the great canals deriving from the Zerafshan, the Bulungur and the Dargom (Koktepe II period)."" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 35) Rapin, Claude. ""Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period."" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§
""As was the case for various earlier constructions, both monuments were abandoned during a period of nomad invasions, possibly in the sixth century BC. (We know, for instance, that east of the Caspian Sea Darius I had to fight Scythian nomads like those represented by their king Skunkha illustrated as a defeated prisoner on the relief of Behistun)."" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. ""Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period."" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§
??? - 1000 BCE Koktepe I
1000 - 750 BCE Chronological gap
750 - 550 BCE Koktepe II ""sacred courtyard area"" ""strongly fortified courtyards"" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. ""Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period."" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§
550 - ??? BCE Scythians? ""nomadic establishment"" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. ""Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period."" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§
??? - ??? BCE Koktepe IIIa ""totally different expression of monumental urbanism"" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. ""Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period."" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ - could be Archaemenid
Koktepe IIIa
""The next period is represented at Koktepe by the construction of two platforms with religious and political functions ... and by a huge fortification wall built in the plain around the site."" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. ""Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period."" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§
""this rampart seems to have been built at the same time as the fortification that surrounds the plateau of Afrasiab ... Both walls not only protected monumental buildings, but also encircled a large open area, probably for the surrounding population to shelter with their cattle when necessary. This conception is characteristic of Central Asian urbanism near the steppe areas (Francfor 2001), and is also apparent in later cities, such as Ai Khanum or Taxila-Sirkap."" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. ""Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period."" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§
""The sacred function of the monument, probably related to early Zoroastrianism (or at least to a local cult affiliated to the Indo-Iranian complex), is confirmed by the evidence of a ritual of foundation performed just before its construction."" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 37) Rapin, Claude. ""Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period."" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§
Early Iron Age settlement C14 dated to second-half of second and beginning of first millennium BCE. §REF§ (Lhuillier and Rapin 2013) Lhuillier, J. Rapin, C. Handmade painted ware in Koktepe: some elements for the chronology of the early Iron Age in northern Sogdiana. Wagner, Marcin ed. 2013. Pottery and Chronology of the Early Iron Age in Central Asia. Warszawa. §REF§
Koktepe site excavated by C. Rapin and M. Kh. Ismaddinov between 1994 and 2008 by the French Uzbek Archaeological Mission of Sogdiana. §REF§ (Lhuillier and Rapin 2013) Lhuillier, J. Rapin, C. Handmade painted ware in Koktepe: some elements for the chronology of the early Iron Age in northern Sogdiana. Wagner, Marcin ed. 2013. Pottery and Chronology of the Early Iron Age in Central Asia. Warszawa. §REF§
Site about 17ha. §REF§ (Lhuillier and Rapin 2013) Lhuillier, J. Rapin, C. Handmade painted ware in Koktepe: some elements for the chronology of the early Iron Age in northern Sogdiana. Wagner, Marcin ed. 2013. Pottery and Chronology of the Early Iron Age in Central Asia. Warszawa. §REF§
Of samples taken, earliest C14 date c1400-1200 BCE, latest C14 date 810-760 BCE §REF§ (Lhuillier and Rapin 2013) Lhuillier, J. Rapin, C. Handmade painted ware in Koktepe: some elements for the chronology of the early Iron Age in northern Sogdiana. Wagner, Marcin ed. 2013. Pottery and Chronology of the Early Iron Age in Central Asia. Warszawa. §REF§
""we can now suggest dividing the Early Iron Age in Sogdiana into two sub-periods characterized by a strong continuity."" §REF§ (Lhuillier and Rapin 2013) Lhuillier, J. Rapin, C. Handmade painted ware in Koktepe: some elements for the chronology of the early Iron Age in northern Sogdiana. Wagner, Marcin ed. 2013. Pottery and Chronology of the Early Iron Age in Central Asia. Warszawa. §REF§
Köktepe I:
"" L’objet le plus ancien de Koktepe est un poids discoïdal en pierre muni d’une anse datable du XVIIIe siècle av. n. è. Cette trouvaille isolée d’un instrument cultuel suppose le voisinage d’un site du bronze moyen que l’on ne peut identifier pour le moment, car les périodes les plus anciennes de l’occupation de la plaine du Zerafshan ne sont pour l’essentiel représentées aujourd’hui que par le site de Sarazm (Lyonnet 1996) et des trouvailles funéraires isolées (Avanesova 2010).
Le milieu urbain au début de l’occupation de Koktepe est celui d’une agglomération relativement dense composée de maisons à pièces multiples construites en piséau-dessus du sol, plus rarement creusées dans le sol naturel, mais vers la fin de cette période, l’habitat n’est plus représenté que par des huttes légères (figures 6-7). Le développement économique repose alors encore sur une agriculture sèche qui pourrait avoir été périodiquement secondée par les eaux d’un torrent de montagne (communications orales de B. Rondelli et M. Isamiddinov). Durant cette première phase, le site s’inscrit dans le contexte de la céramique modelée peinte caractéris-tique de la culture de Burgulûk (oasis de Tashkent), qui fait elle-même partie de la civilisation qui, du Turkménistan au Xinjiang, s’étend dans la période de transition entre l’age du bronze et l’age du fer, du dernier tiers du IIe millénaire au début du Ier millénaire av. n. è. (époque dite « de Yaz I ») (Lhuillier 2010 ; Lhuillier, Isamiddinov, Rapin 2012 ; Lyonnet, ce volume)."" §REF§ (Rapin and Isamiddinov 2013, 124-125) §REF§ During its first phase, Kok Tepe was part of the Burguluk culture, which corresponds to the Yaz I civilization from Turkmenistan to Xinjiang (last third of the second millennium BCE- beginning of the first millennium BCE)
""Pre-Achaemenid period. Before the arrival of Iranian peoples in Central Asia, Sogdiana had already experienced at least two urban phases. The first was at Sarazm (4th-3rd m. BCE), a town of some 100 hectares has been excavated, where both irrigation agriculture and metallurgy were practiced (Isakov). It has been possible to demonstrate the magnitude of links with the civilization of the Oxus as well as with more distant regions, such as Baluchistan. The second phase began in at least the 15th century BCE at Kok Tepe, on the Bulungur canal north of the Zarafšān River, where the earliest archeological material appears to go back to the Bronze Age, and which persisted throughout the Iron Age, until the arrival from the north of the Iranian-speaking populations that were to become the Sogdian group. It declined with the rise of Samarkand (Rapin, 2007). Pre-Achaemenid Sogdiana is recalled in the Younger Avesta (chap. 1 of the Videvdad, q.v.) under the name Gava and said to be inhabited by the Sogdians. §REF§ (De la Vaissière, Encyclopedia Iranica online, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology) §REF§
Transition period between Kok01 and Kok02:""Sur le plan stratigraphique, la fin de cette première période vers la fin du IIe ou le début du Ier millénaire est apparemment marquée par une interruption de la céra-mique peinte. D’après les vestiges d’une épaisse couche organique présente partout sur le site, cette période pourrait avoir été celle d’une population semi-sédentaire, peut-être assez nombreuse, qui se serait installée à Koktepe avec du bétail. §REF§ (Rapin and Isamiddinov 2013, 126) §REF§
transition period: starting in the late 2nd millennium BCE/early 1st millennium BCE
no more painted ceramic
thick organic layer found stratigraphically on the whole site: semi-sedentary population, living on Koktepe with their animals.
Edward Turner's interpretation of pre-Achaemenid Sogdiana (Koktepe in particular):
'The essential tension was the sedentary population needed (their irrigated) fields for growing crops, nomads needed land for grazing. so the ""strongly fortified courtyards"" is a manifestation of this tension.
another reason for fortification would be that wave/s of invasion/destruction had happened before:
""By 1600 BCE, peoples carrying the Andronovo cultural package had displaced, if not destroyed, the Bactrian/Margiana towns"".
then the Yaz I replaced the Andronovo - UzKok01. (destruction then as well?)
if the inhabitants within the UzKok02 courtyards were Scythians they had probably invaded then settled c750 BCE, presumably causing some destruction of the previous culture.
an important line of evidence for invade/destroy/replace also is that it is likely that about 800 BCE the nomadic tribes around Central Asia began to use armies of horseback archers. the fact the sedentarized Scythians built fortifications must reflect the increased danger from the Steppe.
their identity lasted until either the Achaemenid or until another wave of Scythians destroyed their culture c550 BCE'.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",23.0,Sogdiana,Turkestan,66.938170000000,39.631284000000,Samarkand,UZ,Uzbekistan,Central Eurasia,13,Turkestan,"Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
466,UzKok02,-750,-550,Koktepe II,uz_koktepe_2,LEGACY,"Rapin and Isamiddinov say that beginning in the 7th or 6th century BCE, we see a 'proto-urbaine' (proto-urban) structure developing at Koktepe, represented by two large fortified areas on platforms. They assign an economic-political function to area A and a sacred one to area B, §REF§ (Rapin and Isamiddinov 2013, 126) Claude Rapin and Muhammadjon Isamiddinov. 2013. 'Entre sédentaires et nomades: les recherches de la Mission archéologique franco-ouzbèke (MAFOuz) de Sogdiane sur le site de Koktepe'. Cahiers d'Asie centrale 21/22: 113-133. Available online at http://asiecentrale.revues.org/1736. §REF§ and speculate that they could be the work of sedentary Scythians. §REF§ (Rapin and Isamiddinov 2013, 127) Claude Rapin and Muhammadjon Isamiddinov. 2013. 'Entre sédentaires et nomades: les recherches de la Mission archéologique franco-ouzbèke (MAFOuz) de Sogdiane sur le site de Koktepe'. Cahiers d'Asie centrale 21/22: 113-133. Available online at http://asiecentrale.revues.org/1736. §REF§ The cultural context of Koktepe during this period differs from that of eastern Central Asia, as represented by the citadel of Ulug Depe. §REF§ (Rapin and Isamiddinov 2013, 127) Claude Rapin and Muhammadjon Isamiddinov. 2013. 'Entre sédentaires et nomades: les recherches de la Mission archéologique franco-ouzbèke (MAFOuz) de Sogdiane sur le site de Koktepe'. Cahiers d'Asie centrale 21/22: 113-133. Available online at http://asiecentrale.revues.org/1736. §REF§
There may be a case, based on similarities in architectural construction, for treating the areas around Samarkand and Padajatak-tepa (near modern-day Shahr-i Sabz) as part of this polity during this period. In an article on Samarkand, Grenet comments: 'C'est donc avec une totale surprise que, en 1991, la fouille mettait en évidence, partout sous les remparts achéménides tant de l'acropole que du plateau, un premier mur épais de 6 mètres relevant d'une tradition défensive et d'une technique différente: non à galerie intérieure, mais massif; bâti non en briques crues rectangulaires de gabarit régulier, mais en briques ovales plus grossières, ""plano-convexes"". Il apparaît maintenant que ce type de maçonnerie caractérise sur d'autres sites aussi la toute première phase de la construction urbaine dans les plaines de Sogdiane (Koktepe à 30 km au nord de Samarkand; Padajatak-tepa, la Nautaca des campagnes d'Alexandre, en Sogdiane méridionale près de Shahr-i Sabz) et dans leur appendice ferghanien (Ejlatan, Dalverzin-tepe)' [It was thus a total surprise when, in 1991, the excavation revealed, throughout the site beneath the Achaemenid ramparts of the acropolis as well as the plateau, a thick earlier wall of 6 metres, related to a different defensive tradition and a different technique: not with an interior gallery, but solid; built not with adobe bricks of a regular size, but of rougher oval-shaped, ""plano-convex"" bricks. It now appears that this type of masonry also characterizes the very first phase of urban construction at other sites of the Sogdian plain (Koktepe, 30 km north of Samarkand; Padajatak-tepa, the Nautaca of Alexander's campaigns, in southern Sogdiana near Shahr-i Sabz) and its Ferganian neighbour (Ejlatan, Dalverzin-tepe)]. §REF§ (Grenet 2004, 1052-53) Frantz Grenet. 2004. 'Maracanda/Samarkand, une métropole pré-mongole: Sources écrites et archéologie'. Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales, 59e Année, No. 5/6, Asie centrale: 1043-67. §REF§
""The transition between the period of the painted pottery (Koktepe I) and the period of the monumental courtyards (Koktepe II) needs further research, as the differences betwen the north-eastern and south-western trends of the early Iron Age cultures still need explanation."" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 35) Rapin, Claude. ""Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period."" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§
With regard to the transition between Koktepe I and II, Rapin and Isamiddinov say that the first centuries of the 1st millennium BCE are represented throughout the site by an 'épaisse couche organique' [thick organic layer], suggesting that 'cette période pourrait avoir été celle d'une population semi-sédentaire, peut-être assez nombreuse, qui se serait installée à Koktepe avec du bétail' [this period could have been one of a semi-sedentary population, perhaps quite numerous, which would have been established at Koktepe with cattle]. §REF§ (Rapin and Isamiddinov 2013, 126) Claude Rapin and Muhammadjon Isamiddinov. 2013. 'Entre sédentaires et nomades: les recherches de la Mission archéologique franco-ouzbèke (MAFOuz) de Sogdiane sur le site de Koktepe'. Cahiers d'Asie centrale 21/22: 113-133. Available online at http://asiecentrale.revues.org/1736. §REF§
According to Claude Rapin, for ""the complex question relating to the Early Iron Age in Central Asia"" read this (and another 2001 work)
Francfort, H. -P. 1989. Fouilles de Shortugai. Recherches sur l'Asie central protohistorique, Memoires de la Mission archeologique francaise en Asie centrale 2, Paris.
JR: Much of the literature on Iron Age Koktepe is in Russian. See the bibliography compiled by Claude Rapin here (pp. 6-7): §REF§ http://claude.rapin.free.fr/1BibliographiesPDF/1BiblioMafouz1.pdf. §REF§
??? - 1000 BCE Koktepe I
1000 - 750 BCE Chronological gap
750 - 550 BCE Koktepe II ""sacred courtyard area"" ""strongly fortified courtyards"" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. ""Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period."" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§
550 - ??? BCE Scythians? ""nomadic establishment"" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. ""Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period."" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§
??? - ??? BCE Koktepe IIIa ""totally different expression of monumental urbanism"" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. ""Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period."" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ - could be Archaemenid
""not impossible that the nomad layers ... and the platforms of Koktepe ... could correspond to the period of the Persian invasion and the organization of the eastern part of the empire by Darius I."" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 37) Rapin, Claude. ""Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period."" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§
Koktepe IIIa
""The next period is represented at Koktepe by the construction of two platforms with religious and political functions ... and by a huge fortification wall built in the plain around the site."" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. ""Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period."" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§
""this rampart seems to have been built at the same time as the fortification that surrounds the plateau of Afrasiab ... Both walls not only protected monumental buildings, but also encircled a large open area, probably for the surrounding population to shelter with their cattle when necessary. This conception is characteristic of Central Asian urbanism near the steppe areas (Francfor 2001), and is also apparent in later cities, such as Ai Khanum or Taxila-Sirkap."" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. ""Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period."" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§
""The sacred function of the monument, probably related to early Zoroastrianism (or at least to a local cult affiliated to the Indo-Iranian complex), is confirmed by the evidence of a ritual of foundation performed just before its construction."" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 37) Rapin, Claude. ""Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period."" in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§
""Pre-Achaemenid period. Before the arrival of Iranian peoples in Central Asia, Sogdiana had already experienced at least two urban phases. The first was at Sarazm (4th-3rd m. BCE), a town of some 100 hectares has been excavated, where both irrigation agriculture and metallurgy were practiced (Isakov). It has been possible to demonstrate the magnitude of links with the civilization of the Oxus as well as with more distant regions, such as Baluchistan. The second phase began in at least the 15th century BCE at Kok Tepe, on the Bulungur canal north of the Zarafsan River, where the earliest archeological material appears to go back to the Bronze Age, and which persisted throughout the Iron Age, until the arrival from the north of the Iranian-speaking populations that were to become the Sogdian group. It declined with the rise of Samarkand (Rapin, 2007). Pre-Achaemenid Sogdiana is recalled in the Younger Avesta (chap. 1 of the Vidēvdād, q.v.) under the name Gava and said to be inhabited by the Sogdians. §REF§ (De la Vaissière, Encyclopedia Iranica online, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology) §REF§
Edward Turner's interpretation of pre-Achaemenid Sogdiana (Koktepe in particular):
'The essential tension was the sedentary population needed (their irrigated) fields for growing crops, nomads needed land for grazing. so the ""strongly fortified courtyards"" is a manifestation of this tension.
another reason for fortification would be that wave/s of invasion/destruction had happened before:
""By 1600 BCE, peoples carrying the Andronovo cultural package had displaced, if not destroyed, the Bactrian/Margiana towns"".
then the Yaz I replaced the Andronovo - UzKok01. (destruction then as well?)
if the inhabitants within the UzKok02 courtyards were Scythians they had probably invaded then settled c750 BCE, presumably causing some destruction of the previous culture.
an important line of evidence for invade/destroy/replace also is that it is likely that about 800 BCE the nomadic tribes around Central Asia began to use armies of horseback archers. the fact the sedentarized Scythians built fortifications must reflect the increased danger from the Steppe.
their identity lasted until either the Achaemenid or until another wave of Scythians destroyed their culture c550 BCE'.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",23.0,Sogdiana,Turkestan,66.938170000000,39.631284000000,Samarkand,UZ,Uzbekistan,Central Eurasia,13,Turkestan,"Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
156,TrNeoCR,-7000,-6600,Konya Plain - Ceramic Neolithic,tr_konya_mnl,LEGACY,,,,,2024-10-07T10:37:56.555403Z,"{'id': 88, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",11.0,Konya Plain,Anatolia-Caucasus,32.521164000000,37.877845000000,Konya,TR,Turkey,Southwest Asia,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
160,TrBrzER,-3000,-2000,Konya Plain - Early Bronze Age,tr_konya_eba,LEGACY,"The Early Bronze Age period in Anatolia is complicated and complex topic. This period begins with controversy, because the transition from Late Chalcolithic to Early Bronze Age is not clear. Some scholars argue that beginning of Early Bronze age should be dated to around 3000 BCE.
This is clearly visible at the monumental graves, known as Royal Tombs at Alaca Höyük site. These tombs yielded over 700 items that we can grouped into 12 typological categories. A multiplicity of materials were used in those grave goods - from metals (copper, bronze, silver, gold, electrum, iron, lead, haematite), stones (carnelian, rock crystal, chalcedony, flint, lapis lazuli), frit, faience, pottery, to bone and textiles. The most spectacular findings were anthropomorphic figurines, which were made by the combination more than one metal in a single object. In these Royal Tombs we can find also remains of ceremonial funerary feasts. Some animals were slaughtered, the oxen being the most common.
Many sites of this period were well fortified. Proof of wooden palisades and stone walls was found in Karataş-Semayük, and just stone walls in for example Taurus and Demircihöyük. At Alişar Hüyük, complex fortifications were excavated - a well constructed stronghold wall, and 10 meters of fortification on the terrace. One of these walls was set behind the other, and onto it rectangular-shaped bastions were constructed. A lot of handheld weapons were also found in Central Anatolia Plateau, for example: swords, daggers, pikes, halberds, spears, battle axes and warclubs. At the Demircihöyük and Karataş-Semayük sites, there were extramural Early Bronze Age cemeteries - altogether there were about 900 pithoi burials, and the majority of bodies was facing Southeast.
The pottery of Anatolian Early Bronze Age was distinctive by red monochrome wares. In terms of animal remains, it can be concluded that Sheep and goats were most dominant (at Acemhöyük), representing 63-68 percent of the faunal remains, followed by cattle and pigs.
Wood or rather wooden planks were used in Royal Tombs at Alaca Höyük. ""The burials consisted of a rectangular pit roofed with wooden planks."" §REF§ Sagona A. and P. Zimanksy, ""Ancient Turkey"", USA 2009, p. 214. §REF§
Flint/Obsidian present §REF§ Knitter D. ""Concepts of Centrality and Models of Exchange in Prehistoric Western Anatolia"" In: ""Landscape Archaeology. Proceedings of the International Conference Held in Berlin, 6th - 8th June 2012"", p. 363. §REF§ §REF§ Sagona A. and P. Zimanksy, ""Ancient Turkey"", USA 2009, p. 214. §REF§
Building stone present Building stone was used e.g. in Royal Tombs at Alaca Höyük. ""The lower parts of these shafts consisted of rectangular stone-lined pits in wchich a single person was normally buried"" §REF§ Düring B. S., ""The Prehistory of Asia Minor. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies."", Cambridge 2011, p. 291. §REF§ ""The most numerous examples of the megaron plan are found in the Early Bronze Age village at Karataş (Troy I-II period), where stone foundations of over thirty such structures have been uncovered in recent excavations."" §REF§ Warner J., ""The Megaron and Apsidal House in Early Bronze Age Western Anatolia: New Evidence from Karataş"", In: ""American Journal of Archaeology"", Vol. 83, No. 2 (Apr., 1979), p. 138. §REF§
Copper present E.g. grave goods §REF§ Düring B. S., ""The Prehistory of Asia Minor. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies."", Cambridge 2011, p. 291. §REF§
Tin/Arsenic present Kestel §REF§ Yener K. A., ""An Early Bronze Age Tin Production Site at Göltepe, Turkey."", In: ""The Oriental Institute News and Notes"", Vol. 140 (1994) §REF§ ""The Kestel-Göltepe complex is vast. The mine itself comprises a network of eight galleries, extending in various directions. Some 4500 cubic meters of ore were extracted, often through precariously narrow tunnels, using fire and large ground stone hammers to shatter the ore. Even if the ore mined in antiquity were low grade, containing only 1 % of tin like some the nodules found in the excavations, the size of the galleries point to the produciotn of some 115 tons of tin."" §REF§ Sagona A. and P. Zimansky, ""Ancient Turkey"", USA 2009, pp. 200-2001. §REF§
Iron present E.g. grave goods §REF§ Düring B. S., ""The Prehistory of Asia Minor. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies."", Cambridge 2011, p. 291. §REF§ . Iron Dagger §REF§ Düring B. S., ""The Prehistory of Asia Minor. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies."", Cambridge 2011, p. 292. §REF§
Material to make ornaments gold, silver, carnelian, jade, rock crystal ""In terms of jewellery, we should note the ability of the craftsmen to combine gold and silver with precious stones (carnelian, jade, and rock crystal), a technique especially favored for pins, and at the same time the conspicious absence of filigree and granulation."" §REF§ Sagona A. and P. Zimansky, ""Ancient Turkey"", USA 2009, pp. 208-209. §REF§
Lead present Most of all as grave goods §REF§ Sagona A. and P. Zimansky, ""Ancient Turkey"", USA 2009, pp. 214-217 §REF§
Agropastoral with pastoral dominating Sheep and goats were the dominant component of the animal economy at Acemhöyük III and II, representing 63-68 percent of the faunal remains, followed by cattle and pigs. This is similar to the situation observed at contemporary sites on the central plateau including Kaman Kalehhöyük, Küultepe, and Çadır Höyük. §REF§ Arbuckle B., ""Pastoralism, Provisioning, and Power at Bronze Age Acemhöyük, Turkey"", In: ""American Anthropologist"", Vol. 114 (2012), Issue 3, p. 466. §REF§
Iron present Pieces of iron object found in Tomb L in Alacahöyük §REF§ Yalçin Ü. and H. G., ""Reassessing Antropomorphic Metal Figurines of Alacahöyük, Anatolia"", In: ""Near Eastern Archeology"" Vol. 76:1 (2013), p. 41. §REF§ .
Metals present §REF§ Efe T., ""The Theories of the 'Great Caravan Route' between Cilicia and Troy: The Early Bronze Age III Period in Inland Western Anatolia"" In: ""Anatolian Studies"", Vol. 57, Transanatolia: Bridging the Gap between East and West inthe Archaeology of Ancient Anatolia (2007), p. 49 §REF§
Raw materials present Melian Obsidian in Beycesultan §REF§ Knitter D. ""Concepts of Centrality and Models of Exchange in Prehistoric Western Anatolia"" In: ""Landscape Archaeology. Proceedings of the International Conference Held in Berlin, 6th - 8th June 2012"", p. 363. §REF§
Pottery present Trojan depas vessel, two-handled tankards, wheelmade plain plates and bowls §REF§ Ancient Anatolia, 10,000-323 B.C.E, S.R. Steadman, G.McMahon, Oxford University Press, 2011. Chapter 10 §REF§
Coppersmith present §REF§ Yakar T., ""Regional and Local Schools of Metalwork in Early Bronze Age Anatolia: Part I"", In: ""Anatolian Studies"", Vol. 34 (1984), p. 75. §REF§
Pottery present §REF§ Sagona A. and P. Zimansky, ""Ancient Turkey"", USA 2009, p. 197. §REF§
Butcher present §REF§ Arbuckle B., ""Pastoralism, Provisioning, and Power at Bronze Age Acemhöyük, Turkey"", In: ""American Anthropologist"", Vol. 114 (2012), Issue 3, p. 468. §REF§
",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",11.0,Konya Plain,Anatolia-Caucasus,32.521164000000,37.877845000000,Konya,TR,Turkey,Southwest Asia,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
158,TrClcER,-6000,-5500,Konya Plain - Early Chalcolithic,tr_konya_eca,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",11.0,Konya Plain,Anatolia-Caucasus,32.521164000000,37.877845000000,Konya,TR,Turkey,Southwest Asia,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
155,TrNeoER,-9600,-7000,Konya Plain - Early Neolithic,tr_konya_enl,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",11.0,Konya Plain,Anatolia-Caucasus,32.521164000000,37.877845000000,Konya,TR,Turkey,Southwest Asia,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
163,TrBrzL2,-1500,-1400,Konya Plain - Late Bronze Age II,tr_konya_lba,LEGACY,"The period of 1500-1400 BCE was an 'intermediate period' for the Hittite people that is sometimes referred to as the Middle Kingdom, which existed before the Empire period of the New Kingdom. §REF§ (Gurney 1952, 25) O R Gurney. 1952.The Hittites. Penguin. §REF§
According to McEvedy and Jones (1978) the population of the whole of Turkey was about 1.5 million by the Chalcolithic era (2500 BC) and reached 3 million ""during the course of the full Bronze age"". §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 133) Colin McEvedy. Richard Jones. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd. London. §REF§ However, the area corresponding to Hittite control at this time was just a fraction of the 750,000 km2 of Anatolia, so it is unlikely there were more than a million Hittites, possibly much less.
As a time of troubles, not much is known about the Middle Kingdom of the Hittites, but by around 1450 CE Hantili II is noted for building achievements being ""responsible for the first extensive fortification of the capital"" Hattusa. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 30) Bryce T. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World, New York: Oxford University Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",11.0,Konya Plain,Anatolia-Caucasus,32.521164000000,37.877845000000,Konya,TR,Turkey,Southwest Asia,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
159,TrClcLT,-5500,-3000,Konya Plain - Late Chalcolithic,tr_konya_lca,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",11.0,Konya Plain,Anatolia-Caucasus,32.521164000000,37.877845000000,Konya,TR,Turkey,Southwest Asia,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
157,TrNeoLT,-6600,-6000,Konya Plain - Late Neolithic,tr_konya_lnl,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",11.0,Konya Plain,Anatolia-Caucasus,32.521164000000,37.877845000000,Konya,TR,Turkey,Southwest Asia,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
127,AfKushn,35,319,Kushan Empire,af_kushan_emp,LEGACY,"The Kushan Empire was a confederated state headed by an absolute or near absolute military monarchy. Little is known of its early history due to the scarcity of written records, but it appears to have been founded in Bactria, Central Asia in the mid-1st century CE when Kujula Kadphises united the five tribes of the Yuezhi confederation. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2005, 335-37) Sinopoli, Carla M. 2005. “Imperial Landscapes of South Asia.” In Archaeology of Asia, edited by Miriam T. Stark, 324-49. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JZ73UGSF. §REF§
The Kushan state, as chronicled by the Hou Hanshu (a Chinese text), expanded from Bactria and Sogdiana into Gandhara (in modern-day Pakistan) and northern India. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2005, 335-37) Sinopoli, Carla M. 2005. “Imperial Landscapes of South Asia.” In Archaeology of Asia, edited by Miriam T. Stark, 324-49. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JZ73UGSF. §REF§ Kushan coins recovered from excavations across this region are a key source of evidence for the expansion of the empire and reveal that Kushan monarchs took a syncretistic approach to religion and culture, utilizing Buddhist, Iranian, Hellenistic and Indian iconography. §REF§ (Neelis n.d.) Neelis, Jason. nd. “The Kushan Empire.” University of Washington: Silk Road Seattle. https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/exhibit/kushans/essay.html. §REF§
Population and political organization
Historians are uncertain exactly how the Kushan Empire was governed. According to Rafi-us Samad, the Kushans were 'great conquerors but poor administrators' and the stable administration of the capital was to a large degree reliant on the Buddhist establishment. §REF§ (Samad 2011, 90-91) Samad, Rafi-us. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. New York: Algora Pub. http://public.eblib.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=777134. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EI23K8AX. §REF§ Nevertheless, the historian B. N. Puri has described the Kushan king's powers as 'unfettered' by any kind of advisory body comparable to those found in the Mauryan period in northern India. §REF§ (Puri 1994, 254) Puri, B. N. 1994. “The Kushans.” In History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol. II: The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civilizations, 700 B.C. to A.D. 250, edited by János Harmatta, B. N. Puri, and G. F. Etemadi, 239-55. Paris: UNESCO. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CW6B4KVV. §REF§ The state chancery used both the Bactrian language, written using the Greek alphabet, and Gandhari, written in the Kharosthi script. §REF§ (Grenet 2012, 1-2) Grenet, Frantz. 2012. “The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire (1st-3rd Century AD).” Journal of Central Eurasian Studies, no. 3: 1-22. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TMRCJ9QP. §REF§
One theory holds that the political structure of the empire was characterized by 'hierarchical organization in a feudatory system'. Another view suggests the Kushan state included a mixture of both bureaucratic and feudal elements. The further south into the Indian subcontinent and the further from the capitals one went, the more independent the outer satraps became. §REF§ (Mukherjee 1998, 448) Mukherjee, Bratindra Nath. 1988. The Rise and Fall of the Kushānạ Empire. Calcutta: Firma KLM. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/97W9PEID. §REF§
The literature does not provide reliable estimates for the population of the Kushan Empire.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",23.0,Sogdiana,Turkestan,66.938170000000,39.631284000000,Samarkand,UZ,Uzbekistan,Central Eurasia,8,Afghanistan,Afghanistan,"{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
658,ni_kwararafa,596,1820,Kwararafa,ni_kwararafa,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
53,PaLaMul,-1300,200,La Mula-Sarigua,pa_la_mula_sarigua,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,21,Caribbean,"Caribbean islands, Panama, coastal Columbia-Venezuela","{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}"
453,FrTeneA,-475,-325,La Tene A-B1,fr_la_tene_a_b1,LEGACY,"La Tene (A-B1) was an early Iron Age culture in Europe named after an archaeological site at Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland. §REF§ (Collis 2003, 172, 217-218) §REF§
The territory centered on ancient Gaul and at its height spanned areas in modern day France, Belgium, Switzerland, Austria, Southern Germany, Czechia, parts of Northern Italy, Slovenia, Hungary, and adjacent parts of the Netherlands, Slovakia, Croatia, western Romania, and western Ukraine.
Settlements during this period included larger towns (indicating a degree of centralization), villages and farmsteads spread throughout their territories. §REF§ (Wells 1999, 45-47) §REF§
Population figures are difficult to trace, but according to our expert some estimates put the largest settlement areas during the beginning of this period at 5,000-7,000 people.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",2.0,Paris Basin,Western Europe,2.312458000000,48.866111000000,Paris,FR,France,Europe,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
454,FrTeneB,-325,-175,La Tene B2-C1,fr_la_tene_b2_c1,LEGACY,"La Tene (B2-C1) was an Iron Age culture in Europe named after an archaeological site at Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland.
The territory centred on ancient Gaul and at its height spanned areas in modern day France, Belgium, Switzerland, Austria, Southern Germany, Czechia, parts of Northern Italy, Slovenia, Hungary, and adjacent parts of the Netherlands, Slovakia, Croatia, western Romania, and western Ukraine.
Settlements during this period included larger towns, villages and farmsteads spread throughout their territories. §REF§ (Wells 1999, 45-47) §REF§ During this period tribes became urbanised and more centralized but although they formed alliances with other tribes, they did not join together within a unified centralized polity. §REF§ (Kruta 2004, 105) §REF§ Each tribe had their own fortified urban settlements and there was no capital city.
The population is estimated at around 70,000-80,000, and much of the information we have about the populations comes from the time of Caesar’s invasion of Gaul.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",2.0,Paris Basin,Western Europe,2.312458000000,48.866111000000,Paris,FR,France,Europe,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
455,FrTeneC,-175,-27,La Tene C2-D,fr_la_tene_c2_d,LEGACY,"La Tene (C2-D) was an Iron Age culture in Europe named after an archaeological site at Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland that ran from approximately 175-27 BCE. §REF§ (Collis 2003, 172, 217-218) §REF§
The territory centered on ancient Gaul and at its height spanned areas in modern day France, Belgium, Switzerland, Austria, Southern Germany, Czechia, parts of Northern Italy, Slovenia, Hungary, and adjacent parts of the Netherlands, Slovakia, Croatia, western Romania, and western Ukraine.
Settlements during this period included fortified urban settlements, larger towns, villages and farmsteads spread throughout their territories. §REF§ (Wells 1999, 45-47) §REF§ During this period tribes became urbanised and more centralized but although they formed alliances with other tribes, they did not join together within a unified centralized polity. §REF§ (Kruta 2004, 105) §REF§ Each tribe had their own fortified urban settlements and there was no capital city.
Production of goods at many of the larger sites included glass jewellery, leather-working, bronze-casting and coin minting. §REF§ (Wells 1999, 49-54 §REF§
The population is estimated at around 70,000-80,000, and much of the information we have about the population (and other aspects of La Tene life during this period) comes from the time of Caesar’s invasion of Gaul. §REF§ (Wells 1984:171) §REF§ §REF§ (Patterson 1995, 136) §REF§ ",,,,2024-04-25T10:44:14.782463Z,"{'id': 23, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",2.0,Paris Basin,Western Europe,2.312458000000,48.866111000000,Paris,FR,France,Europe,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
355,IqLakhm,400,611,Lakhmid Kigdom,iq_lakhmid_k,LEGACY,,,,,2023-10-30T18:04:07.987962Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,44,Arabia,Arabian Peninsula,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
381,LaLanXang,1354,1707,Lan Xang Kingdom,la_lan_xang_k,LEGACY,,,,,2024-01-24T10:09:11.654734Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,41,Mainland Southeast Asia,"Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
112,InGaroL,1867,1956,Late A'chik,in_achik_2,LEGACY,"The Garo Hills, located in Meghalaya in northeast India, have long been inhabited by the A’chik. The term 'Garo' is of unclear origin, but is believed to have originated with the neighbouring Boro people. §REF§ (Sangma 1995, 37) Sangma, Mihir N., and Milton S. Sangma. 1995. “The Garos: The Name, Meanings, and Its Origin.” In Hill Societies, Their Modernisation: A Study of North East with Special Reference to Garo Hills, 32-41. New Delhi: Omsons Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M5IS3SBN. §REF§ The Garo people refer to themselves as the A'chik ('hill') or A'chik Manderang ('hill people'). §REF§ (Sangma 1995, 33) Sangma, Mihir N., and Milton S. Sangma. 1995. “The Garos: The Name, Meanings, and Its Origin.” In Hill Societies, Their Modernisation: A Study of North East with Special Reference to Garo Hills, 32-41. New Delhi: Omsons Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M5IS3SBN. §REF§
It is unknown precisely when the A’chik settled in their present location, but it is believed that they migrated to the hills from Tibet. §REF§ (Roy 1999, 2) Roy, Sankar Kumar. 1999. “Culture Summary: Garo.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ar05-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TXQNUE8P. §REF§ The A’chik had little contact with their neighbours before 1775, when local zamindars (Indian land-owning nobility) led expeditions into the Garo Hills. §REF§ (Roy 1999, 2) Roy, Sankar Kumar. 1999. “Culture Summary: Garo.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ar05-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TXQNUE8P. §REF§
1788 saw the first contact with the British, who began to occupy the district in 1867. §REF§ (Roy 1999, 2) Roy, Sankar Kumar. 1999. “Culture Summary: Garo.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ar05-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TXQNUE8P. §REF§ Despite their initial resistance, the A’chik were overmatched by British firearms, and the British established full administrative control of the region around 1873. §REF§ (Majumdar 1978, 30) Majumdar, Dhirendra Narayan. 1978. Culture Change in Two Garo Villages. Calcutta: Anthropological Survey of India, Govt. of India. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TZXMWMN5. §REF§ The region remained a part of British India until Indian independence in 1947.
Population and political organization
During the precolonial period, the A’chik lacked elaborate political organization. The most important social unit was the matrilineal clan, the machong. §REF§ (Roy 1999, 6) Roy, Sankar Kumar. 1999. “Culture Summary: Garo.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ar05-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TXQNUE8P. §REF§ The chief (nokma) had relatively little power beyond religious functions and resolving minor disputes under the guidance of the village elders. §REF§ (Majumdar 1978, 22) Majumdar, Dhirendra Narayan. 1978. Culture Change in Two Garo Villages. Calcutta: Anthropological Survey of India, Govt. of India. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TZXMWMN5. §REF§
Once the region was under British control, executive offices were simply superimposed onto A’chik structures. The British created the office of laskar, with limited power over about ten villages. §REF§ (Marak 1997, 52) Marak, Kumie R. 1997. Traditions and Modernity in Matrilineal Tribal Society. New Delhi: Inter-India Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CS3PXEIH. §REF§ The A’chik were still left to settle their own disputes through the nokma, but they gained the right to appeal the nokma's decisions to the court of laskars. §REF§ (Marak 1997, 52) Marak, Kumie R. 1997. Traditions and Modernity in Matrilineal Tribal Society. New Delhi: Inter-India Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CS3PXEIH. §REF§
Population estimates are unavailable for the precolonial period. The British colonial official and statistician W. W. Hunter estimated that the population of the Garo Hills was 80,000 in 1872. §REF§ (Kar 1995, 54) Kar, Biman. 1995. “Changing A’chik-Mande: Need for Further Research.” In Hill Societies, Their Modernisation: A Study of North East with Special Reference to Garo Hills, edited by Milton S. Sangma, 52-58. New Delhi: Omsons Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/W7PJ27C6. §REF§",,,,2024-05-30T14:03:33.228031Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",16.0,Garo Hills,Eastern India,90.518539010900,25.444444443900,Tura,ASM,India,South Asia,37,Eastern South Asia,"Bangladesh + Indian states of West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and Sikkim","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
42,KhAngkL,1220,1432,Late Angkor,kh_angkor_3,LEGACY,"The Khmer Empire was established in 802 CE, when a ruler known as Jayavarman II had himself proclaimed a 'universal monarch' in a ceremony performed by Sanskrit-speaking priests on a mountain close to the Tonlé Sap lake. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ By bringing previously independent polities under their control, Jayavarman II and his successors expanded their realm across mainland Southeast Asia, including parts of modern-day Cambodia, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam. §REF§ (Fletcher 2012, 300) Roland Fletcher. 2012. 'Low-Density, Agrarian-Based Urbanism: Scale, Power, and Ecology', in The Comparative Archaeology of Complex Societies, edited by M. Smith, 285-320. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Our Late Angkor period begins with the death of King Jayavarman VII around 1200 CE. §REF§ (Vickery 1986, 103) Michael Vickery. 1986. 'Some Remarks on Early State Formation in Cambodia', in Southeast Asia in the 9th to 14th Centuries, edited by David G. Marr and A. C. Milner, 95-115. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. §REF§ In contrast to the burgeoning growth of the Khmer Empire during the Classic period, the Late Angkor period was characterized by political and economic decline, culminating in the sack of the city of Angkor by the Thai Kingdom of Ayutthaya in 1431. §REF§ (Stark 2006, 146, 164) Miriam T. Stark. 2006. 'From Funan to Angkor: Collapse and Regeneration in Ancient Cambodia', in After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and John J. Nichols, 144-67. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§
The reign of Jayavarman VII marked the high point of Angkorean monument-building, and subsequent rulers did not carry out major construction projects at the ancient capital. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 390) Charles Higham. 2014. Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§ Chinese diplomat Zhou Daguan visited Angkor in the late 13th century and saw temples capped in gold and copper, sumptuous religious festivals, thousands of slaves and servants, and a lively trade in Chinese goods. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 390-91) Charles Higham. 2014. Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§ §REF§ (Higham 2001, 135-56) Charles Higham. 2001. The Civilization of Angkor. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ However, this grandeur concealed the fundamental instability of the state, and the Khmer administrative system with its centre at Angkor eventually disintegrated in the mid-15th century CE. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 391) Charles Higham. 2014. Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§ Warfare became 'endemic', §REF§ (Higham 2001, 140) Charles Higham. 2001. The Civilization of Angkor. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ and after the Ayyuthaya attacks in 1431, the rulers of Angkor moved to south-eastern Cambodia and founded a new capital at Phnom Penh. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 391) Charles Higham. 2014. Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§ §REF§ (Buckley et al. 2010, 6750) Brendan M. Buckley, Kevin J. Anchukaitisa, Daniel Penny, Roland Fletcher, Edward R. Cook, Masaki Sano, Le Canh Nam, Aroonrut Wichienkeeo, Ton That Minh and Truong Mai Hong. 2010. 'Climate as a Contributing Factor in the Demise of Angkor, Cambodia'. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107 (15): 6748-51. §REF§
Population and political organization
Numerous small kingdoms formed in the lower Mekong Basin in the mid-1st millennium CE, but until the conquests of Jayavarman II, most failed to outlive their founders. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Jayavarman II managed to unify previously warring local lords under his aegis, turning independent polities into provinces and laying the foundations for over six centuries of Khmer rule centred on the Siem Reap plain. §REF§ (Higham 2012, 185) Charles Higham. 2012. 'Khmer Civilization and the Empire of Angkor', in The Oxford Companion to Archaeology, edited by Brian M. Fagan, 183-86. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
Like many polities in Southeast Asia at the turn of the 1st millennium CE, the new kingdom, with its growing urban centre on the north shore of the Tonlé Sap, borrowed from Indian religious practices, concepts of divine kingship, language, writing and iconography in order to legitimize royal power. §REF§ (Higham 2001, 8) Charles Higham. 2001. The Civilization of Angkor. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Kulke 1986, 14-15) Hermann Kulke. 1986. 'The Early and the Imperial Kingdom in Southeast Asian History', in Southeast Asia in the 9th to 14th Centuries, edited by David G. Marr and A. C. Milner, 1-22. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. §REF§ Its kings patronized both Hindu and Buddhist institutions, building monasteries and sanctuaries dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and the Buddha that doubled as outposts of royal power throughout the realm. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 160) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lieberman 2003, 33) Victor Lieberman. 2003. Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800‒1830, Vol. 1: Integration on the Mainland. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
However, the Late Angkor period saw a decline in the importance of the Hindu devaraja (god-king) cult, while Theravada Buddhism gained an increasingly stronger foothold among both the people and their rulers. §REF§ (Hall 2011, 197) Kenneth R. Hall. 2011. A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Social Development, 100-1500. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. §REF§ §REF§ (Stark 2006, 164) Miriam T. Stark. 2006. 'From Funan to Angkor: Collapse and Regeneration in Ancient Cambodia', in After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and John J. Nichols, 144-67. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ This is reflected in the scarcity of Sanskrit inscriptions referencing Hindu gods ‒ the last known Angkor inscription to use this language dates to 1327 §REF§ (Higham 2001, 140) Charles Higham. 2001. The Civilization of Angkor. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ ‒ and the increasing importance of Pali scriptures. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 162-63) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ While some scholars suggest that this religious shift contributed to the loosening of centralized Khmer power, §REF§ (Higham 2014, 391) Charles Higham. 2014. Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§ the causes for imperial decline during this period remain a topic of intense scholarly debate. §REF§ (Evans 2016, 165) Damian Evans. 2016. 'Airborne Laser Scanning as a Method for Exploring Long-Term Socio-Ecological Dynamics in Cambodia'. Journal of Archaeological Science 74: 164-75. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2016.05.009. §REF§
The riches of Angkor at the height of its power had always flowed from wet-rice agriculture, §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and an institutionalized hierarchy of officials developed to funnel surplus rice produced in villages, as well as other goods like honey, spices, cloth and gold, to the royal centre. §REF§ (Higham 2012, 185) Charles Higham. 2012. 'Khmer Civilization and the Empire of Angkor', in The Oxford Companion to Archaeology, edited by Brian M. Fagan, 183-86. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Coe 2003, 141) Michael D. Coe. 2003. Angkor and the Khmer Civilization. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ Angkor kings also used corvée labour to build temples, irrigation infrastructure and other public works. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 141) Michael D. Coe. 2003. Angkor and the Khmer Civilization. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ §REF§ (Higham 2014, 368-70) Charles Higham. 2014. Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§ In this period, however, rice agriculture decreased in importance in favour of trade and commerce, potentially undermining the traditional power base of the Angkor kings. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 163) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
The Khmer Empire is famous for its sprawling but low-density urban sites. §REF§ (Fletcher 2012, 300) Roland Fletcher. 2012. 'Low-Density, Agrarian-Based Urbanism: Scale, Power, and Ecology', in The Comparative Archaeology of Complex Societies, edited by M. Smith, 285-320. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ It has been claimed that Angkor itself was the 'largest settlement complex of the preindustrial world': §REF§ (Evans et al. 2013, 12595) Damian H. Evans, Roland J. Fletcher, Christophe Pottier, Jean-Baptiste Chevance, Dominique Soutif, Boun Suy Tan, Sokrithy Im, Darith Ea, Tina Tin, Samnang Kim, Christopher Cromarty, Stéphane De Greef, Kasper Hanus, Pierre Bâty, Robert Kuszinger, Ichita Shimoda, and Glenn Boornazian. 2013. 'Uncovering Archaeological Landscapes at Angkor Using Lidar'. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110 (31): 12595-600. §REF§ at its peak in the 12th century (before this period) it covered 1000 square kilometres and may have housed over 750,000 people. §REF§ (Penny et al. 2014, 1) Dan Penny, Jean-Baptiste Chevance, David Tang, and Stéphane De Greef. 2014. 'The Environmental Impact of Cambodia's Ancient City of Mahendraparvata (Phnom Kulen)'. PLoS ONE 9 (1): e84252. §REF§ However, the total population of the empire in this period is still unclear.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",17.0,Cambodian Basin,Siam,103.866700000000,13.412500000000,Angkor Wat,KH,Cambodia,Southeast Asia,41,Mainland Southeast Asia,"Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
170,TrCappL,-330,16,Late Cappadocia,tr_cappadocia_2,LEGACY,"The Cappaodican kingdom began and ended in the hands of other more powerful polities in Asia Minor. The kingdom grew out of suzerainty to the Achaemenid Empire when Alexander the Great toppled the Achaemenids and largely bypassed Cappadocia §REF§ (Ansen 1988, 471) E M Ansen. 1988. Antigonus, the Satrap of Phrygia. Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Bd. 37, H. 4 (4th Qtr.), pp. 471-477. §REF§ , but the kingdom eventually returned to being a province under the next greatest power, Rome, in the early first century CE. Even during the peak reign of Cappadocian kings, the polity was fought over and used by the kings of its neighbouring polities to strengthen their positions of power or to buffer their state against the ambitions of another. This happened to such an extent that Mithridates VI Eupator, king of Pontus, placed both his nephew and son on the Cappadocian throne, only to kill the first to reinforce the claim of the latter, much to the antagonism of Nicomedes III, king of Bithynia at the time, who claimed his own right to a puppet on the Cappadocian throne. The incident resulted in the intervention of Rome who declared the ‘freedom’ of Cappadocia from monarchs (in theory) so that neither the kingdoms of Pontus or Bithynia could use Cappadocia for their own gains. The kingdom was then ruled by kings favoured by the Roman Senate until the death of Archelaus who was the last king of Cappadocia, places there by Antony.
As a result of Cappadocia’s relatively minor position during this time, very little textual (or other) direct evidence from the kingdom has survived. Numismatic evidence does give some detailed information about the chronology of kings, but even this is debated §REF§ (Simonetta 1977) B Simonetta. 1977. The Coins of the Cappadocian Kings. Fribourg: Office du Livre. §REF§ §REF§ (Dimitriev 2006, 286) S Dmitriev. 2006. Cappadocian Dynastic Rearrangements on the Eve of the First Mithridatic War. Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Bd. 55, H. 3, pp. 285-297. §REF§ . Instead, much of what is known about the kingdom of Cappadocia comes from accounts of the foreign policy of its neighbours, particularly Rome at the time. The main historian who discussed Cappadocia was Strabo, and his accounts lack the detailed information on Cappadocia which other polities have §REF§ (Rostovtzeff 1941, 838) M Rostovtzeff. 1941. The Social and Economic History of the Hellenistic World, Volume 2. Oxford: Clarendon Press. §REF§ .",,,,2024-11-19T13:28:49.010396Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",11.0,Konya Plain,Anatolia-Caucasus,32.521164000000,37.877845000000,Konya,TR,Turkey,Southwest Asia,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
591,gt_tikal_late_classic,555,869,Late Classic Tikal,gt_tikal_late_classic,LEGACY,"
“Tikal is located in the Petén district, Guatemala, on top of an escarpment (250 m asl) surrounded by swampy areas to the west and east, earthworks to the north and south ( Jones et al. 1981), and large tracts of fertile land (Fedick and Ford 1990).1 It is one of the best-known and largest Maya centers (Figure 6.1). Since it is not near lakes or rivers, its inhabitants relied on several complex reservoir systems to offset seasonal water shortages (Scarborough and Gallopin 1991), which are found next to temples and royal palaces. The central core (9 km2) consists of a densely built landscape of public and private monumental and nonmonumental architecture (ca. 235 structures/km2)… Tikal was ruled by a “holy” or “divine” king (k’ul ahaw), who implemented tribute demands. Tikal has inscriptions, its own emblem glyph, water symbolism, palaces, royal funerary temples, large ball courts, and tall temples facing large and open plazas (e.g., Temple IV is 65 m tall). Its monumental complexes are connected via sacbeob (causeways). The earliest inscribed stela in the southern Maya lowlands (Stela 29, ad 292) is found at Tikal, and it has one of the longest dynastic histories in the Maya area (last known inscribed date: ad 869).”§REF§(Lucero 2006: 162) Lucero, Lisa J. 2006. Water and Ritual: The Rise and Fall of Classic Maya Rulers. Austin: University of Texas Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NSX2SNWU§REF§
“No sight gives a better impression of the past glories of Maya civilisation than the towering ruins of Tikal. At its 8th-century peak a score of red-painted pyramids dominated the heart of a dispersed metropolis housing as many as 60,000 people. It claimed a dynastic succession of at leasr 33 rulers, spanning as long as 800 years… A survivor of the Preclassic collapse, Tikal became a crucible of the new lowland Classic tradition, with a dynasty in place as early as the 1st century AD. Towards the end of the 4th century it fell, like many other pans of Mesoamerica at the time, under the sway of the Mexican superpower Teotihuacan. If anything. the fused Mexican-Maya dynasty that resulted only consolidated Tikal's leading position in the region. But an erosion of its strength in the 6th century led to its defeat and conquest and a resulting 'dark age' of troubles lasting 130 years. Its fortunes were restored late in the 7th century and it resumed a key position in the Maya world until the general unravelling of Classic civilization 150 years later.”§REF§(Martin and Grube 2000: 25) Martin, Simon and Grube, Nikolai. 2000. Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya. London; New York: Thames & Hudson. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5WIIDVRJ§REF§
“By the end of the 9th century Tikal had experienced a fate shared with its peers across the Maya realm. With all vestiges of royal power gone and deserted by the bulk of its population, its elite quarters were taken over by squatters and simple thatched homes sprang up on its ceremonial plazas. These late inhabitants pursued their own, often elaborate, ritual activities, moving and reusing earlier monuments for purposes quite estranged from those of the fallen nobility. By Tikal’s last days, any regard for the sanctity of the old order had long since dissolved and the North Acropolis was mined in search of its terms and their jade riches. The more accessible were discovered and ransacked. Finally abandoned in the 10th or 11th century, the forest completed its takeover of the city, choking it with root and vine for the next Millennium.”§REF§(Martin and Grube 2000: 53) Martin, Simon and Grube, Nikolai. 2000. Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya. London; New York: Thames & Hudson. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5WIIDVRJ§REF§",,,,2023-10-18T14:26:19.121691Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
743,nl_dutch_emp_2,1815,1940,Late Dutch Empire,nl_dutch_emp_2,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
772,tz_east_africa_ia_2,800,1150,Late East Africa Iron Age,tz_east_africa_ia_2,OTHER_TAG,,,,,2023-10-31T10:47:10.015477Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
10,MxFormL,-400,-101,Late Formative Basin of Mexico,mx_basin_of_mexico_5,LEGACY,"The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Late Formative period (c. 400-101 BCE). In this period, polities throughout Mesoamerica experienced increases in wealth, influence, and hierarchical complexity. §REF§ (Evans 2012: 120) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X. §REF§ In the Basin of Mexico, Cuicuilco, Tlapacoya, and Cholula all became major regional centers with monumental architecture. §REF§ (Sugiyama 2012: 216) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZJWB86UI. §REF§
No estimates could be found for the population of the average autonomous political unit at the time. The largest known settlement, Cuicuilco, may have had a population of at least 20,000 acrross 400 ha. §REF§ (Cowgill 2015: 42) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JRFZPUXU. §REF§
Political power was inherently theocratic; §REF§ Barba de Piña Chán, Beatriz. (1980). Tlapacoya: Los Principios de la Teocracia en la Cuenca de Mexico. Biblioteca Enciclopedica del Estado de Mexico, p.13-42, 95-142. §REF§ §REF§ Plunket, Patricia and Gabriela Uruñuela. (2012). ""Where East Meets West: The Formative in Mexico's Central Highlands."" Journal of Archaeological 20(1): 1-51 §REF§ §REF§ Carballo, David M. (2016). Urbanization and Religion in Ancient Central Mexico. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p.73-215. §REF§ beyond that, the exact administrative mechanisms prevalent at the time remain unclear.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",27.0,Basin of Mexico,Mexico,-99.130000000000,19.430000000000,Ciudad de Mexico,MX,Mexico,North America,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
713,bo_titicaca_late_formative,100,499,Late Formative Titicaca Basin,bo_titicaca_late_formative,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,32,Andes,From Ecuador to Chile,"{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}"
657,ni_formative_yoruba,650,1049,Late Formative Yoruba,ni_formative_yoruba,POL_AFR_WEST,"""As a result, a new social configuration featuring formalized association and integration of multiple households under a single leadership became necessary as a means of organizing and safeguarding land and labor. It was the beginning of a departure from the two- to three-generation households and hamlets that had been the preferred unit of social organization in the preceding centuries. The new social configuration was the House—what the Yorùbá call an ilé (literally, “house”), an emergent corporate group that has since formed the primary basis of the Yorùbá social organization. [...] Organized under a hierarchy of leadership, members and units of an ilé shared access to land and other means of production; maintained a common narrative of origin; and subscribed to the same ritual practices, deities, ancestors, taboos, and metaphysics.""§REF§(Ogundiran 2020: 47-48)§REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
56,PaCocl3,1000,1515,Late Greater Coclé,pa_cocle_3,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,21,Caribbean,"Caribbean islands, Panama, coastal Columbia-Venezuela","{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}"
31,USIllinL,1718,1778,Late Illinois Confederation,us_late_illinois_confederation,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,24,Mississippi Basin,From the Great Lakes to Louisiana,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
443,MnMongL,1368,1690,Late Mongols,mn_mongol_late,LEGACY,"After the Yuan dynasty collapsed in 1368, Toghon Temur, its last emperor retired with his army to Mongolia, where he established a new state, with Karakorum as its capital, that extended from Manchuria to Kyrgyzstan between the Great Wall of China and Lake Baikal. §REF§ (Ishjamts 2003, 210-211) §REF§ The new Mongolian polity was actually a loose alliance of six tribal confederations or tümens united under a common Khan, and the Khalkhas were one of these confederations. The Khalkhas were themselves divided into the Northern and Southern Khalkhas, and the Northern Khalkhas were divided into left-flank and right-flank Khalkhas For much of their history, the Khalkhas fought against the neighbouring Oirat confederation, with only a few decades' truce in the first half of the seventeenth century. In 1662, conflict flared up between the left-flank and right-flank Khalkhas, but it was the Oirats' invasion under Zungharian leadership that led to the fall of the Khalkha confederacy, as it pushed the Khalkhas to request Beijing's protection, which the Chinese emperor granted in 1691, in exchange for political submission. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 299-300) §REF§
Population and political organization
Like other Mongol confederacies, the Khalkhas were organised in a confederacy ruled by its own ruler, who however deferred to the overarching khan. §REF§ (Ishjamts 2003, 213) §REF§
In the 1630s, the Khalkhas, along with the Chahars, comprised 19,580 families; §REF§ (Perdue 2005, 125) §REF§ estimating 3-8 people per family results in a figure of between 58,740 and 156,640 people, which, halved to exclude the Chahars, falls to between 30,000 and 80,000.
",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",24.0,Orkhon Valley,Mongolia,102.845486000000,47.200757000000,Karakorum,MN,Mongolia,Central Eurasia,9,Mongolia,"Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
702,in_pallava_emp_2,300,890,Late Pallava Empire,in_pallava_emp_2,POL_SA_SI,"The Pallava Empire originated in the early 4th century CE in the northern Tamil Nadu region§REF§ (Bush Trevino 2012, 46) Bush Travino, Macella. 2012. ‘The Pallava Dynasty’ In Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia and Africa: An Encyclopedia. Vol.4 Edited by Carolyn M. Elliot. Los Angeles: Sage. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4RPCX448/collection §REF§The Pallavan capital was at Kanchi, modern-day Kanchipuram. The Pallava rulers were major beneifactors of education and gave land grants for schools. The Pallava dynasties also contributed to art and architecture by commissioning temples and shrines, particularly in the port city of Mamallapuram. §REF§ (Kamlesh 2010, 569) Kamelsh, Kapur. 2010. ‘The Pallava Dynasty’ In History of Ancient India: Portraits of a Nation. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UETBPIDE/collection §REF§ In the late 9th century, the Pallava Empire was succeeded by the Chola Empire. §REF§ (Kamlesh 2010, 566) Kamelsh, Kapur. 2010. ‘The Pallava Dynasty’ In History of Ancient India: Portraits of a Nation. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UETBPIDE/collection §REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
2,CnQingL,1796,1912,Late Qing,cn_qing_dyn_2,LEGACY,"The Qing Dynasty (or Empire of the Great Qing, Great Qing, Manchu Dynasty, Manchus, Jin, Jurchens, Ch'ing Dynasty) was China's last imperial dynasty. The founders of the Qing were descendants of Jurchen Jin rulers. The dynasty was founded by Nurhaci and then led by his son Huang Taiji, but did not become an imperial Chinese dynasty until after Huang Taiji's death. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ In 1644 CE, Qing forces captured the Ming capital at Beijing from rebels and held a funeral for the last Ming emperor to symbolize Qing inheritance of the Mandate of Heaven. §REF§ (San 2014, 338) Tan Koon San. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§
The Qing faced conflict with rebels and loyalist Ming forces for the next two decades. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ Ming generals who surrendered were given power over large territories in southern China in exchange for loyalty to the Qing. In 1673 CE, leaders from three major southern feudatories led by Wu Sangui rebelled against Emperor Kangxi when he tried to reduce their power. §REF§ (San 2014, 385) Tan Koon San. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ The Revolt of the Three Feudatories, as this episode is known, lasted eight years.
We divide the Qing Dynasty into two, an Early period (1644-1796 CE) and a Late period (1796-1912 CE). The division is marked by a period of internal turmoil as well as foreign incursions into its territory and economic sphere. In the Early Qing period, China had been prosperous under Kangxi and Qing rule, but by the time of the Opium Wars in the Late Qing, Western technology and industry had surpassed that of China. §REF§ (Mao 2005, 8) Haijin Mao. 2005. The Qing Empire and the Opium War: The Collapse of the Heavenly Dynasty. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911 gave rise to the Republic of China.
From 1850 to 1864 CE, China was racked by the fourteen-year Taiping Rebellion. The rebellion directly caused 30 million deaths and destroyed many regions in the middle and lower Yangtze. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 198) William T. Rowe. 2009. China's Last Empire: The Great Qing. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ In 1853, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace established a capital in Nanjing, but the rebellion was defeated by armies led by local governors in 1864. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ A number of serious uprisings followed the Taiping Rebellion, including the Nian Rebellion (1853-1868 CE). §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§
At the same time, the Qing emperors were facing economic problems due to the actions of foreign powers. In the 1830s, British merchants began illegally importing opium to China, where high demand for the drug led to a large trade imbalance. China's economy was drained of silver §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 157) William T. Rowe. 2009. China's Last Empire: The Great Qing. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ and the value of copper coins depreciated. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ The First Opium War broke out in 1839 CE when a Chinese commissioner attempted to block opium trade in Guangzhou harbour. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ The Second Opium War of 1858 CE was a series of military actions by the British and French against the Qing. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ The resulting treaties allowed foreign powers to establish concessions in China, abolished taxes for French and British merchants, and forced the Qing to pay large amounts of silver in damages. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§
The 19th century saw increasingly frequent intrusions by foreign powers. Foreign merchants exploited their tax-free status, to the detriment of local Chinese producers. China was forced to cede much of its territory in Vietnam, Burma and elsewhere. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ By the end of the 19th century, a range of foreign powers including Great Britain, Japan, Germany, and France claimed colonial territories in China. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ A peasant uprising known as the Boxer Rebellion targeted foreigners in 1900 CE.
In 1860, the Qing rulers were exiled outside the Great Wall when foreign invaders burned down the Summer Palace. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 201) William T. Rowe. 2009. China's Last Empire: The Great Qing. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The court was restored by the regent Empress Dowager Cixi and Prince Gong in what is known as the Tongzhi restoration. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 201) William T. Rowe. 2009. China's Last Empire: The Great Qing. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ However, the dynasty was finally overthrown in the Revolution of 1911 and the Republic of China was founded.
Population and political organization
The Late Qing maintained a traditional imperial-style Chinese government headed by an emperor and central bureaucracy. Provincial government consisted of governors who controlled a hierarchical system of officials, prefects, county chiefs, county magistrates, and clerks. §REF§ (Zhang 2011, 63) Wei-Bin Zhang. 2011. The Rise and Fall of China's Last Dynasty: The Deepening of the Chinese Servility. Hauppage, NY: Nova Science Publishers. §REF§ The Qing were deeply opposed to modernization: the scholars Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao had to flee after attempting to reform government practices in 1898 CE. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ Rebellions in the 19th century led to the rise of local governors and military commanders, who acted as warlords to control their local regions. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§
The period between the mid-18th and mid-19th centuries was one of extremely rapid population growth in Late Qing China, and by 1851 the population had reached 431.9 million people. §REF§ (Banister 1987, 3-4) Judith Banister. 1987. China's Changing Population. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. §REF§ However, a number of censuses after that date could not be completed due to the rebellions.",,,,2024-10-07T10:36:25.573700Z,"{'id': 87, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",20.0,Middle Yellow River Valley,North China,112.517587000000,34.701825000000,Luoyang,CN,China,East Asia,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
184,ItRomLR,-133,-31,Late Roman Republic,it_roman_rep_3,LEGACY,"The last of the Roman kings, the tyrannical Lucius Tarquinius Superbus ('the Arrogant'), was expelled by a revolt of some of the leading Roman aristocrats in 509 BCE. Vowing never again to allow a single person to amass so much authority, the revolutionaries established in place of the monarchy a republican system of governance, featuring a senate composed of aristocratic men and a series of elected political and military officials. The Roman Republic was a remarkably stable and successful polity, lasting from 509 BCE until it was transformed into an imperial state under Augustus in 31 BCE (though the exact date is debated, as this was not a formal transformation). We divide the Republic into an early (509-264 BCE), a middle (264-133 BCE), and a late (133-31 BCE) period.
The Late Republican period began once Rome was firmly established as the major power throughout the Mediterranean basin. By the end of the period, Romans had taken control of the entire Mediterranean region, with further territorial expansion into North Africa, Anatolia, the Levant and Egypt. Success abroad, however, was not matched by stability at home. The Roman state entered a prolonged period of crisis during the 1st century BCE. Civil wars were frequent, pitting different military leaders such as Sulla, Pompey the Great, and Julius Caesar and their supporters against each other. An underlying tension persisted between the wealthy and elite and the rest of the population. These tensions intensified in 133 BCE, when a Plebeian Tribune (an elected official charged with looking after the interests of the poorer members of society) named Tiberius Gracchus proposed legislation to redistribute land that had been taken over (legally and extra-legally) by wealthy aristocrats to landless Romans, particularly those who had served in the army. This move upset the ruling elite, leading to a riot in the streets of Rome and, ultimately, to Gracchus' death. The city's different political factions were polarized by these events, leading to a series of violent contests for power by military leaders supported either by the elites (notably Sulla and Pompey the Great) or styled as champions of the people (Marius, Caesar, and Octavian/Augustus).
The period of civil war, and with it republican government at Rome, effectively ended in 31 BCE when Octavian (soon to take the title of Augustus as the first ruler of the imperial Roman state, known as the Principate) defeated Mark Antony and the Egyptian army led by the Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra at the battle of Actium.
Population and political organization
Rome during the Republican period possessed no written constitution, but was governed largely through the power and prestige of the Senate, with a clear respect for precedent and for maintaining Rome's traditions. §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 31) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican ""Constitution""', in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ A primary goal of the early Republic was to establish clear checks on the power of any single ruler - the military office of chief commander was in fact split between two generals (consuls), while the chief priestly and legislative posts were split among different people (individuals were restricted from holding multiple offices at once) - and popular assemblies voted on new laws.
Romans of this period did not distinguish between what is today termed 'secular' and 'sacred' authority; although individual magistracies had distinct functions, the same person often held both religious and political offices over the course of their lifetime, as they were thought to be part of essentially the same sphere of governance. The Republic featured a substantial array of religious offices and institutions intended to determine the will of the gods or to please them through the proper performance of rituals and the maintenance of large public temples. §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 37) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican ""Constitution""', in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ These public auspices were the basis of magisterial power in the Republic. §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 37) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican ""Constitution""', in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Auspices were sometimes taken by consuls and other officials, for example before important military engagements, §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 37) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican ""Constitution""', in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ but were mainly managed by specialist elected priests and full-time priestesses (such as the Vestal Virgins) and other priestly offices supported by the state. §REF§ (Culham 2004, 131) Phyllis Culham. 2004. 'Women in the Roman Republic, in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 139-59. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
Despite the internal strife, Rome remained essentially unchallenged by external forces and continued to make military advances. The significant reforms of the consul Marius helped modernize the ever-expanding Roman army around 105 BCE by removing property qualifications for military service, paving the way towards a fully professional fighting force. The period also saw some extensive engineering projects that increased urbanization and economic development: roads, aqueducts, bridges, amphitheatres, theatres, public baths, as well as Roman administrative and legal institutions spread alongside the military throughout the Mediterranean. Though this time was a period of political instability, it also was the start of a 'golden age' in the cultural history of Rome, with literary figures like Cicero, Horace, Sallust, Caesar and Catullus, among others, leaving important and influential writings.
The population at the dawn of empire was around 30 million people, with Italy itself supporting between 5 and 10 million, thus apparently experiencing population growth despite the repeated bouts of civil war. §REF§ (Scheidel 2008) Walter Scheidel. 2008. 'Roman Population Size: The Logic of the Debate', in People, Land, and Politics: Demographic Developments and the Transformation of Roman Italy, 300 BC-AD 14, edited by L. de Ligt and S. J. Northwood, 17-70. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ ",,,,2024-08-13T10:21:04.829807Z,"{'id': 79, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",1.0,Latium,Southern Europe,12.486948000000,41.890407000000,Rome,IT,Italy,Europe,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
243,CnShang,-1250,-1045,Late Shang,cn_late_shang_dyn,LEGACY,"The Late Shang Dynasty (1250-1045 BCE) was an extension of the Erligang culture based in Yinxu, near modern Anyang. The Late Shang were the last 12 kings of the dynasty, beginning with Pan Geng. Unlike in Erligang settlements, pottery, oracle bones and other artefacts showing a fully formed writing system have been found at Late Shang sites. This system included 'pictograms, ideograms, and phonograms'. §REF§ (San 2014, 19) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F. §REF§ The oldest written records uncovered from Shang contexts date back to 1200 BCE. §REF§ (San 2014, 19) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F. §REF§
The civilization at Yinxu is considered to represent the golden age of the Shang Dynasty §REF§ (San 2014, 17) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F. §REF§ and 11 major royal tombs have been uncovered there by archaeologists. §REF§ (San 2014, 17) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F. §REF§ Pottery and bronze and jade work flourished in the Late Shang period. §REF§ (San 2014, 20) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F. §REF§ The Late Shang also had a developed calendar system with 30 days in a month and 12 months (360 days) in a year. §REF§ (Encyclopedia Britannica 2017) “Shang Dynasty.” Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shang-dynasty Accessed May 29, 2017. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8GNFD4WH. §REF§
Population and political organization
The Late Shang were based on the North China Plain. The dynasty's territory stretched north to modern Shandong, south to Hebei, and west to Henan. §REF§ (San 2014, 16) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F. §REF§ The Shang government was a feudal system in which the king and a class of military nobility ruled over the masses, who were mainly farmers. §REF§ (San 2014, 16, 21) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F. §REF§ Shang kings also served as high priests. §REF§ (San 2014, 16) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F) §REF§ The Late Shang were in constant conflict with surrounding settlements and with civilizations from the steppe. §REF§ (San 2014, 21) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F. §REF§
The population of the Late Shang Dynasty was around 5 million in 1045 BCE. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 170-72) McEvedy, Colin, and Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6U4QZXCG/q/atlas%20of%20world%20population. §REF§ The population of the Yinxu settlement in Anyang is unknown.",,,,2024-01-04T15:29:41.622565Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",20.0,Middle Yellow River Valley,North China,112.517587000000,34.701825000000,Luoyang,CN,China,East Asia,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
560,bo_tiwanaku_2,800,1149,Late Tiwanaku,bo_tiwanaku_2,LEGACY,"
“The final stage of the Tiwanaku kingdom, from about 725 to 1200, saw significant territorial expansion and the development of a complex, multiethnic society. Tiwanaku conquests during this period included a large part of the Pacific Coast from central Peru to northern Chile, and highland regions extending into the Andes Mountains. Around 1200, the Tiwanaku kingdom began to decline, and by the next century it had disappeared. Experts are not sure what caused this decline and disappearance, although some attribute it to climate change and extended drought. Tiwanaku civilization is known primarily from archaeological sites and ruins. The main Tiwanaku archaeological site is located in the high Altiplano area south of Lake Titicaca in Bolivia. The site contains many stone structures, earthen mounds, stairways, plazas, and reservoirs. Building stones at the site, weighing up to 100 tons, were brought from a quarry three miles away. The site’s renowned Gateway of the Sun was cut from a 10-foot-high stone and was carved with representations of humans, the condor, and the sun god. These typical Tiwanaku symbols also appear in the region’s textile designs and pottery. Other noteworthy examples of Tiwanaku construction are the Akapana Pyramid, a large earthen platform mound or stepped pyramid faced with finegrained volcanic rock, and the Kalasasaya, a large rectangular-shaped enclosure built with alternating rectangular blocks and taller stone columns and containing many carved stone figures. The enormous amount of planning and labor required for such vast and complex construction projects suggests that the Tiwanaku civilization must have been strictly governed and regimented. It is not clear whether the area near Lake Titicaca was the center of Tiwanaku origin or the capital of the empire at its peak, but these remarkable archaeological sites do seem to point to extensive Tiwanaku cultural, and perhaps political, influence.”§REF§(Middleton 2015: 948) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Volume 1-3, A-Z. London: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7N3PNVCB§REF§
“The disintegration of Tiwanaku, around A.D. 1000, led to the formation of numerous confederations in territories that had been previously integrated by a much larger and cohesive power structure. Although the reasons for Tiwanaku’s disintegration are still poorly understood, a recurrent argument to explain Tiwanaku’s debacle has been based on the notion of an invasion by southern Aymara9 groups, around A.D. 1200 (Bouysse-Cassagne 1988; Gisbert et al. 1987; Torero 1970).”§REF§(Albarracin-Jordan 1999: 81) Albarracin-Jordan, Juan V. 1999. The Archeaology of Tiwanaku: The Myths, History, and Science of an Ancient Andean Civilization. Bolivia: Impresión P.A.P. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P7MDWPAP§REF§
“Around AD 1100/1150, the Tiwanaku State came to its end.(70) Tiwanaku, Lukurmata, and other large Tiwanaku centres were almost completely abandoned. The collapse of the complex administrative network of the Tiwanaku heartland led to the formation of hundreds of new – predominately small – settlements. Approximately a century earlier, the Tiwanaku colonists of the Moquegua Valley had rebelled, breaking free of altiplano rule. Direct Tiwanaku control may also have been resisted in the Azapa Valley, and the Central Andes saw a general waning of Tiwanaku influence. The Tiwanaku did not disappear – only the state apparatus collapsed. In art, certain aspects of the Tiwanaku style survived. However, on the whole, the following cultural period – the Late Intermediate Period (c. AD 1100– 450) – was characterised in the Titicaca Basin by social disunion and the formation of small-scale local polities.”§REF§(Korpisaari 2006: 79) Korpisaari, Antti. 2006. Death in the Bolivian High Plateau: Burials and Tiwanaku Society. Oxford: BAR Publishing. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UPGSC7BF§REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,32,Andes,From Ecuador to Chile,"{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}"
582,mx_mexico_2,1921,2020,Late United Mexican States,mx_mexico_2,LEGACY,,,,,2024-10-23T13:20:45.369754Z,"{'id': 94, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
274,MnXngnL,-60,100,Late Xiongnu,mn_hunnu_late,LEGACY,"The Orkhon Valley lies either side of the Orkhon River, in north-central Mongolia. Between about 200 BCE and 100 CE, it was under the control of the Xiongnu Imperial Confederation.
This polity comprised several nomadic peoples from the Mongolian Steppe. By the 4th century BCE, the Xiongnu began raiding northern China, §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 222) §REF§ where their mounted archery overwhelmed the heavily armed but relatively immobile Chinese infantry. §REF§ (Marsh 2012, 500-501) Kevin Marsh. Xiongnu. Xiaobing Li ed. 2012. China at War: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. Santa Barbara. §REF§ The nomads were held at bay by a combination of tribute in the form of metals, finished products, and agricultural products, and China's numerical superiority. §REF§ (Barfield 1993, 157) §REF§ §REF§ (Ying-Shih 1986) §REF§ §REF§ (Dupuy and Dupuy 2007, 133) §REF§ Several Chinese victories against the Xiongnu in the 1st century BCE and factional conflict within the confederacy led to the confederacy’s breakup, and a new group of semi-nomadic peoples from the Northeast, the Xianbei, took control of the region. §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 222) §REF§
At their height, the Xiongnu ruled over an area that included all of Mongolia, extending to the Ordos region in the south, and the boreal forests of Siberia in the north, for a total of about 4,000,000 squared kilometres. §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 220-221) §REF§
Precise estimates could not be found for the empire's population, but estimates suggest that nomads living to the north of China did not number more than 1,500,000, §REF§ (Kradin 2011, 77) §REF§ and the best studied (but not the largest) settlement, Ivolga, likely had a population of between 2,500 and 3,000. §REF§ (Kradin 2011, 85) §REF§ The empire was divided into three kingships: a central one, directly ruled by the paramount leader, and a ""left"" one and a ""right"" one, to the east and west, respectively, distributed among twenty-four regional leaders known as the ""ten thousand horsemen"". §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 220) §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",24.0,Orkhon Valley,Mongolia,102.845486000000,47.200757000000,Karakorum,MN,Mongolia,Central Eurasia,9,Mongolia,"Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
257,CnLrQin,386,417,Later Qin Kingdom,cn_later_qin_dyn,LEGACY,,,,,2024-01-04T15:49:42.125450Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
224,MrWagdL,1078,1203,Later Wagadu Empire,mr_wagadu_3,LEGACY,"The Kingdom of Ghana was the first documented empire of West Africa. Its dominant people, a northern Mande group known as the Soninke, called it 'Wagadu', §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 23) David C. Conrad. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§ and Berber traders from the Sahara referred to it as 'Awkar'. §REF§ (Davidson 1998, 26) Basil Davidson. 1998. West Africa before the Colonial Era. London: Routledge. §REF§ The polity reached its peak in the mid-11th century: §REF§ (Davidson 1998, 34) Basil Davidson. 1998. West Africa before the Colonial Era. London: Routledge. §REF§ §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 33) David C. Conrad. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§ at this stage, its influence extended east and north from the Senegal River into modern Mauritania and Mali §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 19) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ and it was encroaching on the Niger Inland Delta. §REF§ (Niane 1975, n.p.) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle. Paris: Présence africaine. §REF§ §REF§ (Simonis 2010, 36) Francis Simonis. 2010. L'Afrique soudanaise au Moyen Age: Le temps des grands empires (Ghana, Mali, Songhaï). Aix-Marseille: CRDP de l'Académie d'Aix-Marseille. §REF§ However, from the late 11th century CE the Ghana Empire began to decline due to a combination of environmental, social and political factors. As the desert expanded into previously productive agricultural land, §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 39) David C. Conrad, 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§ the Sosso people took control of a large region above the Upper Niger River §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 12) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ and the city of Walata grew in influence, taking over as the main southern terminus of the trans-Saharan trade. §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 39) David C. Conrad, 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§ The empire of Ghana officially converted to Islam in 1075‒77 CE to foster political and commercial ties with Almoravid newcomers, §REF§ (Al-Zuhri c. 1130-1155 CE in Levtzion and Spaulding 2003, 24-25) Nehemia Levtzion and Jay Spaulding, eds. 2003. Medieval West Africa: Views from Arab Scholars and Merchants. Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener. §REF§ while traditional religion retained its prominence in the hinterland and among the non-elite classes. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 590) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The consensus within modern scholarship is that the relationship between the Soninke and the Almoravids was generally cordial and fruitful, that the Wagadu capital had been host to an important Muslim community in the centuries before the Almoravids arrived, and that the Wagadu conversion to Islam was in fact a gradual affair. §REF§ (El Fasi and Hrbek 1980, 100) Mohammed El Fasi and Ivan Hrbek. 1980. 'Étapes du développement de l'Islam et de sa diffusion en Afrique' in Histoire Générale de l'Afrique, Vol. 3: L'Afrique du VIIe au XIe siècle, edited by M. El Fasi, 81-116. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ Ghana recovered part of its power in the 12th century. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 12) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ Ultimately, however, the shift in the regional balance of power led many of the Soninke to relocate to more prosperous areas, §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 31) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ contributing to the spread of Islam in other areas of the Sudan. §REF§ (El Fasi and Hrbek 1980, 100) Mohammed El Fasi and Ivan Hrbek. 1980. 'Étapes du développement de l'Islam et de sa diffusion en Afrique' in Histoire Générale de l'Afrique, Vol. 3: L'Afrique du VIIe au XIe siècle, edited by M. El Fasi, 81-116. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§
Population and political organization
The Wagadu empire comprised four provinces administered by a central government. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 18) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ The king exerted direct authority over his kingdom; he was also head of the traditional religion and was revered as a god. §REF§ (Niane 1975, 32) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle. Paris: Présence africaine. §REF§ Wagadu society was highly hierarchical, distinguishing between the elite warrior class and the rest of the population: professional artisans including smiths, weavers, dyers and shoemakers; farmers and herders; and slaves. §REF§ (Niane 1975, 32) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle. Paris: Présence africaine. §REF§ These groups were further subdivided along clan lines. §REF§ (Niane 1975, 33) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle. Paris: Présence africaine. §REF§
This period was a prosperous one for the Sudanese region, which produced millet, maize, yam, groundnuts, cotton, indigo and other crops. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 589-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Linked into a thriving exchange sphere that stretched north to North Africa and the Mediterranean, §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 589-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ the Sudanese population exported gold, slaves, hides, and ivory and imported copper, silver beads, dried fruit and cloth. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 589-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ All exports and imports were taxed by the centralized state. §REF§ (Niane 1975, 33) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle. Paris: Présence africaine. §REF§ Trading outposts in Awdhagust and other Saharan towns facilitated fruitful exchange with Berbers and other groups from further afield. §REF§ (Meideros 1980, 160) Francois de Meideros. 1980. 'Les peuples du Soudan: Mouvements de populations', in Histoire Générale de l'Afrique, Vol. 3: L'Afrique du VIIe au XIe siècle, edited by M. El Fasi, 143-64. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§
Population estimates are difficult to obtain for ancient Ghana. However, it is worth noting that its capital, the thriving trading city of Kumbi Saleh, covered 250 hectares and had a population of 15,000-20,000 people at its peak. §REF§ (Reader 1998, 280) John Reader. 1998. Africa: A Biography of the Continent. London: Penguin Books. §REF§ Archaeological investigations at the site have revealed two-storey stone buildings which may have contained stores on the ground floor, narrow streets with densely packed houses, a mosque, and extensive cemeteries. §REF§ (Reader 1998, 280) John Reader. 1998. Africa: A Biography of the Continent. London: Penguin Books. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",6.0,Niger Inland Delta,Sahel,-3.041703000000,16.717549000000,Timbuctu,ML,Mali,Africa,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
256,CnLrYan,385,409,Later Yan Kingdom,cn_later_yan_dyn,LEGACY,,,,,2024-01-04T15:46:48.781615Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
826,tr_latin_emp,1204,1261,Latin Empire,tr_latin_emp,OTHER_TAG,,Latin Empire,,2024-04-09T13:08:03.148554Z,2024-04-09T13:08:03.148567Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
179,ItLatBA,-1800,-900,Latium - Bronze Age,it_latium_ba,LEGACY,"The Italian Bronze Age (Età del Bronzo) starts at the tail end of the Eneolithic, but enters its mature phase between 1800 and 1200 BCE (Middle Bronze Age, Età del Bronzo Media), and begins its transition towards the Iron Age between 1200 and 1000 (Late Bronze Age, Tarda Età del Bronzo). §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 32-33) Tim Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000‒264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§ §REF§ (Anzidei, Sestieri and De Santis 1985, 113-48) Anna Paola Anzidei, Anna Maria Bietti Sestieri and Anna De Santis. 1985. Roma e il Lazio dall'età della pietra alla formazione della città. Rome: Quasar. §REF§ Because Middle Bronze Age material culture is remarkably uniform throughout the peninsula, §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 32) Tim Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000‒264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§ it is difficult to single out any developments that specifically distinguish Latium, the region of Central Italy that roughly corresponds to modern-day Lazio. However, it is worth noting that most sites of this period cluster along the Apennine mountain range; for this reason, Italian Bronze Age culture is sometimes referred to as 'Apennine culture' (cultura appenninica). §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 32) Tim Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000‒264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§ In the Late Bronze Age, the main cultural traditions were the Subapennine (12th century BCE, subappenninica) and the Proto-Villanovan (11th and 10th centuries BCE, protovillanoviana) §REF§ (Anzidei, Sestieri and De Santis 1985, 137-39) Anna Paola Anzidei, Anna Maria Bietti Sestieri and Anna De Santis. 1985. Roma e il Lazio dall'età della pietra alla formazione della città. Rome: Quasar. §REF§ These traditions brought greater sophistication in agricultural techniques, a greater number and variety of agricultural tools, and advances in metalworking. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 32-33) Tim Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000‒264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§
Population and political organization
It is difficult to infer much about the political organization of the average Italian settlement, either in the Middle or in the Late Bronze Age. There are very few signs of status differentiation, whether in burials, architecture, or material culture more generally. §REF§ (Barker 1995, 156) Graeme Barker. 1995. A Mediterranean Valley: Landscape Archaeology and Annales History in the Biferno Valley. London: Leicester University Press. §REF§
Population was probably sparse up to the Middle Bronze Age in Italy, with settlements of no more than a few dozen inhabitants each. In contrast, the Late Bronze Age witnessed a significant demographic increase, suggested by an increased number of sites and increased site size. Settlements were probably home to a few hundred inhabitants. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 32-33) Tim Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000‒264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",1.0,Latium,Southern Europe,12.486948000000,41.890407000000,Rome,IT,Italy,Europe,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
178,ItLatCA,-3600,-1800,Latium - Copper Age,it_latium_ca,LEGACY,"The Italian Eneolithic (Eneolitico) dates from the 3rd millennium to the first centuries of the 2nd millennium BCE. It mostly corresponds to the Copper Age (Età del Rame) plus the Early Bronze Age (Prima Età del Bronzo). In Latium, the region of Central Italy that roughly matches modern-day Lazio, the main Copper Age sites include Ponte S. Pietro, Porcareccia and Rinaldone (near the modern-day city of Viterbo), Sgurgola and Casamari (near Frosinone), Castel Malnome and Ardea (near Rome), and Cantalupo Mandela (near Sabina). §REF§ (Anzidei, Sestieri and De Santis 1985, 102) Anna Paola Anzidei, Anna Maria Bietti Sestieri and Anna De Santis. 1985. Roma e il Lazio dall'età della pietra alla formazione della città. Rome: Quasar. §REF§ The period is characterized by low density occupation and scattered material finds, mainly grave sites; nothing in the region comparable to the complex contemporary social formations present in Egypt, China, and the Near East.
Population and political organization
None of the above-mentioned sites is considered a 'nucleated settlement', but they have all yielded useful finds: the Viterbo locations and Sgurgola are small necropolises, while miscellaneous grave goods have been unearthed at the other sites. §REF§ (Anzidei, Sestieri and De Santis 1985, 106) Anna Paola Anzidei, Anna Maria Bietti Sestieri and Anna De Santis. 1985. Roma e il Lazio dall'età della pietra alla formazione della città. Rome: Quasar. §REF§ Overall, it seems likely that Latium Copper Age communities were quite small — one estimate posits 100-200 inhabitants each §REF§ (Whitehouse 1992, 16) Ruth Whitehouse. 1992. Underground Religion: Cult and Culture in Prehistoric Italy. London: Accordia Research Centre, University of London. §REF§ — and some estimates for the Early Bronze Age even go so far as to say that each settlement probably only had a few dozen inhabitants. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 32-35) Tim Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000‒264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§ The burial data appear to reflect a patriarchal, war-oriented culture: men and women are associated with very different types of grave goods, and male burials are always accompanied by weapons. §REF§ (Anzidei, Sestieri and De Santis 1985, 106) Anna Paola Anzidei, Anna Maria Bietti Sestieri and Anna De Santis. 1985. Roma e il Lazio dall'età della pietra alla formazione della città. Rome: Quasar. §REF§ §REF§ (Whitehouse 1992, 21) Ruth Whitehouse. 1992. Underground Religion: Cult and Culture in Prehistoric Italy. London: Accordia Research Centre, University of London. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",1.0,Latium,Southern Europe,12.486948000000,41.890407000000,Rome,IT,Italy,Europe,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
180,ItLatIA,-1000,-580,Latium - Iron Age,it_latium_ia,LEGACY,"In Latium, the region of Central Italy roughly corresponding to modern-day Lazio, the earliest evidence for the emergence of a distinctive regional culture dates to the 10th century BCE. §REF§ (Anzidei, Sestieri and De Santis 1985, 140) Anna Paola Anzidei, Anna Maria Bietti Sestieri and Anna De Santis. 1985. Roma e il Lazio dall'età della pietra alla formazione della città. Rome: Quasar. §REF§ Iron Age Latial culture has been divided into the following phases and sub-phases: LC I (1000-900), LC IIA (900-830), LC IIB (830-770), LC IIIA (770-740), LC IIIB (740-720), LC IVA (720-620) and LC IVB (620-580). §REF§ (Forsythe 2006, 53-58) Gary Forsythe. 2006. A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ This period is known by several names, including Old Latium (Latium Vetus in Latin and Lazio Antico in Italian) and the Southern Villanovan. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 33-55) Tim Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000‒264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§
The first and second phases of the Latial culture correspond respectively to the Proto-Villanovan and Villanovan archaeological cultures of Italy as a whole. The fourth phase is contemporary with the Orientalizing period of Etruscan civilization, and the third phase is transitional between the second and fourth phases. LC I is characterized by simple undecorated pottery and cremation as the dominant funerary rite, while in LC II cremation is replaced by inhumation, and pottery is decorated with simple patterns. Foreign influences can be detected in the pottery of LC III, and in the fourth and final phase both foreign pottery and its local imitations are represented. §REF§ (Forsythe 2006, 53-58) Gary Forsythe. 2006. A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Major sites include Osteria dell'Osa and Castel di Decima.
Population and political organization
It is difficult to reconstruct the exact political organization of Iron Age settlements in Latium. At Osteria dell'Osa, one of the most well studied LC II sites likely inhabited by between one and three hundred people, the distribution and quality of grave goods suggest that status was largely determined by age and gender. Men were usually buried with weapons, women with weaving equipment and jewellery, and the elderly with drinking cups. LC III and IV burials provide evidence for increasing social differentiation, a decrease in the importance of gender and age for determining status, and greater receptivity to external (i.e. Greek and Etruscan) influences. Most of the burials at Castel di Decima (LC III and IV) are quite simple inhumations, with no or modest grave goods, but a minority of graves are accompanied by high-quality goods such as amber beads, gold fibulae, and even chariots. The wealth of this minority appears to increase throughout the 8th and 7th centuries. §REF§ (Forsythe 2006, 53-58) Gary Forsythe. 2006. A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§
There appear to be no reliable estimates for the overall population of Latium at this time. However, a few estimates exist for the population size of settlements. At one extreme, some sources suggest that thousands of people lived at some Iron Age settlements. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 32-33) Tim Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000‒264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§ However, Osteria dell'Osa likely only had between one and three hundred inhabitants. §REF§ (Forsythe 2006, 53-58) Gary Forsythe. 2006. A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",1.0,Latium,Southern Europe,12.486948000000,41.890407000000,Rome,IT,Italy,Europe,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
899,th_lavo_k_1,638,1001,Lavo Kingdom I,th_lavo_k_1,OTHER_TAG,,Lavo Kingdom,,2024-07-04T14:35:05.375144Z,2024-07-04T14:35:05.375160Z,,,,,,,,,,,41,Mainland Southeast Asia,"Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
900,th_lavo_k_2,1002,1350,Lavo Kingdom II,th_lavo_k_2,OTHER_TAG,,Lavo Kingdom,,2024-07-04T14:35:46.709657Z,2024-07-04T14:35:46.709672Z,,,,,,,,,,,41,Mainland Southeast Asia,"Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
315,EsLeon,910,1158,Leon,es_leon_k,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
329,EsLeCas,1230,1715,Leon & Castille,es_leon_castille,LEGACY,,,,,2024-11-07T14:39:15.889520Z,"{'id': 111, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
403,InLohar,1003,1255,Lohara Dynasty,in_lohara_dyn,LEGACY,,,,,2023-11-14T13:54:19.357818Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,64,North India,"Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
305,ItLombr,568,774,Lombard Kingdom,it_lombard_k,LEGACY,"
The Lombard were a Germanic tribe who, by the end of the 5th century CE, had settled their territory north of the Danube River, which corresponds approximately to the area that is now modern-day Austria. Under the rule of Alboin, the Lombards invaded and migrated to a defenceless Italy in 568 CE, and within a year had conquered and occupied all major cities north of the Po River.§REF§“Lombard | People | Britannica”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/E6RFZXRD§REF§
When they arrived in Italy the Lombards were divided into clans, each with its own war-leader, but by the middle of the seventh century a monarchy had been established which led to a centralised authority which each of the clans ‘dukes’ were answerable to.§REF§Peters 2003: x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X4ETPHA7§REF§
In 773 CE the Franks under Charlemagne, and in alliance with Pope Adrian I, invaded Italy. After a year of siege they captured the city of Pavia and the Lombards surrendered to Charlemagne. He became the ruler of both the Lombards and the Franks, and Lombardian rule in Italy came to an end.§REF§“Lombard | People | Britannica”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/E6RFZXRD§REF§",,,,2024-03-13T10:38:50.063861Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
420,CnLngsh,-3000,-1900,Longshan,cn_longshan,LEGACY,"Longshan culture (Chalcolithic China, Jade Age, Lungshanoid horizon) evolved from the Yangshao culture in the Lower Yellow River Valley and the Majiabang culture in the Lower Yangzi River Valley. §REF§ (Underhill 2001, 156) Underhill, Anne. 2001. “Longshan.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 156-159. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T §REF§ It is characterized by the presence of dark grey and black polished pottery. §REF§ (Underhill 2001, 156) Underhill, Anne. 2001. “Longshan.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 156-159. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T §REF§ The culture was named after Mount Long in Shandong §REF§ (Perkins 1999, 295) Perkins, Dorothy. 1999. Encyclopedia of China: History and Culture. New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UXEGQFPU. §REF§ , and major sites have been uncovered in modern Shaanxi, Shanxi, Henan, Hebei, Hubei, and Shandong. §REF§ (Underhill 2001, 156) Underhill, Anne. 2001. “Longshan.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 156-159. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T §REF§
Longshan people used ground stone and chipped stone tools used for agriculture and carving. §REF§ (Underhill 2001, 156) Underhill, Anne. 2001. “Longshan.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 156-159. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T §REF§ Millet was the main agricultural staple, and evidence of domesticated rice was found in more than on site. §REF§ (Underhill 2001, 158) Underhill, Anne. 2001. “Longshan.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 156-159. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T §REF§ Settlements feature circular ground-level homes with wattle and daub walls, and large square homes built on platforms. Hang-tu earth walls and adobe bricks were also used in settlement construction. §REF§ (Underhill 2001, 156) Underhill, Anne. 2001. “Longshan.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 156-159. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T §REF§
Longshan culture was the precursor of the Zhou dynasty in Shaanxi, the state of Qi in Shandong, and Yue and Wu in the Yangzi River Delta. §REF§ (Perkins 1999, 295) Perkins, Dorothy. 1999. Encyclopedia of China: History and Culture. New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UXEGQFPU. §REF§
Population and political organization
There is evidence that the Longshan people lived in hierarchical societies. Symbolic jade and other prestige goods including thin walled stemmed cups have been found in elite Longshan burials. §REF§ (Underhill 2001, 156) Underhill, Anne. 2001. “Longshan.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 156-159. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T §REF§ Lineages or ranked patronages may have been important in Longshan society, and walled towns with surrounding villages could have been chiefdoms. §REF§ (Underhill 2001, 158) Underhill, Anne. 2001. “Longshan.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 156-159. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T §REF§ Scholars believe that violent conflicts increased during the Longshan period, which could be a sign of competition for power. §REF§ (Underhill 2001, 159) Underhill, Anne. 2001. “Longshan.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 156-159. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T §REF§ More research is necessary to estimate the population of Longshan sites. §REF§ (Underhill 2001, 157) Underhill, Anne. 2001. “Longshan.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 156-159. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T §REF§",,,,2024-01-04T15:28:32.968892Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",20.0,Middle Yellow River Valley,North China,112.517587000000,34.701825000000,Luoyang,CN,China,East Asia,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
275,CnLouIn,25,330,Loulan-Shanshan kingdom,cn_loulan_shanshan_k,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,9,Mongolia,"Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
169,TrLysim,-323,-281,Lysimachus Kingdom,tr_lysimachus_k,LEGACY,"The Thracian kingdom under Lysimachus constituted only a short period in the history of the area. The Odrysian Kingdom was present in Thrace before it was conquered by Philip II, then ruled by Alexander the Great until his death in 323 BCE. Lysimachus, one of Alexander’s Successors, took over governorship of the area and eventually declared himself king in 306 BCE. Lysimachus ruled with an expansionist policy, and extended the kingdom to its furthest reaches by around 300 BCE. §REF§ (Dimitrov 2011, 13) K Dimitrov. 2011. Economic, Social and Political Structures on the Territory of the Odrysian Kingdom in Thrace (5th - first half of the 3rd century BC). ORPHEUS. Journal of IndoEuropean and Thracian Studies. 18, p. 4-24. §REF§ His reign was however, very short lived. He was defeated at the Battle of Corupedium by Seleucus (ruler of the Seleucid Empire) in 281 BCE and his territories became part of the Seleucid Empire.
The evidence of Lysimachus’ reign is very limited and, “There is almost no direct information as to Lysimachus’ administration, nor do we know the site of his headquarters before Lysimacheia’s walls rose in 309 BCE.” §REF§ (Lund 1992, 21) H S Lund. 1992. Lysimachus: A study in early Hellenistic kingship. Routledge: London and New York. §REF§ There is however a certain amount of continuity with the Odrysian Kingdom before the Macedonain conquest which may provide some proxy information on Thrace under Lysimachus. In addition, there is some evidence that Thracian rulers continued to rule under or with Lysimachus, although the exact nature of their relationship is not clear. The earlier reigns of Philip II and Alexander, and the subsequent reign of Seleucus, have not been coded on this page as those polities have separate pages. It was only under Lysimachus that the area was ruled relatively independently, and only during this time that the boundaries were extended to include the Konya Plain.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",11.0,Konya Plain,Anatolia-Caucasus,32.521164000000,37.877845000000,Konya,TR,Turkey,Southwest Asia,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
506,GrMaced,-330,-312,Macedonian Empire,gr_macedonian_emp,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,19,Southeastern Europe,"Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
390,InMagad,450,605,Magadha,in_magadha_k,LEGACY,,,,,2024-07-19T07:49:59.042343Z,"{'id': 66, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",14.0,Middle Ganga,Indo-Gangetic Plain,82.700000000000,25.750000000000,Jaunpur,UTPR,India,South Asia,64,North India,"Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
792,in_kanva_dyn,-75,-30,Magadha - Kanva Dynasty,in_kanva_dyn,OTHER_TAG,,,"JR: Adding ""Magadha"" to the name for clarity. Changed dates to 75-30 BCE (previously 75-300 CE): this was a short-lived dynasty based in Magadha in the last century BCE",2023-12-07T16:15:55.657882Z,2024-06-06T09:17:00.288584Z,"{'id': 20, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,64,North India,"Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
87,InMaury,-324,-187,Magadha - Maurya Empire,in_mauryan_emp,LEGACY,"The Maurya Empire was one of the first geographically extensive empires in South Asia. The formation of the Mauryan Empire coincided with the invasion of India in the North-West of the armies of Alexander of Macedon in 327 BCE, most likely from territory in the Punjab. §REF§ (Singh 2008, 324-358) Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: from the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. pp. 324-358. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/HJR7J7RC/itemKey/VUIEUHVK §REF§
From circa 322 BCE until 187 BCE, the Mauryas extended their control over almost the entire subcontinent excluding Sri Lanka and the southernmost coast, as well as expanding northwest in Afghanistan.The exact origin of the empire is not clear. §REF§ (Singh 2008, 324-358) Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: from the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. pp. 324-358. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/HJR7J7RC/itemKey/VUIEUHVK §REF§ The empire was built on the earlier model of the Nandas. The first three rulers, Chandragupta (324/321 BCE-297 BCE), Bindusara (297 BCE-273 BCE) and Ashoka (268 BCE-232 BCE) oversaw the main period of expansion and codification of the imperial state, with subsequent rulers attempting to preserve the gains made by the first three Kings until 187 BCE. Evidence of diplomacy between the Alexandrian successor state and the Mauryas Empire exist, though whether this was extensive is unclear. Exact details of when the conquests of territory took place are also murky, but evidence seems to indicate that the majority took place under the founder King Chandragupta. §REF§ (Singh 2008, 324-358) Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: from the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. pp. 324-358. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/HJR7J7RC/itemKey/VUIEUHVK §REF§
The reign of Ashoka was a period of stability and marked the peak of the empire, as well as religious reform. The Maurya Empire entered a period of decline and instability following his death, with weak rulers overseeing a quickly fragmenting state facing outward invasion by Bactrian Greeks. Brihadratha would be the last ruler of the Maurya dynasty, killed by his military commander Pushyamitra in 187 BCE. The commander would be the founder of the successor state of the Shunga Dynasty. §REF§ (Singh 2008, 324-358) Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: from the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. pp. 324-358. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/HJR7J7RC/itemKey/VUIEUHVK §REF§
Population and political organization
The King was the head of state, he controlled the military and the bureaucratic administration. §REF§ (Sen 1999, 137) Sen, Sailendra Nath. 1999. Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International. p.137 https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/HJR7J7RC/itemKey/5Q53QHG7 §REF§
The Empire was organized under a large bureaucracy and divided into four provinces named after the cardinal directions. Each province had a separate hierarchal administration, with the system duplicated at the capital to oversee the empire. §REF§ (Singh 2008, 324-358) Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: from the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. pp. 324-358. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/HJR7J7RC/itemKey/VUIEUHVK §REF§
A unique account of the Mauryan imperial administration is preserved in The Arthasastra. A handbook for governance which outlines a module of centralized government, although whether it is descriptive or an idealized version of the administration is disputed. §REF§ (Subramaniam 2001, 80) Subramaniam, V. 2001. ‘Indian Legacy of Administration’. In: Farazmand, Ali. ed. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. CRC Press.p.80 https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/HJR7J7RC/itemKey/5T7BBX36 §REF§
Population estimates for this period vary widely ranging from 18,000,000 to 100,000,000. §REF§ (Gabriel 2002, 218) Gabriel, Richard A. 2002. The Great Armies of Antiquity. Greenwood Publishing Group. p.218 https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/HJR7J7RC/itemKey/VAWK3Z9E §REF§ The Imperial Capital, Pataliputa was the largest settlement with an estimate of 50,000 inhabitants provided by (Clark 2013, 159). §REF§ (Clark 2013, 159) Clark, Peter, ed. 2013. The Oxford Handbook of Cities in World History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 159 https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/HJR7J7RC/itemKey/37G4SSGG §REF§ §REF§ (Singh 2008, 118) Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: from the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. p.118 https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/HJR7J7RC/itemKey/VUIEUHVK §REF§",,"JR: Adding ""Magadha"" to the name for clarity",,2024-07-19T07:50:38.763008Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",14.0,Middle Ganga,Indo-Gangetic Plain,82.700000000000,25.750000000000,Jaunpur,UTPR,India,South Asia,64,North India,"Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
777,BdNanda,-413,-322,Magadha - Nanda Dynasty,in_nanda_dyn,OTHER_TAG,,,"JR: Adding ""Magadha"" to the name for clarity",,2025-04-15T09:28:49.943119Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,64,North India,"Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
385,InSunga,-187,-65,Magadha - Sunga Empire,in_sunga_emp,LEGACY,"This period begins with the ascension of Puṣyamitra Shunga in 187 BCE.
The Shunga Empire territory was about 4 million km2, encompassing central and eastern India. The polity population is considered to be anywhere between 18 and 100 million at varying times, while the population of the largest settlement, likely the imperial capital of Pataliputra, may have up to 270 thousand inhabitants.
There were four main settlement types during this period: the imperial capital of Pataliputra, large secondary centres such as Taxila, Mathura, Brita, smaller town-like settlements, and villages.
The main religion practiced in this polity was Hinduism. Shunga rulers in particular are said to have practiced an ‘aggressive’ Vedic Hinduism, which according to Buddhist sources, led to their monks being persecuted.",,"JR: Adding ""Magadha"" to the name for clarity",,2024-07-19T07:50:29.355239Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",14.0,Middle Ganga,Indo-Gangetic Plain,82.700000000000,25.750000000000,Jaunpur,UTPR,India,South Asia,64,North India,"Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
384,InMahaJ,-600,-324,Mahajanapada era,in_mahajanapada,LEGACY,"The Mahajanapada era ran from 450-605 CE.
Information cannot be found in the sources consulted regarding the polity's population, however the largest settlement is estimated to have had a population of between 12,000-48,000 people (based off the number of inhabitants of Rajagriha, the old Magadhan capital.) §REF§ (Kaul 2015b: 525) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/94XKJ54Q. §REF§
Excavations show there may been four types of settlements during this period, ranging from less than six hectares, up to fifty hectares, and other very small sites represented by simple ceramic findings, which may have been agricultural areas or farmsteads. §REF§ (Coningham and Young 2015: 380: 381) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DIGG6KVA. §REF§",,,,2024-07-19T07:48:19.577605Z,"{'id': 75, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",14.0,Middle Ganga,Indo-Gangetic Plain,82.700000000000,25.750000000000,Jaunpur,UTPR,India,South Asia,64,North India,"Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
391,InMaitr,470,790,Maitraka Dynasty,in_maitraka_dyn,LEGACY,,,,,2025-04-08T15:46:50.419709Z,"{'id': 14, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,64,North India,"Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
50,IdMajap,1292,1518,Majapahit Kingdom,id_majapahit_k,LEGACY,"The kingdom of Majapahit covered much of the eastern half of the island of Java; it was founded in the late thirteenth century, when the war between king Waijaya and the ruler of Kediri concluded with the latter's loss, and it gradually faded from relevance between the end of the fifteenth century and the middle of the sixteenth, as the Sultanate of Demak established its control over the main sea trade routes. §REF§ (Sedwayati in Ooi 2004 (b), 823-284) §REF§ Majapahit experienced its apogee under the rule of Hayam Wuruk, also known as Rajasanagara (1350-1389): during this time, the polity extended its sovereignty over the greater part of the Indonesian archipelago, as well much of the Malay peninsula. §REF§ (Coedès 1968, 239-240) §REF§
Population and political organization
Majapahit's king was assisted by a hierarchy of bureaucrats which reached down to the village level. §REF§ (Kinney 2003, 49) §REF§ Indeed, Majapahit was more centralized than preceding Indonesian polities, collecting revenue and products directly from its peripheries, as opposed to simply receiving them as tribute. §REF§ (Hall in Tarling 1993) §REF§
Majapahit's population has been estimated to around 5 million, §REF§ (Christie 1991, 29) §REF§ , with a capital of about 200,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Miksic 2000, 116) §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",18.0,Central Java,Indonesia,110.403498000000,-6.985678000000,Semarang,JV,Indonesia,Southeast Asia,42,Maritime Southeast Asia,"Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
648,so_majeerteen_sultanate,1750,1926,Majeerteen Sultanate,so_majeerteen_sultanate,POL_AFR_EAST,"The Majeerteen Sultanate was a costal kingdom in the north eastern corner of Somalia. The exact formation date of the Sultanate is unknown with some scholars attesting that it was created in the late seventeenth century, while others acknowledging its origin from the later part of the eighteenth century. The Majeerteen Sultanate was a subgroup of the Darod Clan and had their capital situated at Alula. §REF§ (Njoku 2013, 41-42) Njoku, Raphael C. 2013. The History of Somalia. Santa Barbara: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U9FHBPZF/library §REF§ The Majeerteen Sultanate was a lucrative kingdom with Omani, Egyptian, Yemeni and Arabian trading alliances. §REF§ (Smith 2021, 73) Smith, Nicholas W.S. 2021. Colonial Chaos in the Southern Red Sea: A History of Violence from 1830 to the Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/K6HVJ7X4/collection §REF§ In 1839, the Majeerteen Sultan, Isman Mahamud, entered into a British trade agreement which also guaranteed safe passage for British ships and crew members who sometimes shipwrecked in the Sultanate’s waters. §REF§ (Lewis 2002, 38) Lewis, Ioan M. 2002. A Modern History of the Somali: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/UQWUPZBM/collection §REF§ Due to the Sultanates subordination to the British crown, the Sultan was able to maintain his kingdom’s freedom up until the later part of the nineteenth century. §REF§ (Njoku 2013, 41-42) Njoku, Raphael C. 2013. The History of Somalia. Santa Barbara: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U9FHBPZF/library §REF§
The decline of the Sultanate centred on a civil war between Sultan Isman Mahamud and his cousin Yusuf Ali. With the help of foreign fighters, Yusuf Ali was able to take control of some Majeerteen territory and created a new Sultanate called Hobyo. During the final years of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the Majeerteen and Hobyo Sultanates became under pressure by European colonial powers, particularly Italy. In 1926, Italian colonial forces occupied both kingdoms creating Italian Somaliland. §REF§ (Njoku 2013, 41-42) Njoku, Raphael C. 2013. The History of Somalia. Santa Barbara: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U9FHBPZF/library §REF§
No information on population sizes were found in the consulted sources.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
212,SdMakur1,568,618,Makuria Kingdom I,sd_makuria_k_1,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
215,SdMakur2,619,849,Makuria Kingdom II,sd_makuria_k_2,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
219,SdMakur3,850,1099,Makuria Kingdom III,sd_makuria_k_3,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
235,SoIfatS,1270,1415,Malacca Sultanate,my_malacca_sultanate_22222,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,42,Maritime Southeast Asia,"Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
383,MySultM,1396,1511,Malacca Sultanate,my_malacca_sultanate,LEGACY,,,,,2024-11-06T13:26:05.977658Z,"{'id': 107, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,42,Maritime Southeast Asia,"Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
229,MlMali*,1230,1410,Mali Empire,ml_mali_emp,LEGACY,"After the gradual decline of the Ghana Empire, the power vacuum left in the Sudanese region was filled with several smaller successor states, including the Sosso Kingdom. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 33) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ In the early 13th century CE, several Malinke chiefdoms from the Upper Niger region united against the Sosso and slowly aggregated into what would become the Mali Empire. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 31) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ This polity, also known as the Mandingo Empire, §REF§ (Diop 1987, 93) Cheikh Anta Diop. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa, translated by Harold Salemson. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books. §REF§ was the largest of the West African empires, and flourished from the early 13th to the late 14th/early 15th century, at which point it started to decline. §REF§ (MacDonald et al. 2011, 52) K. C. MacDonald, S. Camara, S. Canós, N. Gestrich, and D. Keita. 2011. 'Sorotomo: A Forgotten Malian Capital?' Archaeology International 13: 52-64. http://doi.org/10.5334/ai.1315. §REF§ §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 592) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The apogee of the Mali Empire corresponds to the reign of Musa I of the Keita dynasty, the mansa (emperor) who reigned over 24 cities and their surrounding territories from 1312 to 1337. §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 45) David C. Conrad. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§ His empire extended from the Atlantic to Gao and the Niger Inland Delta, and from the southern Sahara to the tropical forest belt. §REF§ (Diop 1987, 93) Cheikh Anta Diop. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa, translated by Harold Salemson. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books. §REF§ Musa I is also famed for his patronage of Islam in Mali and for his lavish distribution of gold when he set off on a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1325. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 148) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§
Population and political organization
The kings of the Keita dynasty sat at the apex of a confederation incorporating smaller kingdoms such as Ghana and Mema. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 158-60) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ At its height, the empire comprised 12 provinces made up of smaller, village-centred clan units. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 161) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The mansa (emperor) was thus a 'chief of chiefs', assuming the mantle of a supreme patriarch, and he could dispense justice personally. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 160) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ He received advice from the griot, chosen from the Kouyate clan, who was also his spokesman and the tutor of princes. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 160) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§
The aristocracy formed around the Malinke warrior class, §REF§ (Niane 1975, 36) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle. Paris: Présence africaine. §REF§ including an elite corps of cavalry. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 162) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The empire maintained a strong army, with garrisons stationed in the main towns. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 164) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The merchant class, known as Dyula or Wangara, §REF§ (Davidson 1998, 42) Basil Davidson. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era: A History to 1850. Routledge: London. §REF§ formed settlements at the margins of the forest regions, such Kankan in modern-day Guinea, Bobo Dioulasso in modern Ivory Coast, and Begho in modern Ghana. §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 64) Roland Anthony Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. Medieval Africa, 1250-1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
The cities of Mali were cosmopolitan, inhabited by people of every occupation and from every province of the empire, §REF§ (Niane 1984, 145) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ and prospering from their participation in Trans-Saharan trade networks and the export of gold, ivory, salt and slaves. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 42) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ Their characteristic mudbrick architecture, known as banco, can still be admired today. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 150) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ This distinctive architectural style is one of many signs of Mali's legacy in the region, as its language, laws and customs spread through West Africa. In the 15th century, however, a long period of gradual decline began. Timbuktu was captured by the Tuareg in 1433, §REF§ (Ly-Tall 1984, 174) Madina Ly-Tall. 1984. 'The decline of the Mali empire' in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century edited by D. T. Niane, 172-86. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ and a few decades of internal political struggles made it difficult for the emperors to maintain control over such a large region, leading to the contraction of the empire's territory. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 46) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File. §REF§
The empire was densely populated, with a reported 400 towns in the region and a compact net of villages near the trading city of Jenné. §REF§ (Niane 1984, 156) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1984. 'Mali and the Second Mandingo expansion', in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century edited by D. T. Niane, 117-71. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ When the Andalusi diplomat Leo Africanus visited Niani in the 16th century, he described a thriving city of 'six thousand hearths'. §REF§ (Davidson 1998, 43) Basil Davidson. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era: A History to 1850. Routledge: London. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",6.0,Niger Inland Delta,Sahel,-3.041703000000,16.717549000000,Timbuctu,ML,Mali,Africa,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
611,si_mane_emp,1550,1650,Mane,si_mane_emp,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
886,in_maratha_emp,1674,1818,Maratha Empire,in_maratha_emp,OTHER_TAG,,Maratha Empire,,2024-07-03T12:12:32.126375Z,2024-07-03T12:12:32.126388Z,,,,,,,,,,,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
776,mw_maravi_emp,1622,1870,Maravi Empire,mw_maravi_emp,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,6,Southern Africa,"Namibia, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique and south","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
233,MaMarinid,1269,1465,Marinid Dynasty,ma_marinid_dyn,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,3,Maghreb,From Morocco to Libya,"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
51,IdMatrm,1568,1755,Mataram Sultanate,id_mataram_k,LEGACY,"Mataram started out as a vassal to the kingdom of Pajang—itself one of a number of short-lived polities that emerged from the disintegration of the Demak Sultanate—and gradually established itself as the dominant polity in central Java between the end of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth centuries. §REF§ (Ooi 2004 864-866) §REF§ The polity's heyday coincided with the rule of Agung Hanyokrokusumo (1613-1645), whose marriage alliances and military campaigns resulted in the polity's greatest territorial expansion, annexing the Sultanate of Cirebon in the West and the kingdoms of Surabaya and Blambangan in the East. §REF§ (Achmad & Nurcholis 2016, 41) §REF§ Mataram went in decline shortly after Hanyokrokusumo's death, succumbing to the Dutch East India Company in the first half of the eighteenth century. §REF§ (Ooi 2004 864-866) §REF§
Population and political organization
The Sultan governed with the assistance of a number of functionaries, though the exact hierarchy of these functionaries remains unclear, as does their relationship to the bureaucratic systems in the polity's administrative subdivisions, particularly its powerful trading centers on the coast. §REF§ (Schrieke 1957, 190-207) §REF§ It is worth noting, however, that Hanyokrokusumo enacted a sweeping reform of the judiciary system meant to integrate Islamic law into traditional customs. §REF§ (Achmad & Nurcholis 2016) §REF§
No demographic estimates have been found in the specialist literature, with the exception of Reid's §REF§ (Reid in Tarling 1993, 463) §REF§ conjecture that the polity's population density corresponded to about thirty people per squared kilometer.",,,,2024-11-13T14:21:20.474606Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",18.0,Central Java,Indonesia,110.403498000000,-6.985678000000,Semarang,JV,Indonesia,Southeast Asia,42,Maritime Southeast Asia,"Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
393,InMaukh,550,605,Maukhari Dynasty,in_maukhari_dyn,LEGACY,,,,,2023-11-14T13:44:32.334926Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
209,MaKgMau,-125,44,Mauretania,ma_mauretania,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,5,Sahel,"Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Chad (Arid)","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
48,IdMedng,732,1019,Medang Kingdom,id_medang_k,LEGACY,"The Medang, or Mataram, Kingdom, is the first well-attested Hindu-Buddhist kingdom in central Java. In 732 CE, in an inscription written in Sanskrit, a local ruler called Sanjaya made the 'first definite claim to kingship' known from the region. §REF§ (Reid 2015, 36) Reid, Anthony. 2015. A History of Southeast Asia: Critical Crossroads. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RF6M65Q8. §REF§ Over the next few centuries, his successors would extend their influence over areas suitable for irrigated rice agriculture in upland central Java. The Medang Kingdom is famous for its large-scale sacred construction projects, such as the Buddhist pilgrimage site of Borobudur (a series of ascending stone terraces decorated with stone reliefs and topped with stupas) and Prambanan, a Hindu temple complex. §REF§ (Hall 2010, 135) Hall, Kenneth R. 2010. A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100-1500. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZMR59WPU. §REF§
A long-standing debate about dynastic succession in late 1st-millennium CE central Java is still unresolved, §REF§ John Miksic 2016, personal communication. §REF§ showing that there are still many gaps in our understanding of the kingdom. Some scholars hold that there were two competing dynasties, the Buddhist Sailendras and the Shaivite descendants of King Sanjaya, while others believe that the rulers mentioned in inscriptions were two branches of the same family. In the early 10th century CE, the centre of royal power shifted from the high volcanic plains of central Java to the east of the island, signalling the increased importance of maritime trade to the polity. §REF§ (Hall 2010, 137) Hall, Kenneth R. 2010. A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100-1500. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZMR59WPU. §REF§
Population and political organization
King Sanjaya and his successors drew their legitimacy from Indic religious concepts, sometimes devoting themselves to Hindu deities (especially Shiva) and sometimes favouring Buddhist practices. §REF§ (Klokke 2008, 155) Klokke, Marijke I. 2008. “The Buddhist Temples of the Śailendra Dynasty in Central Java.” Arts Asiatiques, no. 63: 154-67. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JJGM87CV. §REF§ §REF§ (Sundberg 2003, 176) Sundberg, Jeffrey Roger. 2003. “A Buddhist Mantra Recovered from the Ratu Baka Plateau: A Preliminary Study of Its Implications for Sailendra-Era Java.” Bijdragen Tot de Taal-, Land- En Volkenkunde 159 (1): 163-88. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D8NSQ36W. §REF§ They gathered courtly entourages about them and drew their wealth from the taxation of rice and other goods and the use of corvée labour. §REF§ (Hall 1992, 206-08) Hall, Kenneth R. 1992. “Economic History of Early Southeast Asia.” In The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to C. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 183-275. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/87P3WM2E. §REF§ Local lords, known as rakrayan, and temple foundations could be granted the right to collect taxes from the population within a given parcel of land: these sima tax-grants were a useful way for the Medang kings to reward and ensure loyalty. §REF§ (Zakharov 2012, 86) Zakharov, Anton O. 2012. “Epigraphy, Political History, and Collective Action in Ancient Java.” In Connecting Empires and States: Selected Papers from the 13th International Conference of the European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, edited by Mai Lin Tjoa-Bonatz, Andreas Reinecke, and Dominik Bonatz, 82-89. Singapore: NUS Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HAW7WMKC. §REF§ §REF§ (van Naerssen 1977, 53) Naerssen, F. H. van. 1977. “The Economic and Administrative History of Early Indonesia.” In The Economic and Administrative History of Early Indonesia, by F. H. van Naerssen and R. C. de Iongh, 1-84. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/I7TSZH8T. §REF§
Secure population estimates for the Medang Kingdom are lacking, but in the early 11th century CE, the East Javanese settlements of Cane, Patakan and Baru each had populations of over 1000 people. §REF§ (Wisseman Christie 1991, 28-29) Wisseman Christie, Jan. 1991. “States without Cities: Demographic Trends in Early Java.” Indonesia 52: 23-40. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D57DW4VN. §REF§ The demographer Peter McDonald believes the population of the island as a whole in the 14th century could have been as high as five million. §REF§ (McDonald 1980, cited in Wisseman Christie 1991, 29) Wisseman Christie, Jan. 1991. “States without Cities: Demographic Trends in Early Java.” Indonesia 52: 23-40. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D57DW4VN. §REF§ Evidence from Javanese inscriptions suggests that by this time, the population levels of East Javanese states had been rising ‘fairly consistently’ since the early 10th century. §REF§ (Wisseman Christie 1991, 34) Wisseman Christie, Jan. 1991. “States without Cities: Demographic Trends in Early Java.” Indonesia 52: 23-40. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/D57DW4VN. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",18.0,Central Java,Indonesia,110.403498000000,-6.985678000000,Semarang,JV,Indonesia,Southeast Asia,42,Maritime Southeast Asia,"Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
345,IrMedes,-715,-550,Median Persian Empire,ir_median_emp,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
647,er_medri_bahri,1310,1889,Medri Bahri,er_medri_bahri,POL_AFR_EAST,"Medri Bahri was an Eritrean Kingdom established in the early fourteenth century. The capital of Medri Bahri was Deba-ruba also known as Dibarwa. Medri Bahri was ruled by the Bahri Negassi who was elected by the people of Medri Bahri. §REF§ (Cliffe and Basil 1988, 12-13) Cliffe, Lionel and Basil, Davidson. 1988. The Long Struggle of Eritrea for Independence and Constructive Peace. Trenton, New Jersey: The Red Sea Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZBEU6QM6/collection §REF§ According to Mordecai Abir’s history of Ethiopia and the Red Sea, Medri Bahri was a vassal state to the larger Ethiopian Kingdom. §REF§ (Abir 2008, 544). Abir, Mordechai. 2008. ‘Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa’. In The Cambridge History of Africa c. 1600 – c.1790. Edited by Richard Grey. Vol 4. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Abir/titleCreatorYear/items/JHH9VH96/item-list §REF§ In the late 19th century, Medri Bahri was occupied by Italy. §REF§ (Cervenka 1977, 38) Cervenka, Zdenek. 1977. ‘Eritrea: Struggle for Self-Determination or Succession?’. Africa Spectrum. Vol 12:1. Pp 37-48. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/A5UBT4ZQ/collection §REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
204,Meroe,-600,-300,Meroe,sd_meroe,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
909,iq_middle_assyrian_emp,-1365,-912,Middle Assyrian Empire,iq_middle_assyrian_emp,OTHER_TAG,,,,2024-10-16T10:13:01.940681Z,2024-10-16T10:13:01.940699Z,,,,,,,,,,,62,Mesopotamia,"Iraq, Kuwait","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
161,TrBrzMD,-2000,-1700,Middle Bronze Age in Central Anatolia,tr_central_anatolia_mba,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",11.0,Konya Plain,Anatolia-Caucasus,32.521164000000,37.877845000000,Konya,TR,Turkey,Southwest Asia,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
9,MxFormM,-800,-401,Middle Formative Basin of Mexico,mx_basin_of_mexico_4,LEGACY,"The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Middle Formative period (c. 800-401 BCE). This period was characterised by increasingly widespread and elaborate public architecture, more distinctive regional pottery styles, more extensive greenstone trade, and an increased use of stone for symbolic expression. Together, these trends suggest that elites across Mesoamerica were broadening the ways they expressed their power, and shaping the emergence of new forms of regional and community interactions in the process. §REF§ (Pool 2012: 181) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6. §REF§
Sanders et al. (1979) tentatively estimated that there were approximately 25,000 people in the Basin of Mexico around 650 BC. §REF§ Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Robert S. Santley. (1979) The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization. Academic Press, New York, pg. 183. §REF§ However, no estimates could be found for the population of the average autonomous political unit. The largest known settlement, Chalcatzingo, may have had a population of between 3,000 and 5,000. §REF§ (Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to G. Nazzaro and E. Cioni) §REF§
Settlement hierarchies either maintained or increased the number of levels. §REF§ (Pool 2012: 181) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KISGMGK6. §REF§
",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",27.0,Basin of Mexico,Mexico,-99.130000000000,19.430000000000,Ciudad de Mexico,MX,Mexico,North America,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
55,PaCocl2,700,1000,Middle Greater Coclé,pa_cocle_2,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,21,Caribbean,"Caribbean islands, Panama, coastal Columbia-Venezuela","{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}"
306,FrMervM,543,687,Middle Merovingian,fr_merovingian_emp_2,LEGACY,"During our second Merovingian period (543-687 CE), the kingdom was still a 'quasi-polity', consisting of numerous Frankish kingdoms under the nominal leadership of a king who had his primary residence in Paris. §REF§ (Wood 1994, 41) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35. §REF§ Under the kings Chlothar II (r. 584-629 CE) and Dagobert I (r. 629-639 CE), the Merovingian kingdom reached the height of its power both internally and externally. §REF§ (Wood 1994, 140) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35. §REF§ §REF§ (Morby and Rozier 2014) Morby, John E., and Charlie Rozier. 2014. Dynasties of the World. 2nd ed., online edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/acref/9780191780073.001.0001. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3C5IVS6E. §REF§
Population and political organization
Merovingian France was a largely decentralized kingdom based on the pre-existing Roman administrative system, in which cities were the basic units. §REF§ (Loseby 1998, 245-49) Loseby, S. T. 1998. “Gregory’s Cities: Urban Functions in Sixth-Century Gaul.” In Franks and Alamanni in the Merovingian Period: An Ethnographic Perspective, edited by I. N. Wood, 239-69. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DT5E5GNS. §REF§ The city rulers, known as counts or grafio, who sent the king his tax revenue and carried out judicial and administrative functions, had access to both administrative officials and city archives (gesta municipalia). §REF§ (Wood 1994, 204) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35. §REF§ §REF§ (Loseby 1998, 245-49) Loseby, S. T. 1998. “Gregory’s Cities: Urban Functions in Sixth-Century Gaul.” In Franks and Alamanni in the Merovingian Period: An Ethnographic Perspective, edited by I. N. Wood, 239-69. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DT5E5GNS. §REF§ Groups of cities and counts could be placed under a duke for military and administrative purposes. §REF§ (Bachrach 1972, 67) Bachrach, Bernard S. 1972. Merovingian Military Organization 481-751. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SG5XNFPG. §REF§
In contrast, there was no elaborate central administration, the highest non-royal official being a figure known as the mayor of the palace. §REF§ (Halsall 2003, 28) Halsall, Guy. 2003. Warfare and Society in the Barbarian West, 450-900. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z5EZBP2R. §REF§ The king's capital and main residence was at Paris, where the population may have reached 30,000 by the 8th century CE, §REF§ (Clark and Henneman, Jr. 1995, 1316) Clark, William W., and John Bell Henneman, Jr. 1995. “Paris.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1314-30. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HS8644XK. §REF§ although the court was always a peripatetic institution. §REF§ (Wood 1994, 150-53) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35. §REF§ The king consulted a group of magnates (obtimates) at an annual gathering around 1 March. Written references to royal edicts are known from 614 CE onwards, but earlier royal legislation has not survived. §REF§ (Fouracre 1998, 286-89) Fouracre, P. J. 1998. “The Nature of Frankish Political Institutions in the Seventh Century.” In Franks and Alamanni in the Merovingian Period: An Ethnographic Perspective, edited by Ian Wood, 285-316. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GT2AINW4. §REF§ Merovingian kings had the authority to appoint dukes and counts as well as bishops, who were often 'royal servants with no known connections with their sees'. §REF§ (Wood 1994, 78) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35. §REF§
From 622 CE onwards the basic territorial divisions of the Merovingian Kingdom were Neustria (centred on the Seine and Oise rivers and associated with the Pactus Legis Salicae law code), §REF§ (Wood 1994, 112-15) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35. §REF§ Burgundy (where the Liber Constitutionum was developed), and Austrasia (by the Rhine and Meuse, which came to possess its own mayor of the palace §REF§ (Fanning 1995, 157) Fanning, Steven. 1995. “Austrasia.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 156-57. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR2MKFDX. §REF§ and followed the Lex Ribvaria). §REF§ (Wood 1994, 112-15) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35. §REF§ A fourth area, Aquitaine, had a special status due to its distance from the royal centres and was under less direct Merovingian control. §REF§ (Wood 1994, 100, 146) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",2.0,Paris Basin,Western Europe,2.312458000000,48.866111000000,Paris,FR,France,Europe,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
15,MxPostM,1200,1426,Middle Postclassic Basin of Mexico,mx_basin_of_mexico_10,LEGACY,"The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Middle Postclassic (c. 1200-1426 CE). By this time, Tula no longer held sway over the region, and had been replaced by several city-states (altepetl). Documents written much later record the dynastic histories and conflicts between these city-states; toward the very end of this period, they came to form growing confederations, paving the way for the Aztec empire. §REF§ (Evans 2012: 123-124) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X. §REF§ Major centres such as Azcapotzalco, Texcoco, or Cholula likely had between 20,000 and 30,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to E. Cioni and G. Nazzaro) §REF§ Each altepetl was ruled by a king (tlatoani) and a council of nobles. §REF§ (Smith and Sergheraert 2012: 449) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",27.0,Basin of Mexico,Mexico,-99.130000000000,19.430000000000,Ciudad de Mexico,MX,Mexico,North America,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
183,ItRomMR,-264,-133,Middle Roman Republic,it_roman_rep_2,LEGACY,"The last of the Roman kings, the tyrannical Lucius Tarquinius Superbus ('the Arrogant'), was expelled by a revolt of some of the leading Roman aristocrats in 509 BCE. Vowing never again to allow a single person to amass so much authority, the revolutionaries established in place of the monarchy a republican system of governance, featuring a senate composed of aristocratic men and a series of elected political and military officials. The Roman Republic was a remarkably stable and successful polity, lasting from 509 BCE until it was transformed into an imperial state under Augustus in 31 BCE (though the exact date is debated, as this was not a formal transformation). We divide the Republic into an early (509-264 BCE), a middle (264-133 BCE), and a late (133-31 BCE) period.
During the 3rd century BCE, Rome fought two separate wars (264-241 BCE and 218-201 BCE) against the Punic people, inhabitants of a former Phoenician colony in North Africa, Sicily, and southern Spain. The latter conflict featured a bitter contest against the famous Punic general Hannibal, who nearly defeated the Romans on his dramatic march through Italy from 218 to 216 BCE. However, Rome recovered, won control of Punic holdings in Sicily and Spain, and established what were essentially vassal kingdoms in North Africa. In the early 2nd century BCE, Rome became embroiled in another series of wars in Greece, Macedonia, and Anatolia. The 3rd and 2nd centuries were a somewhat chaotic time in the eastern Mediterranean, following the fragmentation of Alexander the Great's Macedonian Empire after his death in 323 BCE. Alexander's Empire had essentially dissolved into a series of successor states, which engaged in near-constant warfare in their attempts to expand at the others' expense. §REF§ (Eckstein 2006, chapter 4) Arthur M. Eckstein. 2006. Mediterranean Anarchy, Interstate War, and the Rise of Rome. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ By 148 BCE, at the conclusion of the fourth and final Macedonian War, Rome was either in possession of or was firmly established as hegemon over the entire Mediterranean basin, from Spain in the west to Anatolia in the east, and France in the north to Libya and Egypt in the south. This position brought new territory along with a flood of new peoples, culture, and wealth from the ancient civilizations in Greece, Egypt, and Anatolia. By the end of the Middle Republic period, Rome was virtually unchallenged by external enemies, although this newfound wealth and power was accompanied by the period of internal turmoil that characterized the Late Republic.
Population and political organization
Rome during the Republican period possessed no written constitution, but was governed largely through the power and prestige of the Senate, with a clear respect for precedent and for maintaining Rome's traditions. §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 31) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican ""Constitution""', in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ A primary goal of the early Republic was to establish clear checks on the power of any single ruler - the military office of chief commander was in fact split between two generals (consuls), while the chief priestly and legislative posts were split among different people (individuals were restricted from holding multiple offices at once) - and popular assemblies voted on new laws.
Romans of this period did not distinguish between what is today termed 'secular' and 'sacred' authority; although individual magistracies had distinct functions, the same person often held both religious and political offices over the course of their lifetime, as they were thought to be part of essentially the same sphere of governance. The Republic featured a substantial array of religious offices and institutions intended to determine the will of the gods or to please them through the proper performance of rituals and the maintenance of large public temples. §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 37) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican ""Constitution""', in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ These public auspices were the basis of magisterial power in the Republic. §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 37) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican ""Constitution""', in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Auspices were sometimes taken by consuls and other officials, for example before important military engagements, §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 37) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican ""Constitution""', in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ but were mainly managed by specialist elected priests and full-time priestesses (such as the Vestal Virgins) and other priestly offices supported by the state. §REF§ (Culham 2004, 131) Phyllis Culham. 2004. 'Women in the Roman Republic, in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 139-59. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
The Middle Roman Republic saw many firsts in Rome's economic development. The first paved road was the likely the military road to Capua known as the Appian Way, commissioned around 312 BCE. The first Roman coins (large cast bronze coins) appear around 270 BCE, followed by struck bronze and silver coins imitating Greek forms. §REF§ (von Reden 2010, 50) Sitta von Reden. 2010. Money in Classical Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Crawford 1974, 6-11) Michael H. Crawford. 1974. Roman Republican Coinage. 2 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ This period also saw a further population increase in the total population of Roman-controlled Italy to between about three and five million people, with Rome itself likely supporting over 200,000 people by the end of the 3rd century BCE. §REF§ (Scheidel 2008) Walter Scheidel. 2008. 'Roman Population Size: The Logic of the Debate', in People, Land, and Politics: Demographic Developments and the Transformation of Roman Italy, 300 BC-AD 14, edited by L. de Ligt and S. J. Northwood, 17-70. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",1.0,Latium,Southern Europe,12.486948000000,41.890407000000,Rome,IT,Italy,Europe,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
216,MrWagdM,700,1077,Middle Wagadu Empire,mr_wagadu_2,LEGACY,"The Kingdom of Ghana was the first documented empire of West Africa. Its dominant people, a northern Mande group known as the Soninke, called it 'Wagadu', §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 23) David C. Conrad. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§ and Berber traders from the Sahara referred to it as 'Awkar'. §REF§ (Davidson 1998, 26) Basil Davidson. 1998. West Africa before the Colonial Era. London: Routledge. §REF§ Spreading east and north from the Senegal River into modern-day Mauritania and Mali, §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 19) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ this polity started growing as a confederation from the 6th century CE. §REF§ Susan K. McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh. n.d. 'Jenne-jeno, an ancient African city'. Available online at http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500.) §REF§ From the 8th century onwards, geographers from North Africa and Spain such as Ibn Hawqal began to document the existence of Ghana in Arabic texts, fantasizing about its gold and resources. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 11) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ The polity reached its peak in the mid-11th century: §REF§ (Davidson 1998, 34) Basil Davidson. 1998. West Africa before the Colonial Era. London: Routledge. §REF§ §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 33) David C. Conrad. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§ at this stage, its influence spread over Awdaghust (or Aoudaghost) in the Sahara §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 32-33) David C. Conrad. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§ and it encroached on the Niger Inland Delta. §REF§ (Niane 1975, n.p.) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle. Paris: Présence africaine. §REF§ §REF§ (Simonis 2010, 36) Francis Simonis. 2010. L'Afrique soudanaise au Moyen Age: Le temps des grands empires (Ghana, Mali, Songhaï). Aix-Marseille: CRDP de l'Académie d'Aix-Marseille. §REF§
Population and political organization
The Wagadu empire comprised four provinces administered by a central government. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 18) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ The king exerted direct authority over his kingdom; he was also head of the traditional religion and was revered as a god. §REF§ (Niane 1975, 32) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle. Paris: Présence africaine. §REF§ Wagadu society was highly hierarchical, distinguishing between the elite warrior class and the rest of the population: professional artisans including smiths, weavers, dyers and shoemakers; farmers and herders; and slaves. §REF§ (Niane 1975, 32) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle. Paris: Présence africaine. §REF§ These groups were further subdivided along clan lines. §REF§ (Niane 1975, 33) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle. Paris: Présence africaine. §REF§
This period was a prosperous one for the Sudanese region, which produced millet, maize, yam, groundnuts, cotton, indigo and other crops. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 589-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Linked into a thriving exchange sphere that stretched north to North Africa and the Mediterranean, §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 589-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ the Sudanese population exported gold, slaves, hides, and ivory and imported copper, silver beads, dried fruit and cloth. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 589-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ All exports and imports were taxed by the centralized state. §REF§ (Niane 1975, 33) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle. Paris: Présence africaine. §REF§ Trading outposts in Awdhagust and other Saharan towns facilitated fruitful exchange with Berbers and other groups from further afield. §REF§ (Meideros 1980, 160) Francois de Meideros. 1980. 'Les peuples du Soudan: Mouvements de populations', in Histoire Générale de l'Afrique, Vol. 3: L'Afrique du VIIe au XIe siècle, edited by M. El Fasi, 143-64. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§
Population estimates are difficult to obtain for ancient Ghana. However, it is worth noting that its capital, the thriving trading city of Kumbi Saleh, covered 250 hectares and had a population of 15,000-20,000 people at its peak. §REF§ (Reader 1998, 280) John Reader. 1998. Africa: A Biography of the Continent. London: Penguin Books. §REF§ Archaeological investigations at the site have revealed two-storey stone buildings which may have contained stores on the ground floor, narrow streets with densely packed houses, a mosque, and extensive cemeteries. §REF§ (Reader 1998, 280) John Reader. 1998. Africa: A Biography of the Continent. London: Penguin Books. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",6.0,Niger Inland Delta,Sahel,-3.041703000000,16.717549000000,Timbuctu,ML,Mali,Africa,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
615,ni_nok_2,-900,0,Middle and Late Nok,ni_nok_2,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
612,ni_nok_1,-1500,-901,Middle and Late Nok,ni_nok_1,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
343,SyMitan,-1475,-1275,Mitanni Kingdom,sy_mitanni_k,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,61,Levant,"Israel/Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
748,fr_france_modern_1,1871,1940,Modern France I,fr_france_modern_1,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
52,PaMonag,-3000,-1300,Monagrillo,pa_monagrillo,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,21,Caribbean,"Caribbean islands, Panama, coastal Columbia-Venezuela","{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}"
267,MnMngKh,1206,1270,Mongol Empire,mn_mongol_emp,LEGACY,"The Mongols began as one of a group of nomadic tribes living on the Central Asian Steppe. Temujin or Temuchin (later called Chinggis Khan) became Khan (king), united the different Mongol families and incorporated other tribes such as the Tatars into the 'Mongols'. He was acknowledged as the leader of all the Central Asian tribes in 1206 CE. With this force he moved out of the Steppe in search of new territory. First, the Mongols attacked northern China between 1211 and 1215 CE. In 1218 they moved west into Iran, attacking the main cities of the region. They attacked southern Russia in 1240 and the German lands in 1241. The empire did not expand any further into Europe, but turned its attention back to China and the Middle East. Khubilai Khan moved into southern China; Hulegu captured Baghdad and destroyed the Abbasid caliphate. This represented the height of the Empire in terms of territory and achievement. Indeed, so vast was this empire that the Mongols split it into four regions under four Khans: the Golden Horde in Russia, the Chagatai Khanate in Central Asia, the Great Yuan in China and the Ilkhanate in Iran and Iraq, c. 1300. Over time this became independent dynasties and states. §REF§ Hugh Kennedy,'Mongols or Moghuls' in The Oxford Companion to Military History eds. Richard Holmes, Charles Singleton, and Dr Spencer Jones (Oxford University Press, 2001). §REF§ The Mongols were able to mobilise large numbers of troops for their armies. All adult males under 60 were eligible for mass mobilization. All were required to provide their own horses and equipment. This meant that even though Mongol soldiers may not have been the best troops in terms of ability or equipment, they had advantages of size and discipline over their opponents. This was strengthened by Chinggis Khan reforms which introduced a decimal system of organising the army - diving up troops up into units from ten to 10, 000. §REF§ Findley, Carter V., The Turks in World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005),p.83. §REF§",,,,2025-01-29T13:42:29.577626Z,"{'id': 141, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",24.0,Orkhon Valley,Mongolia,102.845486000000,47.200757000000,Karakorum,MN,Mongolia,Central Eurasia,9,Mongolia,"Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
739,mn_mongolia_peoples_rep,1920,1992,Mongolian People's Republic,mn_mongolia_peoples_rep,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,9,Mongolia,"Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
63,GrCrMPa,-1450,-1300,Monopalatial Crete,gr_crete_mono_palace,LEGACY,"Crete is a large island in the Eastern Mediterranean. Here we consider the phase of its history best known as the Monopalatial Era. This period began following the destruction of many Minoan sites around 1450, due either to natural catastrophes or human agency §REF§ (Driessen and Macdonald 1997, 106-109) Jan Driessen. and Colin F. Macdonald. 1997. The Troubled Island. Minoan Crete Before and After the Santorini Eruption. Liège: Université de Liège, Histoire de l'art et archéologie de la Grèce antique; Austin: University of Texas at Austin, Program in Aegean Scripts and Prehistory §REF§ §REF§ (Christakis 2008, 144-146) Kostis S. Christakis. 2008. The Politics of Storage. Storage and Sociopolitical Complexity in Neopalatial Crete. Philadelphia, Pa.: INSTAP Academic Press. §REF§ , and it ended with the destruction of Knossos §REF§ (Popham 1994, 89-102) Mervyn Popham. 1994. ‘Late Minoan II to the end of the Bronze Age,’ in Knossos: A Labyrinth of History, edited by Don Evely, Helen Hughes-Brock, and Nicoletta Momigliano. British School at Athens; Oxford: Oxbow. §REF§ Throughout this period, Knossos was the main political, administrative and economic centre of the island: analyses of both textual and archaeological data shows that Knossos controlled a series of second-order (e.g. Kydonia and Phaistos) and third-order (e.g. Tylissos) centers §REF§ (Bennet 1988, 19-42) John Bennet. 1988. ‘Outside in the distance: problems in understanding the economic geography of Mycenaean palatial territories,’ in Text, Tablets and Scribes. Studies in Mycenaean Epigraphy and Economy Offered to Emmett L. Bennett, Jr., edited by Jean-Pierre Olivier and Thomas G. Palaima. Salamanca: Ediciones Universidad. §REF§ §REF§ (Bennet 1990, 193-211) John Bennet. 1990. ‘Knossos in context: comparative perspectives on the Linear B administration of LM II-III Crete’. American Journal of Archaeology 94:193-211. §REF§ . However, a resurgence of elite display at second-order sites, starting in 1370, suggests a possible power shift in the final decades of this era, and the decline of Knossian influence over the island §REF§ (Preston 2008, 316-317) Laura Preston. 2008. ‘Late Minoan II to IIIB Crete,’ in The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age, edited by Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ .
Population and Political Organization
The supreme leader of the state was the king, known as wanax §REF§ (Shelmerdine 2008, 292-295) Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. 2008. ‘12: Mycenaean states. 12A: Economy and administration,’ in The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age, edited by Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ He presided over the political, economic and religious hierarchy. It is not certain, however, whether he had any military or judicial duties. Ranked second was the lawagetas, a military leader. §REF§ (Nikoloudis, 587-594) S. Nikoloudis. 2008. ‘The role of the ra-wa-ke-ta: insights from PY Un718,’ in Colloquium Romanum: Atti del XII Colloquio Internazionale di Micenologia. Roma 20-15 febbraio 2006, edited by A. Sacconi, M. del Freo, L. Godart, and M. Negri. Rome. §REF§ Below these leaders were the hequetai, followers, who accompanied military contingents and may also performed other functions. Other officials, the so-called collectors, were involved in acquiring and distributing exchange commodities. Among the figures at a lower level were the qasireu who served as overseer of group of workers -the predecessor of the word known from ancient Greek as the word for the king (baseless) - the telestas , officials, the korete and porokorete, mayor and vice-mayor, and scribes §REF§ K. Christakis, pers. comm., 2016 §REF§ .
Firth estimates that, at this time, Crete numbered 110,000 inhabitants §REF§ (Firth 1995, 33-55) R.J. Firth. 1995. ‘Estimating the population of Crete during LM IIIA/B’. Minos 29-30: 33-55. §REF§ .",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",4.0,Crete,Southeastern Europe,25.144200000000,35.338700000000,Heraklion,GR,Greece,Europe,19,Southeastern Europe,"Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
527,MxAlb2*,-100,200,Monte Alban II,mx_monte_alban_2,LEGACY,"The Monte Albán II period runs from 100 to 200 CE. The Zapotec state, which had formed in the previous (Late I) phase, §REF§ (Spencer and Redmond 2003) Charles S. Spencer and Elsa M. Redmond. 2003. 'Militarism, Resistance, and Early State Development in Oaxaca, Mexico'. Social Evolution & History 2 (1): 25-70. §REF§ §REF§ (Spencer and Redmond 2004) Charles S. Spencer and Elsa M. Redmond. 2004. 'Primary State Formation in Mesoamerica'. Annual Review of Anthropology 33: 173-99. §REF§ was now fully established with the capital at Monte Albán. The Zapotecs extended their territory further during this period, to include the rest of the Valley of Oaxaca as well as territories much further afield (including Miahuatlán, Cuicatlán, Tututepec, Ocelotepec, Chiltepec and the Sola Valley). §REF§ (Balkansky 1998, 462) A. K. Balkansky. 1998. 'Origin and Collapse of Complex Societies in Oaxaca, Mexico: Evaluating the Era from 1965 to the Present'. Journal of World Prehistory 12 (4): 451-93. §REF§ §REF§ (Balkansky 2002, 50) A. K. Balkansky. 2002. The Sola Valley and the Monte Albán State: A Study of Zapotec Imperial Expansion. Prehistory and Human Ecology of the Valley of Oaxaca, Volume 12. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology. §REF§ The place names recorded in the 'conquest slabs' at Monte Albán can still be identified in some cases (as they are still called by those names) and may indicate that the territorial limits of the Zapotec state during this period were around 85-150 kilometres from Monte Albán. §REF§ (Marcus and Flannery 1996, 197) Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery. 1996. Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§
Population and political organization
The first evidence for 'rulers', identified in hieroglyphic inscriptions, comes from this period, and the earliest ruler's portrait dates to around 100 CE. Nobles were also ritual specialists and officiated human sacrifices. §REF§ (Joyce 2009, 144-45) Arthur A. Joyce. 2009. Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico. Malden, MA: Wiley‐Blackwell. §REF§
Evidence for conquests includes the burning of conquered settlements, the presence of Zapotec material culture and propaganda (including a skull rack displaying the heads of conquered people) and references to defeated areas carved on the 'conquest slabs' displayed in Building J on the Main Plaza of Monte Albán. §REF§ (Spencer and Redmond 2003, 28) Charles S. Spencer and Elsa M. Redmond. 2003. 'Militarism, Resistance, and Early State Development in Oaxaca, Mexico'. Social Evolution & History 2 (1): 25-70. §REF§ Monumental construction flourished during this period, with standardized temples, palaces and ball courts built around the paved Main Plaza at Monte Albán. Secondary sites, such as San José Mogote, imitated the constructions at Monte Albán with similar (although smaller) temples and central plazas. §REF§ (Balkansky 1998, 462-63) A. K. Balkansky. 1998. 'Origin and Collapse of Complex Societies in Oaxaca, Mexico: Evaluating the Era from 1965 to the Present'. Journal of World Prehistory 12 (4): 451-93. §REF§
The Valley of Oaxaca Settlement Pattern Project estimates a decline in population by up to 32% (from roughly 50,000) during this period, based on the abandonment or shrinkage of some settlements (even though this was in part due to the nucleation of the population at larger centres such as Monte Albán). §REF§ (Blanton et al. 1979, 379) Richard E. Blanton, Jill Appel, Laura Finsten, Steve Kowalewski, Gary Feinman and Eva Fisch. 1979. 'Regional Evolution in the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico'. Journal of Field Archaeology 6 (4): 369-90. §REF§ Archaeologists Joyce Marcus and Kent Flannery, however, suggest that this perceived decrease in population is partly due to the very high estimates given by the Settlement Pattern Project for the previous phase. §REF§ (Marcus and Flannery 1996, 172-73) Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery. 1996. Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",26.0,Valley of Oaxaca,Mexico,-96.761022000000,17.041135000000,Monte Alban,OAX,Mexico,North America,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
528,MxAlb3A,200,500,Monte Alban III,mx_monte_alban_3_a,LEGACY,"The Monte Albán IIIA phase (200-500 CE) is generally regarded as the 'golden age' or Classic period of the Zapotec state, §REF§ (Balkansky 1998, 472) A. K. Balkansky. 1998. 'Origin and Collapse of Complex Societies in Oaxaca, Mexico: Evaluating the Era from 1965 to the Present'. Journal of World Prehistory 12 (4): 451-93. §REF§ due to the widespread uniformity of ceramics and monumental construction as well as increased economic and political integration, centred at Monte Albán. §REF§ (Flannery and Marcus 1983, 127-28) Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery. 1983. 'The Early Urban Period: Editors' Introduction', in The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations, edited by Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery, 127-28. New York: Academic Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Blanton et al. 1982, 85, 88-9) Richard E. Blanton, R. E., et al. 1982. Monte Albán's Hinterland, Part 1: The Prehispanic Settlement Patterns of the Central and Southern Parts of the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico. Prehistory and Human Ecology of the Valley of Oaxaca, Vol. 7. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology. §REF§ The population of the capital, Monte Albán, continued to grow and the construction of monumental buildings at the site reached its peak. These buildings dominate what can be seen at the ruins of Monte Albán today. §REF§ (Balkansky 1998, 473) A. K. Balkansky. 1998. 'Origin and Collapse of Complex Societies in Oaxaca, Mexico: Evaluating the Era from 1965 to the Present'. Journal of World Prehistory 12 (4): 451-93. §REF§ §REF§ (Flannery and Marcus 1983, 127-28) Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery. 1983. 'The Early Urban Period: Editors' Introduction', in The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations, edited by Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery, 127-28. New York: Academic Press. §REF§ Additional settlements were established in the piedmont area (including Jalieza with 13,000 inhabitants in the southern sub-valley and Dainzú-Macuilxochitl-Tlacochahuaya-Guadalupe [DMTG] with 12,000 inhabitants in the eastern sub-valley). §REF§ (Balkansky 1998, 473) A. K. Balkansky. 1998. 'Origin and Collapse of Complex Societies in Oaxaca, Mexico: Evaluating the Era from 1965 to the Present'. Journal of World Prehistory 12 (4): 451-93. §REF§ §REF§ (Feinman et al. 1985, 351) Gary M. Feinman, Stephen A. Kowalewski, Laura Finsten, Richard E. Blanton and Linda Nicholas. 1985. 'Long-Term Demographic Change: A Perspective from the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico'. Journal of Field Archaeology 12 (3): 333-62. §REF§ The movement of people into the piedmont areas may imply an increase in demand for agricultural labour during this period. §REF§ (Blanton et al. 1982, 91) Richard E. Blanton, R. E., et al. 1982. Monte Albán's Hinterland, Part 1: The Prehispanic Settlement Patterns of the Central and Southern Parts of the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico. Prehistory and Human Ecology of the Valley of Oaxaca, Vol. 7. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology. §REF§ The territorial extent of the Zapotec state, on the other hand, decreased during this period in the face of increasingly powerful competitors on the borders of the state. Previously subordinate areas, such as the Sola Valley, became independent of the Zapotec state. §REF§ (Balkansky 1998, 474) A. K. Balkansky. 1998. 'Origin and Collapse of Complex Societies in Oaxaca, Mexico: Evaluating the Era from 1965 to the Present'. Journal of World Prehistory 12 (4): 451-93. §REF§ §REF§ (Spencer 1982, 254) Charles S. Spencer. 1982. The Cuicatlán Cañada and Monte Albán: A Study of Primary State Formation. New York: Academic Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Balkansky 2002, 51) A. K. Balkansky. 2002. The Sola Valley and The Monte Albán State: A Study of Zapotec Imperial Expansion. Prehistory and Human Ecology of The Valley Of Oaxaca, Vol. 12. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology. §REF§
Population and political organization
Five named rulers are known for this 400-year period, identified in public monuments in the vicinity of the Main Plaza of Monte Albán. §REF§ (Blanton et al. 1999, 128) Richard E. Blanton, Gary M. Feinman, Stephen A. Kowalewski and Linda M. Nicholas. 1999. Ancient Oaxaca. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Status appears to have been inherited and related to one's proximity to apical ancestors. §REF§ (Joyce 2009, 215-17) Arthur A. Joyce. 2009. Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico. Malden, MA: Wiley‐Blackwell. §REF§ Burial remains and the differences in construction of residential buildings suggest two class-endogamous strata during this period, with the majority of the population (an estimated 96-98 percent) belonging to the commoner class. §REF§ (Flannery 1983, 136) Kent V. Flannery. 1983. 'The Legacy of the Early Urban Period: An Ethnohistoric Approach to Monte Albán's Temples, Residences, and Royal Tombs', in The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations, edited by Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery, 132-36. New York: Academic Press. §REF§ The Zapotecs focused on internal consolidation: an increasing proportion of settlements were in defensible locations or had fortifications, and there was agricultural intensification in the piedmont and high alluvium zones. §REF§ (Marcus and Flannery 1996, 228-29) Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery. 1996. Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ There was also a pattern of settlement clustering around the main centres, similar to the pattern shown in the Monte Albán Late I phase (300-100 BCE), except the clustering occurred around secondary centres as well as around the primary centre, Monte Albán. §REF§ (Blanton et al. 1979, 382) Richard E. Blanton, Jill Appel, Laura Finsten, Steve Kowalewski, Gary Feinman and Eva Fisch. 1979. 'Regional Evolution in the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico'. Journal of Field Archaeology 6 (4): 369-90. §REF§
Archaeologists Joyce Marcus and Kent Flannery estimate the population of the valley to have been around 115,000 people during this period. §REF§ (Marcus and Flannery 1996, 224) Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery. 1996. Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ A population range of 15,000-30,000 for Monte Albán is based on the estimated number of people living in each of the households at the site. Larger households may have included 10-20 people, while 5-10 may have lived in the smaller households, although this may be an underestimate. §REF§ (Flannery and Marcus 1983, 128) Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery. 1983. 'The Early Urban Period: Editors' Introduction', in The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations, edited by Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery, 127-28. New York: Academic Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",26.0,Valley of Oaxaca,Mexico,-96.761022000000,17.041135000000,Monte Alban,OAX,Mexico,North America,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
529,MxAlb3B,500,900,Monte Alban IIIB and IV,mx_monte_alban_3_b_4,LEGACY,"General description
During the Monte Alban IIIB and IV periods (500-900 CE) in the Valley of Oaxaca Monte Alban and the capital of the neighbouring state, Teotihuacaln declined, with public buildings no longer being maintained and the population of the capitals declining. A mixture of internal and external reasons for this decline are suggested, and has been summed up by Flannery and Marcus: ‘...without the ever-present competitive threat of Teotihuacan, there was one less reason to support what already had become a maladaptive concentration of population on an unproductive 400-m mountaintop.’ §REF§ (Flannery & Marcus 1983, 183) Flannery, Kent and Marcus, Joyce. 1983. The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations. Museum of Anthropology. New York: Academic Press. p.183https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/CNG67KKA §REF§ Unfortunately, detailed chronological data from this period is not present as the ceramic sequences of the IIIB and IV phases are very difficult to differentiate and radiocarbon dates have yet to refine the sequence. §REF§ (Flannery & Marcus 1983, 184) Flannery, Kent and Marcus, Joyce. 1983. The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations. Museum of Anthropology. New York: Academic Press. p.184 https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/CNG67KKA §REF§ The IIIb and IV phases have therefore been combined as one phase on this page. During this phase the population which had previously occupied the capital dispersed into smaller settlements throughout the valley and the valley became occupied by a series of militaristic ‘city states, §REF§ (Flannery & Marcus 1983, 184) Flannery, Kent and Marcus, Joyce. 1983. The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations. Museum of Anthropology. New York: Academic Press. p.184https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/CNG67KKA §REF§ which lasted until the arrival of the Spanish in the 1520s. §REF§ (Flannery & Marcus 1976, 376) Flannery, Kent V. and Joyce. Marcus. 1976. ‘Formative Oaxaca and Zapotec Cosmos.’ American Scientist 64(4): 374-383. p.376 https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/QKPEF5Q8 §REF§
Population and political organization
As the Zapotec state was in a process of fragmentation into smaller polities, the actual extent of any polity in the Valley of Oaxaca is very difficult to determine for this period. §REF§ (Marcus & Flannery 1996) Marcus, Kent and Flannery, Joyce. 1996. Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Thames and Hudson. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/SHF4S8D7 §REF§ §REF§ (Flannery & Marcus 1983) Flannery, Kent and Marcus, Joyce. 1983. The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations. Museum of Anthropology. New York: Academic Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/CNG67KKA §REF§ Although the polity was politically fragmented, nobles continued to occupy hereditary positions of power, which were legitimated through their relationship with their ancestors. §REF§ (Joyce 2009, 198) Joyce, A.A. 2009. 'Peoples of America: Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico'. Hoboken, GB: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 198. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/JPXCWSSG §REF§ Nobles continued to have control over and exclusive access to resources and exercised rights not available to commoners “Members of ruling houses, for example, had the right to engage in warfare, take captives, play the ballgame, and offer human sacrifices.” §REF§ (Joyce 2009, 215-217) Joyce, A.A. 2009. Peoples of America : Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico. Hoboken, GB: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 215-217 https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/JPXCWSSG §REF§
The overall population of the valley grew during this period, although people were no longer unified under one polity. §REF§ (Flannery & Marcus 1983) Flannery, Kent and Marcus, Joyce. 1983. The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations. Museum of Anthropology. New York: Academic Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/CNG67KKA.</ §REF§ The population of the whole valley has been estimated at 90,000-200,000 people. §REF§ (Kowalewski et al. 1989) Kowalewski, S. A., Feiman, G.M., Finsten, L., Blanton, R. E. and Nicholas, L. M. 1989. Monte Albán’s Hinterland, Part II: The Prehispanic Settlement Patterns in Tlacoula, Etla and Ocotlán, the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/F76EVNU3/itemKey/JH54I6Q3 §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",26.0,Valley of Oaxaca,Mexico,-96.761022000000,17.041135000000,Monte Alban,OAX,Mexico,North America,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
526,MxAlb1L,-300,-100,Monte Alban Late I,mx_monte_alban_1_late,LEGACY,"The Monte Albán Late I period ran from 300 to 100 BCE. Archaeologists Charles Spencer and Elsa Redmond argue that the Zapotecs had formed a state by the beginning of this period (around 300 BCE). §REF§ (Spencer and Redmond 2004, 176) Charles S. Spencer and Elsa M. Redmond. 2004. 'Primary State Formation in Mesoamerica'. Annual Review of Anthropology 33: 173-99. §REF§ The Zapotec polity based at Monte Albán started to expand to areas outside the valley at the beginning of this period, but could not yet control all areas within the Valley of Oaxaca. §REF§ (Redmond and Spencer 2013, E1707-15) Elsa M. Redmond and Charles S. Spencer. 2013. 'Early (300-100 BC) Temple Precinct in the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico'. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110 (19): E1707-15. §REF§ It is thought that the unification of the whole valley by the Zapotec state did not occur until the following period (Monte Albán II). §REF§ (Spencer and Redmond 2004, 176) Charles S. Spencer and Elsa M. Redmond. 2004. 'Primary State Formation in Mesoamerica'. Annual Review of Anthropology 33: 173-99. §REF§
Population and political organization
There is evidence of an elite during this period. However, the nature of government is still unclear, as is the relationship between elites and non-elites. §REF§ (Blanton et al. 1999, 127-28) Richard E. Blanton, Gary M. Feinman, Stephen A. Kowalewski and Linda M. Nicholas. 1999. Ancient Oaxaca. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Richard Blanton et al. summarize the situation: 'Obviously, powerful authorities at Monte Albán could collect taxes, wage wars, engage in diplomacy, erect carved stone monuments, construct public buildings, manage urban problems, appropriate surpluses from producer households, and adjudicate disputes. But who were these authorities and how did they come to positions of power? Were there rulers or a governing council?' §REF§ (Blanton et al. 1999, 127-28) Richard E. Blanton, Gary M. Feinman, Stephen A. Kowalewski and Linda M. Nicholas. 1999. Ancient Oaxaca. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
Violent conflicts were rife, and one third of the population of the valley eventually moved to fortified or defensible settlements by the end of Monte Albán I (including Monte Albán itself, which had a three-kilometre defensive wall and was built on a defensible hill top). §REF§ (Marcus and Flannery 1996, 150) Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery. 1996. Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ The danzantes, or carved images of captives, date to the first Monte Albán phases (MA Early-Late I) and may be linked with the expansionist policies and propaganda of Zapotec leaders. It is also worth noting that the richest burials date to this period and, like the danzantes, may be linked with an expression and justification of power by Zapotec elites. §REF§ (Flannery and Marcus 1983, 90) Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery. 1983. 'The Earliest Public Buildings, Tombs, and Monuments at Monte Albán, with Notes on the Internal Chronology of Period I', in The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations, edited by Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery, 87-91. New York: Academic Press. §REF§
The population of the Zapotec polity grew during this period, particularly at Monte Albán, which housed around 17,000 people, and many new settlements were established within a roughly 30-kilometre radius of Monte Albán. §REF§ (Marcus and Flannery 1996, 139, 145) Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery. 1996. Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ This was part of a general trend of population nucleation during this period, particularly to sites with civic-ceremonial functions. §REF§ (Feinman et al. 1985, 349) Gary M. Feinman, Stephen A. Kowalewski, Laura Finsten, Richard E. Blanton and Linda Nicholas. 1985. 'Long-Term Demographic Change: A Perspective from the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico'. Journal of Field Archaeology 12 (3): 333-62. §REF§ The entire population of the Valley of Oaxaca during the Monte Albán IC phase has been estimated at around 50,000, §REF§ (Marcus and Flannery 1996, 144-45) Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery. 1996. Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ although it is not clear whether the entire valley was under Zapotec control at this time. §REF§ (Marcus and Flannery 1996, 162) Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery. 1996. Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",26.0,Valley of Oaxaca,Mexico,-96.761022000000,17.041135000000,Monte Alban,OAX,Mexico,North America,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
532,MxAlb5*,900,1520,Monte Alban V,mx_monte_alban_5,LEGACY,"The Monte Alban V period is generally known for the balkianisation of polities in the valley. §REF§ Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. p217 §REF§ The length assigned to the Monte Albán V phase is due to the consistency of ceramic style throughout the period, and lack of evidence for major changes in other archaeological remains. There may have been many changes over these centuries, but it has been argued that the conservatism of ceramics suggests a time of relative political stability. §REF§ Blanton, Kowalewski, Feinman, Appel (1982) Monte Alban’s Hinterland, Part I: The Prehispanic settlement patterns of the Central and Southern Parts of the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico. Prehistory and human ecology of the Valley of Oaxaca, Vol. 7. p115 §REF§ The primary evidence for this period comes from the accounts written by the Spanish after they arrived in the 1520s. This means that there is much more information than previous periods for certain aspects of life for the inhabitants of Oaxaca, such as the name for the head of the ruling class (the coquitao or “great lord”) and full-time priests (bigaña), §REF§ Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1976). ""Formative Oaxaca and Zapotec Cosmos."" American Scientist 64(4): 374-383, p376 §REF§ but less information in other respects as there were no longer any monumental buildings or large settlements being constructed. The unified valley under the Zapotec state had gone by this period, replaced by around 15-20 smaller polities §REF§ Blanton, R. E., et al. (1979). ""Regional evolution in the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico."" Journal of Field Archaeology 6(4): 369-390. p385 §REF§ §REF§ Feinman, G. M., et al. (1985). ""Long-term demographic change: A perspective from the valley of Oaxaca, Mexico."" Journal of Field Archaeology 12(3): 333-362. p359-61 §REF§ which were often fighting one another (as suggested by the widespread use of fortifications and descriptions in the ethnohistoric records), §REF§ Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People. New York. p217 §REF§ but the overall population of the valley continued to increase to the highest number yet reached in the valley. §REF§ Blanton, R. E., et al. (1979). ""Regional evolution in the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico."" Journal of Field Archaeology 6(4): 369-390. p385 §REF§ In addition, craft work and specialisation became more widespread, with more finely decorated ceramics being produced throughout the valley and were not just concentrated in the main settlements as before. §REF§ Blanton, R. E., et al. (1979). ""Regional evolution in the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico."" Journal of Field Archaeology 6(4): 369-390. p387 §REF§",,,,2023-10-30T18:02:32.638474Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",26.0,Valley of Oaxaca,Mexico,-96.761022000000,17.041135000000,Monte Alban,OAX,Mexico,North America,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
530,MxAlbEP,900,1099,Monte Alban V Early Postclassic,mx_monte_alban_5_a,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
531,MxAlbLP,1101,1520,Monte Alban V Late Postclassic,mx_monte_alban_5_b,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
620,bf_mossi_k_1,1100,1897,Mossi,bf_mossi_k_1,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
691,Mubari,1700,1896,Mubari,rw_mubari_k,POL_AFR_EAST,,,,,2025-01-23T15:38:44.113852Z,"{'id': 133, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
98,InMugl*,1526,1858,Mughal Empire,in_mughal_emp,LEGACY,"The Mughal Empire was one of the largest centralized states in premodern world history. By the late 1600s, it covered most of the Indian subcontinent. The empire was founded by Babur (reigned 1526-1530 CE), who had invaded northern India from central Asia. He defeated the Delhi sultan at Panipat and occupied Delhi and Agra before moving on to Bengal. His grandson, Abu Akbar ('the Great') consolidated Mughal rule in the north through a series of military campaigns, notable for their use of field artillery. Akbar was also a great administrator, establishing a system of salaried civil and military office holding, combined with efficient taxation. Revenue was collected on the basis of land assessments, administered by local tax farmers, and the system served to integrate both Hindu and Muslim elites into the state. This period saw a flourishing of Indo-Muslim culture, particularly in the fields of painting and architecture. Economically, India was the centre of mercantile activity within the Indian Ocean; its manufactured goods, especially cotton textiles, were in huge demand. The reign of Shah Jahan (1628-1658 CE) is seen as the high point of Mughal culture, represented above all by the construction of the Taj Mahal. His son Aurangzeb (reigned 1658-1707) was more aggressive military and eventually incorporated most of India into the empire, at least formally. The state was run on increasingly military lines and was more assertively Muslim. After Aurangzeb's death the empire began to disintegrate, encouraged by infighting and corruption among elites. The Mughals had lost much of their territory and power by the mid-18th century. The Marathas, a dynasty of Hindu warriors, became the dominant force in India during the 1700s, followed by the British in the early 19th century. Delhi was taken by the armies of the East India Company in 1803, but the Mughals carried on as rulers of Delhi until 1857. Following the Indian Rebellion, the British exiled the last king, Bahadur Shah II, who had given the rebels his support. §REF§ (Richards 1995, 1-5) John F. Richards. 1995. The Mughal Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
The two main branches of the Mughal empire were dedicated to revenue and military affairs. The emperor, seen as a divinely inspired patriarch, supervised his revenue and military officials through frequent travelling, and curbed their political ambitions by transferring them frequently, requiring them to attend court regularly, and assigning them responsibilities that cross-cut those of other officials. §REF§ (Blake 1979) Stephen Blake. 1979. 'The Patrimonial-Bureaucratic Empire of the Mughals'. The Journal of Asian Studies 39 (1): 77-94. §REF§
At its peak, in the late 1600s, the Mughal Empire comprised between 100 and 150 million inhabitants. §REF§ (Richards 1995, 1, 190) John F. Richards. 1995. The Mughal Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§",,,,2024-07-19T07:49:13.286974Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",13.0,Kachi Plain,Indo-Gangetic Plain,67.628836000000,29.377664000000,Mehrgarh,PK,Pakistan,South Asia,64,North India,"Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
626,zi_mutapa,1450,1880,Mutapa,zi_mutapa,POL_AFR_SA,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,6,Southern Africa,"Namibia, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique and south","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
348,JoNabat,-312,106,Nabataean Kingdom,jo_nabataean_k,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,61,Levant,"Israel/Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
376,CnNanzh,800,900,Nanzhao Kingdom,cn_nanzhao_k,LEGACY,,,,,2024-01-24T10:08:29.173410Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,41,Mainland Southeast Asia,"Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
566,fr_france_napoleonic,1816,1870,Napoleonic France,fr_france_napoleonic,LEGACY,"
This period incorporates the following polities in France:
:Bourbon Restoration II: 1815-1830
:Kingdom of France: 1830-1848
:Second French Republic: 1848-1852
:Second French Empire: 1852-1870
The Bourbon Restoration followed the defeat of Napoleon I, and later the loss of the empire territories that he had gained during his reign. The rule of the House of Bourbon lasted until 1830 – though with an interruption from 20th March – 8th July 1815 during the Hundred Days War, when the French monarchy returned briefly to power.
By 1830 France had suffered a considerable economic downturn and Charles X, already an unpopular and conservative king, was facing backlash. In July 1830 wealthy liberal groups began speaking publicly against the king, which was followed by riots in Paris. As a result, the king abdicated on 30th July 1830, followed immediately by his son, and the Chamber of Deputies declared Louis-Phillipe, from the House of Orleans, as ‘King of the French’. The period is also known as the July Monarchy.
Though originally a popular king, Louis-Phillipe’s government was not, and amidst the worsening economy and deteriorating conditions of the working class, the French Revolution of 1848 broke out. Louise-Phillipe was overthrown and the Second French Republic was established. In November 1848 military leader Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte was elected as President.
Bonaparte emulated the rule of his uncle, Napoleon Bonaparte I, and the First French Empire. As President of the Republic, he staged a coup d’etat in 1851, dissolved the National Assembly and made himself Emperor, and initiated the Second French Empire.
During Napolean III’s rule, French overseas territories almost tripled.
The polity period – and the Second French Empire - ends in 1870 after a defeat at the hands of Prussia, Bonaparte’s capture, and an uprising in Paris which led to the Third French Republic.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
511,EgNaqa1,-3800,-3550,Naqada I,eg_naqada_1,LEGACY,"The Naqada is a Predynastic archaeological culture located in Upper Egypt, the strip of land flanking the Nile river south of the Faiyum region and north of the First Cataract. Named after the site where British archaeologist Flinders Petrie uncovered a necropolis of over 3000 graves in the late 19th century, §REF§ (Midant-Reynes 2000, 41) Béatrix Midant-Reynes. 2000. 'The Naqada Period (c. 4000-3200 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 41-56. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ the Naqada culture is dated from around 3800 to 3100 BCE. §REF§ (Dee et al. 2013, 5) Michael Dee, David Wengrow, Andrew Shortland, Alice Stevenson, Fiona Brock, Linus Girdland Flink and Christopher Bronk Ramsey. 2013. 'An Absolute Chronology for Early Egypt Using Radiocarbon Dating and Bayesian Statistical Modelling'. Proceedings of the Royal Society A 469 (2159). DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2013.0395. §REF§ The Naqada has been subdivided into three periods ‒ the Amratian, Gerzean, and Semainean ‒ as well as, more recently, into Naqada IA-C, IIA-D, and IIIA-D. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 424) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. Journal of Archaeological Research 24: 421-68. §REF§ §REF§ (Dee et al. 2013, 2) Michael Dee, David Wengrow, Andrew Shortland, Alice Stevenson, Fiona Brock, Linus Girdland Flink and Christopher Bronk Ramsey. 2013. 'An Absolute Chronology for Early Egypt Using Radiocarbon Dating and Bayesian Statistical Modelling'. Proceedings of the Royal Society A 469 (2159). DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2013.0395. §REF§ Seshat's 'Naqada 1' (3800-3550 BCE) corresponds to the Naqada IA-IIB phases; Naqada 2 (3550-3300 BCE) to IIC-IID; and Naqada 3 (3300-3100 BCE) to IIIA-IIIB. We end Naqada 3 with the IIIB-C transition, because the First Dynasty of the Egyptian state is considered to begin with the accession of King Aha in Naqada IIIC. §REF§ (Dee et al. 2013, 2) Michael Dee, David Wengrow, Andrew Shortland, Alice Stevenson, Fiona Brock, Linus Girdland Flink and Christopher Bronk Ramsey. 2013. 'An Absolute Chronology for Early Egypt Using Radiocarbon Dating and Bayesian Statistical Modelling'. Proceedings of the Royal Society A 469 (2159). DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2013.0395. §REF§ Naqada III is also sometimes referred to as the Protodynastic period or 'Dynasty 0'.
Early Naqada archaeological material is clustered around the key sites of Naqada itself, Abydos, and Hierakonpolis (ancient Nekhen) in the fertile land nestled around the 'Qena bend' of the Nile. §REF§ (Bard 1994, 267) Kathryn A. Bard. 1994. 'The Egyptian Predynastic: A Review of the Evidence'. Journal of Field Archaeology 21 (3): 265-88. §REF§ However, from the late Naqada II onwards, there is an archaeologically visible expansion of the culture both southwards along the Nile and northwards into Lower Egypt (the Delta), eventually reaching as far north as the Levant in Naqada IIIA-B. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 442-43) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. Journal of Archaeological Research 24: 421-68. §REF§
Population and Political Organization
The 4th millennium BCE was a crucial period for Egyptian state formation. Prior to roughly 3800 BCE, Upper Egypt was inhabited by seasonally mobile farmers and herders, constituting an archaeological culture known as the Badarian. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 422, 428-29) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. Journal of Archaeological Research 24: 421-68. §REF§ However, the Naqada periods brought a series of key social transformations to the region, including increasing inequality, a greater commitment to sedentary settlement and cereal farming, the emergence of full-time craft specialists, and, towards the end of the millennium, the invention of writing. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 431-32, 434) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. Journal of Archaeological Research 24: 421-68. §REF§ §REF§ (Hendrickx 2011, 93) Stan Hendrickx. 2011. 'Crafts and Craft Specialization', in Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization, edited by Emily Teeter, 93-98. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ §REF§ (Wengrow 2011, 99) David Wengrow. 2011. 'The Invention of Writing in Egypt', in Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization, edited by Emily Teeter, 99-103. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ The growth of hierarchical social structures and the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt laid the foundations for the divine kings and complex bureaucracy of the Old Kingdom and beyond.
During Naqada I, new forms of political organization appeared ‒ relatively swiftly compared to other prehistoric cultures ‒ in the upper Nile Valley. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 431-32) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. Journal of Archaeological Research 24: 421-68. §REF§ According to the Egyptologist Branislav Anđelković, previously autonomous agricultural villages began to band together to form 'chiefdoms' or 'proto-nomes' between Naqada IA and IB (a 'nome' was an administrative division in the later Egyptian state). §REF§ (Anđelković 2011, 28) Branislav Anđelković. 2011. 'Political Organization of Egypt in the Predynastic Period', in Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization, edited by Emily Teeter, 25-32. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ In Naqada IC, even larger political entities ‒ 'nome pre-states' ‒ started to form, centred on Naqada, Abydos and Hierakonpolis. It has been suggested that a 'primitive chiefdom' centred around a 'royal' authority based at Hierakonpolis, had formed by around 3700 BCE. §REF§ (García 2013, 187-88) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the Third Millennium BCE', in Experiencing Power, Generating Authority: Cosmos, Politics, and the Ideology of Kingship in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, edited by Jane A. Hill, Philip Jones, and Antonio J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§ Not all researchers agree with this terminology, believing that it creates the impression of an inexorable march towards state formation, and some prefer to stress the fragile and experimental nature of early complex social formations in Upper Egypt. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 422, 427) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. Journal of Archaeological Research 24: 421-68. §REF§ However, the term chiefdom remains in common usage as a label for the new ranked societies of the early 4th millennium. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 422) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. Journal of Archaeological Research 24: 421-68. §REF§ §REF§ (Bard 2017, 2) Kathryn A. Bard. 2017. 'Political Economies of Predynastic Egypt and the Formation of the Early State'. Journal of Archaeological Research 25: 1-36. §REF§ §REF§ (Koehler 2010, 32) E. Christiana Koehler. 2010. 'Prehistory', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 25-47. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ In the Naqada II period, 'proto-states' formed, and by the Naqada III we can speak of kings and a centralized government ruling over a unified Upper and Lower Egypt. §REF§ (Anđelković 2011, 29-30) Branislav Anđelković. 2011. 'Political Organization of Egypt in the Predynastic Period', in Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization, edited by Emily Teeter, 25-32. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§
We lack firm figures for the population of Egypt during the Naqada. At the beginning of the period, most inhabitants of Upper Egypt were living in small villages. §REF§ (Anđelković 2011, 28) Branislav Anđelković. 2011. 'Political Organization of Egypt in the Predynastic Period', in Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization, edited by Emily Teeter, 25-32. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ However, as the 4th millennium progressed, archaeologists can discern a process of urbanization and aggregation into larger political units. The largest known settlement, Hierakonpolis, grew into a regional centre of power in the 3800‒3500 BCE period §REF§ (Friedman 2011, 34) Renée Friedman. 2011. 'Hierakonpolis', in Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization, edited by Emily Teeter, 33-44. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ and may have reached a population of between 5,000 and 10,000 people in the late Naqada I. §REF§ (Hoffman, Hamroush and Allen 1986, 181) Michael Allen Hoffman, Hany A. Hamroush and Ralph O. Allen. 1986. 'A Model of Urban Development for the Hierakonpolis Region from Predynastic through Old Kingdom Times'. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 23: 175-87. §REF§ Other researchers consider this figure 'inflated' §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 436) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. Journal of Archaeological Research 24: 421-68. §REF§ and point to recent evidence from the Abydos region for low population numbers throughout the Predynastic period. §REF§ (Patch 2004, 914) Diana Craig Patch. 2004. 'Settlement Patterns and Cultural Change in the Predynastic Period', in Egypt at Its Origins: Studies in Memory of Barbara Adams, edited by S. Hendrickx, R. F. Friedman, K. M. Ciałowicz and M. Chłodnicki, 905-18. Leuven: Uitgeverij Peeters en Departement Oosterse Studies. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",5.0,Upper Egypt,Northeastern Africa,32.714706000000,25.725715000000,Luxor,EG,Egypt,Africa,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
512,EgNaqa2,-3550,-3300,Naqada II,eg_naqada_2,LEGACY,"The Naqada is a Predynastic archaeological culture located in Upper Egypt, the strip of land flanking the Nile river south of the Faiyum region and north of the First Cataract. Named after the site where British archaeologist Flinders Petrie uncovered a necropolis of over 3000 graves in the late 19th century, §REF§ (Midant-Reynes 2000, 41) Béatrix Midant-Reynes. 2000. 'The Naqada Period (c. 4000-3200 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 41-56. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ the Naqada culture is dated from around 3800 to 3100 BCE. §REF§ (Dee et al. 2013, 5) Michael Dee, David Wengrow, Andrew Shortland, Alice Stevenson, Fiona Brock, Linus Girdland Flink and Christopher Bronk Ramsey. 2013. 'An Absolute Chronology for Early Egypt Using Radiocarbon Dating and Bayesian Statistical Modelling'. Proceedings of the Royal Society A 469 (2159). DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2013.0395. §REF§ The Naqada has been subdivided into three periods ‒ the Amratian, Gerzean, and Semainean ‒ as well as, more recently, into Naqada IA-C, IIA-D, and IIIA-D. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 424) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. Journal of Archaeological Research 24: 421-68. §REF§ §REF§ (Dee et al. 2013, 2) Michael Dee, David Wengrow, Andrew Shortland, Alice Stevenson, Fiona Brock, Linus Girdland Flink and Christopher Bronk Ramsey. 2013. 'An Absolute Chronology for Early Egypt Using Radiocarbon Dating and Bayesian Statistical Modelling'. Proceedings of the Royal Society A 469 (2159). DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2013.0395. §REF§ Seshat's 'Naqada 1' (3800-3550 BCE) corresponds to the Naqada IA-IIB phases; Naqada 2 (3550-3300 BCE) to IIC-IID; and Naqada 3 (3300-3100 BCE) to IIIA-IIIB. We end Naqada 3 with the IIIB-C transition, because the First Dynasty of the Egyptian state is considered to begin with the accession of King Aha in Naqada IIIC. §REF§ (Dee et al. 2013, 2) Michael Dee, David Wengrow, Andrew Shortland, Alice Stevenson, Fiona Brock, Linus Girdland Flink and Christopher Bronk Ramsey. 2013. 'An Absolute Chronology for Early Egypt Using Radiocarbon Dating and Bayesian Statistical Modelling'. Proceedings of the Royal Society A 469 (2159). DOI: 10.1098/rspa.2013.0395. §REF§ Naqada III is also sometimes referred to as the Protodynastic period or 'Dynasty 0'.
Early Naqada archaeological material is clustered around the key sites of Naqada itself, Abydos, and Hierakonpolis (ancient Nekhen) in the fertile land nestled around the 'Qena bend' of the Nile. §REF§ (Bard 1994, 267) Kathryn A. Bard. 1994. 'The Egyptian Predynastic: A Review of the Evidence'. Journal of Field Archaeology 21 (3): 265-88. §REF§ However, from the late Naqada II onwards, there is an archaeologically visible expansion of the culture both southwards along the Nile and northwards into Lower Egypt (the Delta), eventually reaching as far north as the Levant in Naqada IIIA-B. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 442-43) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. Journal of Archaeological Research 24: 421-68. §REF§
Population and Political Organization
The 4th millennium BCE was a crucial period for Egyptian state formation. Prior to roughly 3800 BCE, Upper Egypt was inhabited by seasonally mobile farmers and herders, constituting an archaeological culture known as the Badarian. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 422, 428-29) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. Journal of Archaeological Research 24: 421-68. §REF§ However, the Naqada periods brought a series of key social transformations to the region, including increasing inequality, a greater commitment to sedentary settlement and cereal farming, the emergence of full-time craft specialists, and, towards the end of the millennium, the invention of writing. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 431-32, 434) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. Journal of Archaeological Research 24: 421-68. §REF§ §REF§ (Hendrickx 2011, 93) Stan Hendrickx. 2011. 'Crafts and Craft Specialization', in Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization, edited by Emily Teeter, 93-98. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ §REF§ (Wengrow 2011, 99) David Wengrow. 2011. 'The Invention of Writing in Egypt', in Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization, edited by Emily Teeter, 99-103. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ The growth of hierarchical social structures and the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt laid the foundations for the divine kings and complex bureaucracy of the Old Kingdom and beyond.
During Naqada I, new forms of political organization appeared ‒ relatively swiftly compared to other prehistoric cultures ‒ in the upper Nile Valley. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 431-32) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. Journal of Archaeological Research 24: 421-68. §REF§ According to the Egyptologist Branislav Anđelković, previously autonomous agricultural villages began to band together to form 'chiefdoms' or 'proto-nomes' between Naqada IA and IB (a 'nome' was an administrative division in the later Egyptian state). §REF§ (Anđelković 2011, 28) Branislav Anđelković. 2011. 'Political Organization of Egypt in the Predynastic Period', in Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization, edited by Emily Teeter, 25-32. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ In Naqada IC, even larger political entities ‒ 'nome pre-states' ‒ started to form, centred on Naqada, Abydos and Hierakonpolis. It has been suggested that a 'primitive chiefdom' centred around a 'royal' authority based at Hierakonpolis, had formed by around 3700 BCE. §REF§ (García 2013, 187-88) Juan Carlos Moreno García. 2013. 'Building the Pharaonic State: Territory, Elite, and Power in Ancient Egypt during the Third Millennium BCE', in Experiencing Power, Generating Authority: Cosmos, Politics, and the Ideology of Kingship in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, edited by Jane A. Hill, Philip Jones, and Antonio J. Morales, 185-217. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§ Not all researchers agree with this terminology, believing that it creates the impression of an inexorable march towards state formation, and some prefer to stress the fragile and experimental nature of early complex social formations in Upper Egypt. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 422, 427) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. Journal of Archaeological Research 24: 421-68. §REF§ However, the term chiefdom remains in common usage as a label for the new ranked societies of the early 4th millennium. §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 422) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. Journal of Archaeological Research 24: 421-68. §REF§ §REF§ (Bard 2017, 2) Kathryn A. Bard. 2017. 'Political Economies of Predynastic Egypt and the Formation of the Early State'. Journal of Archaeological Research 25: 1-36. §REF§ §REF§ (Koehler 2010, 32) E. Christiana Koehler. 2010. 'Prehistory', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 25-47. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ In the Naqada II period, 'proto-states' formed, and by the Naqada III we can speak of kings and a centralized government ruling over a unified Upper and Lower Egypt. §REF§ (Anđelković 2011, 29-30) Branislav Anđelković. 2011. 'Political Organization of Egypt in the Predynastic Period', in Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization, edited by Emily Teeter, 25-32. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§
We lack firm figures for the population of Egypt during the Naqada. At the beginning of the period, most inhabitants of Upper Egypt were living in small villages. §REF§ (Anđelković 2011, 28) Branislav Anđelković. 2011. 'Political Organization of Egypt in the Predynastic Period', in Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization, edited by Emily Teeter, 25-32. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ However, as the 4th millennium progressed, archaeologists can discern a process of urbanization and aggregation into larger political units. The largest known settlement, Hierakonpolis, grew into a regional centre of power in the 3800‒3500 BCE period §REF§ (Friedman 2011, 34) Renée Friedman. 2011. 'Hierakonpolis', in Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization, edited by Emily Teeter, 33-44. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. §REF§ and may have reached a population of between 5,000 and 10,000 people in the late Naqada I. §REF§ (Hoffman, Hamroush and Allen 1986, 181) Michael Allen Hoffman, Hany A. Hamroush and Ralph O. Allen. 1986. 'A Model of Urban Development for the Hierakonpolis Region from Predynastic through Old Kingdom Times'. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 23: 175-87. §REF§ Other researchers consider this figure 'inflated' §REF§ (Stevenson 2016, 436) Alice Stevenson. 2016. 'The Egyptian Predynastic and State Formation'. Journal of Archaeological Research 24: 421-68. §REF§ and point to recent evidence from the Abydos region for low population numbers throughout the Predynastic period. §REF§ (Patch 2004, 914) Diana Craig Patch. 2004. 'Settlement Patterns and Cultural Change in the Predynastic Period', in Egypt at Its Origins: Studies in Memory of Barbara Adams, edited by S. Hendrickx, R. F. Friedman, K. M. Ciałowicz and M. Chłodnicki, 905-18. Leuven: Uitgeverij Peeters en Departement Oosterse Studies. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",5.0,Upper Egypt,Northeastern Africa,32.714706000000,25.725715000000,Luxor,EG,Egypt,Africa,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
263,JpNara*,710,794,Nara Kingdom,jp_nara,LEGACY,"General description
The Nara period (710-794CE) begins with the creation of a specially built imperial capital, laid out in a 20sq km grid, modelled on T’ang Chinese capital, Ch’ang-an. §REF§ Henshall, Kenneth .2012. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. Palgrave Macmillan. New York. [Third Edition]p.24 §REF§
Japan’s geography, provided some insulation from unwanted incursions from the continent, and allowed the court to exert some control over external political relationships. §REF§ Shively, Donald H. and McCullough, William H. 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 2: Heian Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.83 §REF§ However, during this period Japan was engaged in a vassalage relationship with T'ang China which influenced many aspects of Japanese culture, from city planning to the ‘ideal of imperial rule’. §REF§ Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.453 §REF§ The state used its military prowess to exert control over much of the territory of the archipelago, although the northern and southern extremes remained beyond centralized control. §REF§ Batten, Bruce. 1999, ""Frontiers and Boundaries of Pre-Modern Japan."" Journal of Historical Geography 25(2). pp.167 §REF§
The Peak Date can be considered to run from 781-794CE which has been idealized as ‘when Japanese rulers most closely approached the ideal reigns of the sage-kings of ancient China.' §REF§ Shively, Donald H. and McCullough, William H. 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 2: Heian Japan. Cambridge Histories Online ©Cambridge University Press.pp.1-2 §REF§ Nara period ends with permanent relocation of the capital to Kyoto.
Population and political organization
Imperial rule was direct and legitimised by divine descent. §REF§ Henshall, Kenneth .2012. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. Palgrave Macmillan. New York. [Third Edition]p.25 §REF§ §REF§ Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.221 §REF§
The government continued to strengthen and centralize its rule with administration and legal reforms inspired by the Chinese ritsuryo system. §REF§ Henshall, Kenneth .2012. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. Palgrave Macmillan. New York. [Third Edition]p.24 §REF§ The complex administration was arranged in offices which came into existence at different times, and were solidified in the code of 701 and the Yoro code of 718 §REF§ Brown, Delmer M. 1993. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.232-233 §REF§
Population for this period, as estimated by Farris, ranges from roughly 5 to 7 million. §REF§ Farris, William Wayne. 2006. Japan's Medieval Population: Famine, Fertility, and Warfare in a Transformative Age. University of Hawaii Press.p.8 §REF§ §REF§ Deal, William E. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford University Press.p.89 §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,14,Northeast Asia,"Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
781,BdNawabs,1717,1757,Nawabs of Bengal,bd_nawabs_of_bengal,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,37,Eastern South Asia,"Bangladesh + Indian states of West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and Sikkim","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
705,in_madurai_nayaks,1529,1736,Nayaks of Madurai,in_madurai_nayaks,POL_SA_SI,"The Nayaks of Madurai were rulers of South Tamil Nadu. The Nayaks were originally agents of the Vijayangara Empire but came independent rulers under Visvanatha Nayaka around 1529 CE. The Nayaks of Madurai had their initial capital at Madurai but moved the capital to Tiruchirappalli from 1616 CE – 1634 CE and again from 1665 CE – 1736 CE. §REF§ (Sathyanatha Aiyar 1991, 2-24) Sathyanatha Aiyar, R. 1991. History of the Nayaks of Madura. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databak/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/E2S7TSI5/collection §REF§ §REF§ (Pottamkulam, 2021) Pottamkulam, George Abraham. 2021. Tamilnadu A Journey in Time Part II: People, Places and Potpourri. Chennai: Notion Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/25RBPDP2/collection §REF§ The Nayaks were responsible for temple constructions, particularly under Tirumala Nayaka who was patronized the expansion of the Minaksi-Sundaresvara temple in the capital. The Nayaks of Madurai were Shaivist Hindus and celebrated many religious festivals within their temple complexes. §REF§ (Branfoot 2001, 191-227) Branfoot, Crispin. 2001. ‘Tirumala Nayaka’s ‘New Hall’ and the European Study of the South Indian Temple. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Vol 11:2. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FE5VZ76M/collection §REF§ The Nayaks of Madurai were also lucrative in trade connecting with the Dutch East Indian Company and the Portuguese. §REF§ (Vink 2015, 179-183) Vink, Markus. 2015. Encounters on the Opposite Coast: The Dutch East India Company and the Nayaka State of Madurai in the Seventeenth Century. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/9U7MCK4E/collection §REF§
By the end of the 17th century CE, the Nayaks of Madurai were in decline and by 1736, the Nayaks were succeeded by the Carnatic Sultanate after the suicide of the last Nayak Queen, Minaski. §REF§ (Sathyanatha Aiyar 1991, 1) Sathyanatha Aiyar, R. 1991. History of the Nayaks of Madura. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databak/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/E2S7TSI5/collection §REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
704,in_thanjavur_nayaks,1532,1676,Nayaks of Thanjavur,in_thanjavur_nayaks,POL_SA_SI,"The Nayaks of Thanjavur originally ruled the Tamil Nadu region of Thanjavur on behalf of the Vijayanagara kings. After the decline of the Vijayanagara, the Nayaks of Thanjavur became independent rulers sometime in the 1530s CE. The Nayaks of Thanjavur had their capital in the city of Thanjavur and the major commercial port was at Nagaputtinam. §REF§ (Chakravarthy 2016, 78) Chakravarthy, Pradeep. 2016. ‘Thanjavur’s Sarasvati Muhal Library’ India International Centre Quarterly. Vol. 42:3/4. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/CU6HMURQ/collection §REF§ §REF§ (Chinnaiyan 2005-2006, 457) Chinnaiyan, S. 2005-2006. ‘Tax Structure in Tanjore Kingdom under the Nayaks and Marathas (A.D. 1532- 1799)’ Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 66. Pp 456-459. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/8WJRSDG6/collection §REF§The Nayaks of Thanjavur had valuable trade connections with the Dutch and the British in which they imposed taxes on the import and export of foreign goods. Trade agreements between the Nayaks of Thanjavur and the Dutch and British were recorded on various inscriptions giving insight into the particulars of these arrangements. .” §REF§ (Menon 2001, 303) Menon. A.G. 2001. ‘Copper Plates to Silver Plates: Cholas, Dutch and Buddhism’ In Fruits of Inspiration: Studies in Honour of Prof. J.G. de Caparis. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FU8TFSTT/collection §REF§ §REF§ (Chinnaiyan 2005-2006, 457) Chinnaiyan, S. 2005-2006. ‘Tax Structure in Tanjore Kingdom under the Nayaks and Marathas (A.D. 1532- 1799)’ Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 66. Pp 456-459. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/8WJRSDG6/collection §REF§ The rule of the Nayaks of Thanjavur lasted until the 1670s when the Nayaks of Maduri overthrow the last Thanjavur nayak. The rule over Thanjavur by the Nayaks of Maduri was brief, and they were eventually succeeded by the Maratha rulers. §REF§ (Sorokhaibam 2013, 4-5) Sorokhaibam, Jeenet. 2013. Chhatrapati Shivaji: The Maratha Warrior and his Campaigns. New Delhi: Vij Books India Pvt. Ltd. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/MJ4PW3NS/collection §REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
595,de_third_reich,1933,1945,Nazi Germany,de_ns_germany,LEGACY,,,,,2024-03-12T10:32:12.234847Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
689,Ndorwa,1700,1800,Ndorwa,rw_ndorwa_k,POL_AFR_EAST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
435,CoNahua,250,1050,Neguanje,co_neguanje,LEGACY,"The Nahuange or Neguanje phase of Colombian prehistory lasted from about 250 to 1050 CE, according to Santiago Giraldo and Juana Saenz's recent estimates based on radiocarbon-dated goldwork and complete dated contexts. §REF§ (Giraldo 2015, personal communication) §REF§ Nahuange artefacts and sites have mostly been found along Colombia's Atlantic coast. §REF§ (Bray 2003, 322-3) §REF§
Population and political organization
Most likely, Nahuange communities were organized into numerous small polities. Unfortunately, there is not enough data to determine the exact relationship between these polities (e.g. if some dominated over others), though it is worth noting that individual polities were probably poorly integrated systems, with little centralization. §REF§ (Langebaek 2005, 87) §REF§ Similarly, little is known about Nahuange social hierarchies, §REF§ (Langebaek 2005, 117) §REF§ or, for that matter, about their population numbers. §REF§ (Langebaek 2005, 27) §REF§ §REF§ (Giraldo 2015, personal communication) §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",31.0,North Colombia,Caribbean,-73.640388097900,10.780287182100,Santa Marta,CO,Colombia,South America,21,Caribbean,"Caribbean islands, Panama, coastal Columbia-Venezuela","{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}"
106,IqNAssr,-911,-612,Neo-Assyrian Empire,iq_neo_assyrian_emp,LEGACY,"The Assyrian Empire (911-612 BCE) was a powerful polity that expanded from its heartland in northern Iraq, using the most advanced military technologies of the era: two wheeled chariots, cavalry and an infantry fully converted to iron weapons. §REF§ (Dupuy and Dupuy 2007, 10) R Dupuy. Dupuy. 2007. The Collins Encyclopedia of Military History, 4th Edition, BCA. §REF§ §REF§ (Chadwick 2005, 77) R Chadwick. 2005. First Civilizations: Ancient Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, 2nd Edition, Equinox, London. §REF§
The most important early ruler was Assurnasirpall II (883-859 BCE) who built the capital Kalhu on the east bank of the Tigris. §REF§ (Chadwick 2005, 77) R Chadwick. 2005. First Civilizations: Ancient Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, 2nd Edition, Equinox, London. §REF§ The Assyrian king maintained his presence by establishing “royal cities” with palaces throughout the realm, which he appears to have used on a regular basis. §REF§ (Radler 2014) K Radler. 2014. The Assyrian Empire, c. 900-612 BC. The Emergence of European State Forms in Comparative Perspective - Panel ""Imperial States in Time"". §REF§ The Assyrian capital also changed frequently: the first capital was Ashur (911-859 BCE) and the last was at Ninevah (681-612 BCE). Sharrukin was important between 707-705 BCE.
Despite the constantly moving king and capital the Assyrian government put down literary roots in a state archives §REF§ (Westbrook et al. 2003, 887) R Westbrook. G Beckman. R Jasnow. B Levine. M Roth. 2003. A History of Ancient Near Eastern Law. Volume: 2. Brill. Leiden, Netherlands. §REF§ and perhaps the world’s first organized library was built at Nineveh under Asurbanipal (668-627 BCE). Here scribes copied texts from a 1,000 year old Babylonian literary tradition. These included medical works, mythologies, religious guides and astrology. §REF§ (Davidson 2012, 28) P Davidson. 2012. Atlas of Empires, New Holland, London. §REF§ The high level of sophistication the Assyrian civilization achieved is reflected in ruins of water reservoirs and sewerage systems §REF§ (Mahmoudian and Mahmoudian 2012, 97) A N Angelakis. L W Mays. D Koutsoyiannis. 2012.Evolution of Water Supply Through the Millennia. IWA Publishing. §REF§ , an aqueduct built in Nineveh §REF§ (Chadwick 2005, 83) R Chadwick. 2005. First Civilizations: Ancient Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, 2nd Edition, Equinox, London. §REF§ and ""traditional Mesopotamian mud-brick architecture ... monumental stone sculptures and wall reliefs."" §REF§ (Stearns 2001, 27) P Stearns. 2001. The Encyclopedia of World History. 6th Edition. James Clarke & Co Ltd. Cambridge. §REF§
The Assyrian government was the personal project of the king who appointed all officials at the state, regional and local levels as well as the priesthood. §REF§ (Westbrook et al. 2003, 886-888) R Westbrook. G Beckman. R Jasnow. B Levine. M Roth. 2003. A History of Ancient Near Eastern Law. Volume: 2. Brill. Leiden, Netherlands. §REF§ He was advised by officials called Magnates. §REF§ (Westbrook et al. 2003, 886-888) R Westbrook. G Beckman. R Jasnow. B Levine. M Roth. 2003. A History of Ancient Near Eastern Law. Volume: 2. Brill. Leiden, Netherlands. §REF§ The king's provincial governors also lived in palaces §REF§ (Radler 2014) K Radler. 2014. The Assyrian Empire, c. 900-612 BC. The Emergence of European State Forms in Comparative Perspective - Panel ""Imperial States in Time"". §REF§ and were initially direct relations of the king until the reign of Shalmaneser III (r.859-824 BC) who instead made governors directly appointed eunuchs. §REF§ (Radler 2014) K Radler. 2014. The Assyrian Empire, c. 900-612 BC. The Emergence of European State Forms in Comparative Perspective - Panel ""Imperial States in Time"". §REF§ Historians believe governors had a lot of freedom over the day-to-day running of the regions since letters that have been recovered sent from governors to the king primarily concern unforeseeable problems. §REF§ (Radler 2014) K Radler. 2014. The Assyrian Empire, c. 900-612 BC. The Emergence of European State Forms in Comparative Perspective - Panel ""Imperial States in Time"". §REF§
In the 7th Century population of Mesopotamia reached its height of about 2 million. §REF§ (Stearns 2001, 28) P Stearns. 2001. The Encyclopedia of World History. 6th Edition. James Clarke & Co Ltd. Cambridge. §REF§ At its height, after Egypt was conquered in 671 CE, combined with south-eastern Anatolia, the Levant region and western Iran, the total population of the tribute-paying empire may have reached 7 million people. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 226) Colin McEvedy. Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of World Population History, Allen Lane, London. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",8.0,Southern Mesopotamia,Levant-Mesopotamia,44.420000000000,32.470000000000,Babylon (Hillah),IQ,Iraq,Southwest Asia,62,Mesopotamia,"Iraq, Kuwait","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
346,IqNeoBb,-626,-539,Neo-Babylonian Empire,iq_neo_babylonian_emp,LEGACY,"Babylon was re-populated by the Chaldean people and the rulers reclaimed the title of King of Babylon. While his father Nabopolassar was on the throne, Nebachudrezzar went on campaigns to defeat the Assyrian and Egyptian armies. §REF§ Oates, J. 1986. Babylon. London: Thames & Hudson. p.128-130 §REF§ Having succeeded in creating the Neo-Babylonian empire, he returned to Babylon to be crowned. Nebachudrezzar then undertook a period of building creating some of the most iconic Babylonian architecture. He ruled the Neo-Babylonian empire by enforcing tithes of goods and labour, although some of the most distant Levantine city-states had a deal of autonomy. §REF§ Vanderhooft, D.S. 1999. The Neo-Babylonian Empire and Babylon in the Latter Prophets. Harvard Semitic Museum Monographs 59. p.46 §REF§ So the empire continued for several decades until the reign of Nabonidus, whom is presumed to be unpopular. He left Babylon for ten years to live in the desert. Cyrus of the Achaemenid empire subsequently took over Babylon. Some say he was welcomed to depose Nabonidus, other evidence suggests he destroyed the city. §REF§ Oates, J. 1986. Babylon. London: Thames & Hudson. §REF§
At the height of it's power in the Neo-Babylonian Empire, Babylon was given resources to become the centre of the known world for culture, learning and religion.
The audience of Babylonian documents appears to be the Babylonian nobles and priesthood, therefore, they mostly celebrate building projects. It is thought that the empire had reached it's natural limit within ten years; with the Medians to the north and east, the Egyptians in the south-west and the desert to the south. Therefore, the threatening military literature that pervaded the Neo-Assyrian empire was not needed in the Neo-Babylonian empire. §REF§ Liverani, M. 2011. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge. p.541 §REF§ As a result, less is known about the military capabilities of the Neo-Babylonian empire.
The major historical events do not appear to have significantly impacted the material culture. There is continuity in form and style through the Achaemenian transition. §REF§ Baker, H. D. 2012. The Neo-Babylonian Empire. In Potts, D. T. (ed.) A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East. Volume II. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. p.915 §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",8.0,Southern Mesopotamia,Levant-Mesopotamia,44.420000000000,32.470000000000,Babylon (Hillah),IQ,Iraq,Southwest Asia,62,Mesopotamia,"Iraq, Kuwait","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
165,TrNHitt,-1180,-900,Neo-Hittite Kingdoms,tr_neo_hittite_k,LEGACY,"After Hattusa was destroyed by fire ending the New Kingdom period of the Hittites §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 9) T Bryce. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ elements of the Hittite civilization lingered in peripheral areas of the former kingdom §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 9) T Bryce. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ which included the Konya Plain region. The primary region of the Syro-Hittite kingdoms was however in Syria. The small states lasted for almost 500 years and were culturally and politically prominent from c900 BCE until the last of them fell to the Assyrian king Sargon II between 717-708 BCE. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 9) T Bryce. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ The cultural links between these kingdoms and the Late Bronze Age Hittite Empire can be seen in the iconography and architecture. §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 47) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§
In the 1180-900 BCE post-Empire period the region reorganized into city-states. §REF§ (Thuesen 2002, 43) I Thuesen. 2002. ""The Neo-Hittite City-States"" in Mogens, H H ed. A Comparative Study of Six City-state Cultures: An Investigation, Volume 27. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. §REF§ The earliest written records suggest there was no kind of federation, ""each was entirely independent from the others, each had its own autonomous ruler."" §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 52) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ The label 'Neo-Hittite' applies to 15 states spread through south-eastern Anatolia and northern Syria. §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 2) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ Those present in the area around or on the Konya Plain were the following: Pisidia; Pamphylia; Lycaonia; Tabal; Cilicia (Hilakku and Que). §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 32) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§
Although there was some continuity with the preceding period major cultural changes occurred in the Neo-Hittite era. According to Bryce (2012) ""Hittite cuneiform disappeared entirely. There is not the slightest trace of it in any of the Iron Age successor-kingdoms of the Hittites. One might reasonably suppose that along with the disappearance of the written language, Nesite also disappeared as a spoken one."" §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 16) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ Although we do not have any historical records associated with this epoch, historians have speculated that the society of this era used the Hieroglyphic Luwian language. §REF§ (Popko 1999, 93-111) M Popko. 1999. Ludy i języki starożytnej Anatolii. Wydawnictwo Akademickie Dialog. Warszawa. pp.93-111 §REF§ §REF§ (Van de Mieroop 2008, 207) M Van de Mieroop. 2008. Historia starożytnego Bliskiego Wschodu ok. 3000-323 p.n.e. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. Kraków. §REF§ I. Yakibovich has suggested that the core area of Luwian population was located in central Anatolia, in the region of the Konya Plain. §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 17) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§
Many Neo-Hittite rulers took the titles ""Great King"" and ""Hero"" and it is likely an administrative centre existed in the central town. §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 80) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ At the better known Neo-Hittite site of Carchemish, in western Anatolia, a central bureaucracy is known which had scribes, clerks and other officials §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 54) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ ; although ""Carchemish and probably Malatya apparently continued from their Late Bronze Age predecessors with little or no interruption"" §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 63) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ which might not be the case for other lesser-known polities of the Neo-Hittite states.",,,,2023-12-19T09:00:40.512130Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",11.0,Konya Plain,Anatolia-Caucasus,32.521164000000,37.877845000000,Konya,TR,Turkey,Southwest Asia,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
59,GrCrNeo,-7000,-3000,Neolithic Crete,gr_crete_nl,LEGACY,"The Cretan Neolithic period spans the four millennia between around 7000 and 3000 BCE. §REF§ (Tomkins 2007) Tomkins, P. 2007. ""Neolithic: Strata IX-VIII, VII-VIB, VIA-V, IV, IIIB, IIIA, IIA and IC Groups."" In Knossos Pottery Handbook: Neolithic and Bronze Age (Minoan), edited by N. Momigliano, 9-39. British School at Athens Studies 14. London: British School at Athens. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SRWVHUTT. §REF§ §REF§ (Tomkins 2008) Tomkins, Peter D. 2008. ""Time, Space and the Reinvention of the Cretan Neolithic."" In Escaping the Labyrinth: The Cretan Neolithic in Context, edited by Valasia Isaakidou and Peter D. Tomkins, 21-49. Oxford: Oxbow Books. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P6XBRAKC. §REF§ Until archaeological work in 2008‒2009 unearthed evidence for hominin occupation on the island as early as 130,000 years ago (in the Lower Palaeolithic), it was believed that the Neolithic farmers whose settlements appear from c. 7000 BCE were the first people to colonize Crete. §REF§ (Strasser et al. 2010, 145-46) Strasser, Thomas F., Eleni Panagopoulou, Curtis N. Runnels, Priscilla M. Murray, Nicholas Thompson, Panayiotis Karkanas, Floyd W. McCoy, and Karl W. Wegmann. 2010. ""Stone Age Seafaring in the Mediterranean: Evidence from the Plakias Region for Lower Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Habitation of Crete."" Hesperia 79 (2): 145-90. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VR7DEQG3. §REF§ Nevertheless, one recent genetic study suggests that the Neolithic Cretan population was composed chiefly of newcomers rather than descendants of the island's Mesolithic inhabitants. §REF§ (Fernández et al. 2014) Fernández, Eva, Alejandro Pérez-Pérez, Cristina Gamba, Eva Prats, Pedro Cuesta, Josep Anfruns, Miquel Molist, Eduardo Arroyo-Pardo, and Daniel Turbón. 2014. ""Ancient DNA Analysis of 8000 B.C. Near Eastern Farmers Supports an Early Neolithic Pioneer Maritime Colonization of Mainland Europe through Cyprus and the Aegean Islands."" PLoS Genetics 10 (6): e1004401. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9TJ7CEP6. §REF§ They likely sailed from southwestern Asia, §REF§ (Fernández et al. 2014) Fernández, Eva, Alejandro Pérez-Pérez, Cristina Gamba, Eva Prats, Pedro Cuesta, Josep Anfruns, Miquel Molist, Eduardo Arroyo-Pardo, and Daniel Turbón. 2014. ""Ancient DNA Analysis of 8000 B.C. Near Eastern Farmers Supports an Early Neolithic Pioneer Maritime Colonization of Mainland Europe through Cyprus and the Aegean Islands."" PLoS Genetics 10 (6): e1004401. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9TJ7CEP6. §REF§ bringing a characteristic agricultural package of cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, bread wheat and other domesticated food plants. §REF§ (Broodbank and Strasser 1991, 236) Broodbank, Cyprian, and Thomas F. Strasser. 1991. ""Migrant Farmers and the Neolithic Colonization of Crete."" Antiquity 65 (247): 233-45. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RVNBC48R. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",4.0,Crete,Southeastern Europe,25.144200000000,35.338700000000,Heraklion,GR,Greece,Europe,19,Southeastern Europe,"Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
414,InGangN,-7000,-3001,Neolithic Middle Ganga,in_ganga_nl,LEGACY,"The Middle Ganga corresponds to the eastern portion of the Upper Ganga Plain, in the eastern part of the north-central modern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh and the state of Bihar. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Neolithic (c. 7000-3001 BCE). Larger sites found in the wider Gangetic region dating from this time have yielded evidence for agricultural activities, including animal husbandry; moreover, one site (Chirand) has also yielded evidence for large-scale production of tools made of bone and antler, as well as of items of likely domestic use, indicating some degree of craft specialisation. The political organisation of such sites remain overall unclear, though one site in a neighbouring valley, Magahara, seems to have housed a relatively egalitarian community, judging from the similarity between houses and their arrangement around a likely cattle pen, suggesting communal ownership of livestock. No population estimates could be found for the Middle Ganga specifically, but the typical community in the nearby Vindhya region would likely have numbered around 200 people, and the region as a whole likely had a population of about 1,000. §REF§ (Vikrama and Chattopadhyaya 2002: 127-132) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U4F7KRKD/. §REF§",,,,2024-07-19T07:50:55.997923Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",14.0,Middle Ganga,Indo-Gangetic Plain,82.700000000000,25.750000000000,Jaunpur,UTPR,India,South Asia,64,North India,"Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
536,YeNeoL*,-3500,-1201,Neolithic Yemen,ye_yemen_lnl,LEGACY,"The Yemeni Coastal Plain or Plateau is the northwestern region of modern Yemen that lies between the Red Sea and the Yemeni Mountains. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Neolithic (c. 3500-1201 BCE). Settlements at this time were small clusters of oval huts, with stone tools and stone manufacture debris but no pottery remains. §REF§ (De Maigret 2002: 120-124) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/X3MRZCH5. §REF§
No speculation could be found in the literature regarding possible forms of political organisation prevalent at the time; from an archaeological perspective, not enough is known about the few buildings that have been excavated to interpret them as having been used for administrative purposes, and the earliest known state-managed food storage structures in the region date to the third century BCE. Similarly, there are no serious works on the estimates for the area and population in the Neolithic and Bronze Age Yemen. §REF§ (A. Sedov: pers. comm. to E. Cioni: September 2019) §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",12.0,Yemeni Coastal Plain,Arabia,43.315739000000,14.850891000000,Sanaa,YE,Yemen,Southwest Asia,44,Arabia,Arabian Peninsula,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
62,GrCrNPa,-1700,-1450,New Palace Crete,gr_crete_new_palace,LEGACY,"Crete is a large island in the Eastern Mediterranean. Here we consider the phase of its history best known as the Neopalatial Era. This period followed a series of conflagrations at the end of the Old Palace era (1700 BCE), which affected almost all Cretan sites. Little agreement exists about the causes of these destructions. Although it has been generally argued that these were possibly caused by earthquake, the senario of war conflicts among major political centers of the period cannot be excluded. §REF§ (La Rosa 1999, 81-89) V. La Rosa. 1999. ""Πολιτική εξουσία και σεισμικές καταστροφές στη Μινωική Κρήτη: η περίπτωση της Φαιστού"" in Κρήτες Θαλασσοδρόμοι, edited by A. Karetou. Heraklion §REF§ §REF§ (Cadogan 2014, 43-54) G. Cadogan. 2014. ""War in the Cretan Bronze Age: the realism of Stylianos Alexiou"". Kritika Chronika 34: 43-54. §REF§ The Neopalatial era ended, in 1450, in a similar way to the previous phase: the central complexes (except for the one at Knossos), many important buildings and whole settlements were violently damaged by fire and abandoned, and the Cretan presence in the Aegean and the Near East came to an end. The causes of these destructions have also been a topic of vivid debate: a massive natural disaster (earthquake), war, internal disruption or system collapse have all been suggested as possible explanations §REF§ (Driessen and Macdonald 1997, 106-109) Jan Driessen. and Colin F. Macdonald. 1997. The Troubled Island. Minoan Crete Before and After the Santorini Eruption. Liège: Université de Liège, Histoire de l'art et archéologie de la Grèce antique; Austin: University of Texas at Austin, Program in Aegean Scripts and Prehistory §REF§ , though perhaps human rather than natural causes are more likely §REF§ (Christakis 2008, 144-146) Kostis S. Christakis. 2008. The Politics of Storage. Storage and Sociopolitical Complexity in Neopalatial Crete. Philadelphia, Pa.: INSTAP Academic Press. §REF§ .
Population and Political Organization
Some scholars argue that, during the Neopatial period, the island was divided into small independent ""states"" centered upon large monumental complexes generally known as ""palaces"" §REF§ (Cherry 1986, 19-45) John F. Cherry. 1986. “Polities and palaces: some problems in the Minoan state formation,” in Peer-Polity Interaction and Socio-Political Change, edited by Colin Renfrew and John F. Cherry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Bennet 1990, 193-211) John Bennet. 1990. ""Knossos in context: comparative perspectives on the Linear B administration of LM II-III Crete."" American Journal of Archaeology 94: 193-211 §REF§ §REF§ (Christakis 2008, 2-7) Kostis S. Christakis. 2008. The Politics of Storage. Storage and Sociopolitical Complexity in Neopalatial Crete. Philadelphia: INSTAP Academic Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Bevan 2010, 27-54) Andrew Bevan. 2010. ""Political geography and palatial Crete."" Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 23: 27-54. §REF§ Others favour the notion of a Knossian hegemony, that is, the notion that Crete was politically unified under the control of the ruler at Knossos §REF§ (Betts 1967, 15-40) John H. Betts. 1967. "" New light on Minoan bureaucracy. A reexamination of some Cretan seals."" Kadmos 6: 15-40 §REF§ §REF§ (Hallager and Hallager 1996, 547-556) E. and B.P. Hallager. 1996. ""The Knossian bull-political propaganda in Neo-palatial Crete,"" in POLITEIA. Society and State in the Aegean Bronze Age. Proceedings of the 5th International Aegean Conference, Heidelberg, 10-13 April 1994, edited by Robert Laffineur and Wolf-Dietrich Niemeier. Liège: Université de Liège, Histoire de l'art et archéologie de la Grèce antique; Austin: University of Texas at Austin, Program in Aegean Scripts and Prehistory §REF§ §REF§ (Wiener 2007, 231-242) M.W. Wiener. 2007. ""Neopalatial Knossos: rule and role"" in Krinoi kai Limenes. Studies in Honor of Joseph and Maria Shaw, edited by Philip Betancourt, Michael Nelson and Hector Williams. Philadelphia: INSTAP Academic Press §REF§ Yet other have favored the idea of independent political formations emulating Knossos §REF§ (Schoep 1999, 201-221) Ilse Schoep. 1999. ""Tables and territories: reconstructing Late Minoan IB political territories throughout undeciphered documents."" American Journal of Archaeology 103: 201-21 §REF§ §REF§ (Soles 1995, 405-414) J.S. Soles. 1995. ""The function of a cosmological center: Knossos in palatial Crete"" in POLITEIA. Society and State in the Aegean Bronze Age. Proceedings of the 5th International Aegean Conference, Heidelberg, 10-13 April 1994, edited by Robert Laffineur and Wolf-Dietrich Niemeier. Liège: Université de Liège, Histoire de l'art et archéologie de la Grèce antique; Austin: University of Texas at Austin, Program in Aegean Scripts and Prehistory §REF§ §REF§ (Knappett and Schoep 2000, 365-371) Carl Knappett and Ilse Schoep. 2000. ""Continuity and change in Minoan political power,"" Antiquity 74: 365-71. §REF§
The population of Crete at this time has been estimated at 242,000 §REF§ (Branigan 2000, 38-50) Keith Branigan. 2000. ""Aspects of Minoan urbanism,"" in Urbanism in the Aegean Bronze Age, edited by Keith Branigan. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. §REF§ , 216,000-271,000 §REF§ (Rackham and Moody 1999, 97) Oliver Rackham and Jennifer Alice Moody. 1999. The Making of the Cretan Landscape, Manchester: Manchester University Press. §REF§ and 260,000 §REF§ (Renfrew 1972, 249) Colin Renfrew. 1972. The Emergence of Civilization, London: Oxbow Books §REF§ . As for Knossos, the largest urban centre in the whole of Prehistoric Greece, Whitelaw estimated Knossian population to 25,000-30,000 people replacing his previous estimate of 14,000-18,000 individuals §REF§ (Whitelaw 2004, 147-158) Todd Whitelaw. 2004. ""Estimating the population of Neopalatial Knossos"" in Knossos: Palace, City, State: Proceedings of the Conference in Herakleion organized by the British School at Athens and the 23rd Ephoreia of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities of Herakleion, in November 2000, for the Centenary of Sir Arthur Evans's Excavations at Knossos, edited by Gerald Cadogan, Eleni Hatzaki and Adonis Vasilakis. London: British School of Athens. §REF§ §REF§ (Whitelaw 2014, 143-144) Todd Whitelaw. 2014. ""Political formations in Prehistoric Crete"". BICS 57: 143-144. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",4.0,Crete,Southeastern Europe,25.144200000000,35.338700000000,Heraklion,GR,Greece,Europe,19,Southeastern Europe,"Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
760,vt_nguyen_dyn,1802,1887,Nguyen Dynasty,vt_nguyen_dyn,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,41,Mainland Southeast Asia,"Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
695,Classical Nkore,1750,1901,Nkore,ug_nkore_k_2,POL_AFR_EAST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
688,Early Nkore,1450,1749,Nkore,ug_nkore_k_1,POL_AFR_EAST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
586,gb_england_norman,1066,1153,Norman England,gb_england_norman,LEGACY,,,,,2024-05-16T13:37:49.298359Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
876,it_sicily_k_1,1071,1193,Norman Sicily,it_sicily_k_1,OTHER_TAG,,,,2024-05-06T09:17:43.222876Z,2024-05-06T09:42:39.309605Z,,,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
775,mw_northern_maravi_k,1500,1621,Northern Maravi Kingdom,mw_northern_maravi_k,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,6,Southern Africa,"Namibia, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique and south","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
425,CnNSong,960,1127,Northern Song,cn_northern_song_dyn,LEGACY,"The Northern Song (or Sung) Dynasty was a period of great economic advancement, population growth, urbanization, and political change in China. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 136) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Eleventh-century China under the Song has been called the 'most advanced place in the world' at that time. §REF§ (Weatherhead East Asian Institute 2008) Weatherhead East Asian Institute. 2008. 'China in 1000 AD: The Most Advanced Society in the World'. Asian Topics on Asia for Educators: The Song Dynasty in China (960-1279). Columbia University. http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/song/. Accessed 15 March 2017. §REF§ The Northern Song government ruled from its capital in Kaifeng, while the Southern Song were based in Hangzhou.
The century between the fall of the Tang dynasty and beginning of the Song dynasty was characterized by the rise of powerful warlords in the south and political turmoil in the north. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 136) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The first Song emperor, Emperor Taizu, reunified the Yangtze River Valley and South China. §REF§ (Meyer 1994, 217) Milton W. Meyer. 1994. China: A Concise History. Lanham, MD: Littlefield Adams. §REF§ The territory held by the Song was smaller than that held by previous powerful dynasties, and much of North China was still dominated by outside rule. §REF§ (Meyer 1994, 217) Milton W. Meyer. 1994. China: A Concise History. Lanham, MD: Littlefield Adams. §REF§
Population and political organization
The Song government was marked by the increasing importance of the civil service examination and the rise of Confucianism. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 136) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The prominence of the civil service examination led to the emergence of a central government governed by scholar-officials rather than by aristocrats, as was traditionally the case. The government was headed by a powerful emperor and featured a large central bureaucracy. §REF§ (Hartman 2015, 20, 88) Charles Hartman. 2015. 'Sung government and politics', in The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Five Dynasties and Sung China, 960-1279 AD, Part 2, edited by J. W. Chaffee and D. Twitchett, 21-138. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
The Song period saw rapid commercial and industrial expansion. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 144) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Agriculture, paper-making, printing, and iron-working flourished, §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 141-42) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Weatherhead East Asian Institute 2008) Weatherhead East Asian Institute. 2008. 'China in 1000 AD: The Most Advanced Society in the World'. Asian Topics on Asia for Educators: The Song Dynasty in China (960-1279). Columbia University. http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/song/. Accessed 15 March 2017. §REF§ and paper money was first produced in China under the Song. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 142) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Foreign trade increased as the state expanded its trading networks. §REF§ (Weatherhead East Asian Institute 2008) Weatherhead East Asian Institute. 2008. 'China in 1000 AD: The Most Advanced Society in the World'. Asian Topics on Asia for Educators: The Song Dynasty in China (960-1279). Columbia University. http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/song/. Accessed 15 March 2017. §REF§
Although it is clear that the Song Dynasty was a period of massive population growth and urbanization, §REF§ (Weatherhead East Asian Institute 2008) Weatherhead East Asian Institute. 2008. 'China in 1000 AD: The Most Advanced Society in the World'. Asian Topics on Asia for Educators: The Song Dynasty in China (960-1279). Columbia University. http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/song/. Accessed 15 March 2017. §REF§ there is some disagreement about exact population numbers. Some scholars agree that the population had reached around 100 million by 1000 CE, §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 141) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Mote 2003, 164) Frederick W. Mote. 2003. Imperial China: 900-1800. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ while others believe it was closer to 60 million. §REF§ (Hartman 2015, 29) Charles Hartman. 2015. 'Sung government and politics', in The Cambridge History of China, Volume 5: The Five Dynasties and Sung China, 960-1279 AD, Part 2, edited by J. W. Chaffee and D. Twitchett, 21-138. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§",,,,2024-01-04T15:57:28.881607Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",20.0,Middle Yellow River Valley,North China,112.517587000000,34.701825000000,Luoyang,CN,China,East Asia,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
258,CnNWei*,386,534,Northern Wei,cn_northern_wei_dyn,LEGACY,"The Northern Wei dynasty (Tuoba or Bei Wei) unified northern China during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX §REF§ Before unification under the Northern Wei, the northern region was ruled by the Sixteen Barbarian States that had risen up when the Western Jin fled to the south. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX §REF§ The Northern Wei conquered Northern Yan and Northern Liang to unify the north. §REF§ (Xiong 2009, 384) Xiong, V C. 2009. Historical Dictionary of Medieval China. Scarecrow Press, Inc., Plymouth. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong. §REF§ During Northern Wei rule, Tuoba continued to expand its territory. By 439 CE the dynasty controlled Henan, Hebei, and parts of Shaanxi, Manchuria, Gansu, and Sichuan. §REF§ “Wei dynasty | Chinese history [386- 534 535].” Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty. Accessed June 15, 2017. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8 §REF§ At its peak the territory of the Northern Wei expanded from the Tarim Basin to the Yellow Sea, and from the northern steppe to edge of territory of the Southern dynasties. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX §REF§ In 500 CE, the Northern Wei territory encompassed 1.7 million square kilometers. §REF§ (Chase-Dunn Spreadsheet) §REF§
The rulers of the Northern Wei belonged to the Tuoba tribe of the Xianbei northern steppe federation. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX §REF§ The Tuoba language was close to Turkish, and the non-Han Chinese rulers were first seen as foreign invaders. §REF§ “Wei dynasty | Chinese history [386- 534 535].” Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty. Accessed June 15, 2017. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8 §REF§ In the late 400s the Tuoba Sinicized their customs, language, and government, and moved their capital to Luoyang. §REF§ (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684 §REF§ Buddhism was upheld as a state religion for most of the Northern Wei. The Buddhist caves of Yungang and Longmen were constructed during the period. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX §REF§ In the early 500s, Luoyang had over one thousand monasteries and number of mansions and large palaces. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 91) Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: CUP. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8 §REF§
The fall of the Northern Wei was due to a civil war caused by rebellions in garrisons in the northern frontier §REF§ (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684 §REF§ The rival army factions spilt the dynasty into Eastern and Western Wei in 535 CE. §REF§ (Xiong 2009, 384) Xiong, V C. 2009. Historical Dictionary of Medieval China. Scarecrow Press, Inc., Plymouth. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZE3I2EQK/q/xiong. §REF§
Population and political organization
In the Northern Dynasties, nobles and landowners often had vesting holdings with dependent servants and slaves who did not pay taxes. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Northern Dynasties (386-581). Accessed June 15, 2017. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/beichao.html Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GSM2F6GX §REF§ The Northern Wei government attempted to break up these large holdings to reduce the power of provincial nobles. The government deported over 400,000 dependent peasants to unused land near the first capital of Pingcheng. §REF§ “Wei dynasty | Chinese history [386- 534 535].” Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Wei-dynasty. Accessed June 15, 2017. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B2C94XG8 §REF§ The Northern Wei also instituted an equal-fields system in which the state owned all land and individuals were given certain allotments for life. §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 91) Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: CUP. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TDMBGBF8 §REF§
In the late 400s, the Northern Wei moved the capital to Luoyang and began to create a more Chinese-style state. §REF§ (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684 §REF§ The Tuoba relied on Chinese civil servants to assist with governance. §REF§ (Holcombe 2017, 109) Holcombe, Charles. 2017. “Was Medieval China Medieval? (Post-Han to Mid-Tang)” In A Companion to Chinese History, edited by Michael Szonyi. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. 106-117. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DJMEH684 §REF§
The population of the Northern Wei dynasty was 32 million in 500 CE. §REF§ (Graff 2002, 127)Graff, D A. 2002. Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900. Routledge. London. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA §REF§ The second Wei capital of Luoyang had a population of 600,000 at its peak. §REF§ (Graff 2002, 98)Graff, D A. 2002. Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900. Routledge. London. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA §REF§",,,,2024-01-04T15:48:35.302300Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",20.0,Middle Yellow River Valley,North China,112.517587000000,34.701825000000,Luoyang,CN,China,East Asia,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
313,RuNovPr,880,1240,Novgorod Land,ru_novgorod_land,LEGACY,,,,,2024-05-30T10:26:04.408878Z,"{'id': 48, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,16,Eastern Europe,"Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
323,RuNovRp,1135,1478,Novgorod Republic,ru_novgorod_rep,LEGACY,,,,,2024-05-30T12:54:29.574270Z,"{'id': 49, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,16,Eastern Europe,"Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
206,DzNumid,-220,-46,Numidia,dz_numidia,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,3,Maghreb,From Morocco to Libya,"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
524,MxRosar,-700,-500,Oaxaca - Rosario,mx_rosario,LEGACY,"During the Rosario phase (700-500 BCE), the settlement of San José Mogote continued to be the largest settlement in the Valley of Oaxaca. However, other settlements rose to challenge its primacy: Huitzo (at the extreme northern end of the Etla arm), Tilcajete (in the Valle Grande), and Yegüih (in the Tlacolula arm), each the centre of a cluster of smaller settlements. §REF§ (Blanton et al. 1999, 42) Richard E. Blanton, Gary M. Feinman, Stephen A. Kowalewski and Linda M. Nicholas. 1999. Ancient Oaxaca. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ There is evidence for increased inter-settlement conflict and social differentiation within communities. §REF§ (Blanton et al. 1999, 42) Richard E. Blanton, Gary M. Feinman, Stephen A. Kowalewski and Linda M. Nicholas. 1999. Ancient Oaxaca. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Burnt remains of buildings have been found at Rosario phase sites, which, along with evidence for fortifications and the extensive unoccupied 'buffer zone' of 80 square kilometres between the polities, suggest inter-settlement raids and hostility at this time. §REF§ (Spencer and Redmond 2003, 32) Charles S. Spencer and Elsa M. Redmond. 2003. 'Militarism, Resistance, and Early State Development in Oaxaca, Mexico'. Social Evolution & History 2 (1): 25-70. §REF§
Population and political organization
While there is evidence of an emerging elite during this period, the nature of leadership and political organization remains unclear. §REF§ (Blanton et al. 1999, 46) Richard E. Blanton, Gary M. Feinman, Stephen A. Kowalewski and Linda M. Nicholas. 1999. Ancient Oaxaca. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Labour was organized for the construction of large public structures and elaborate tombs. However, the types of buildings constructed led archaeologists Kent Flannery and Joyce Marcus to suggest that elites could not yet draw on labour and resources solely for their own personal gain. §REF§ (Kowalewski, Fisch and Flannery 1983, 50-53) Stephen Kowalewski, Eva Fisch and Kent V. Flannery. 1983. 'San José and Guadalupe Settlement Patterns in the Valley of Oaxaca', in The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations, edited by Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus, 50-53. New York: Academic Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Flannery and Marcus 1983, 53-55) Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus. 1983. 'The Growth of Site Hierarchies in the Valley of Oaxaca: Part I', in The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations, edited by Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus, 53-64. New York: Academic Press. §REF§ The first evidence of monumental art, calendars, writing and human sacrifice in the Valley of Oaxaca dates to this period. §REF§ (Joyce 2009, 123) Arthur A. Joyce. 2009. Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico. Malden, MA: Wiley‐Blackwell. §REF§ Population estimates for the three polities in the valley at this time range from 1000 to 2000 people; the largest population was concentrated in the northern arm, with San José Mogote as the primary centre. §REF§ (Spencer and Redmond 2003, 32-33) Charles S. Spencer and Elsa M. Redmond. 2003. 'Militarism, Resistance, and Early State Development in Oaxaca, Mexico'. Social Evolution & History 2 (1): 25-70. §REF§ §REF§ (Marcus and Flannery 1996, 125-26) Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery. 1996. Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",26.0,Valley of Oaxaca,Mexico,-96.761022000000,17.041135000000,Monte Alban,OAX,Mexico,North America,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
523,MxSanGu,-1150,-700,Oaxaca - San Jose,mx_san_jose,LEGACY,"The San José phase (1150-850 BCE), named for a settlement located in the Etla subregion of the Valley of Oaxaca, Southern Mexico, and the Guadalupe phase (850-700 BCE), are combined here because of the difficulty of differentiating between the material culture of the two phases. §REF§ (Feinman et al. 1985, 340) Gary M. Feinman, Stephen A. Kowalewski, Laura Finsten, Richard E. Blanton and Linda Nicholas. 1985. 'Long-term Demographic Change: A Perspective from the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico'. Journal of Field Archaeology 12 (3): 333-62. §REF§ Both phases were characterized by substantial growth at the settlement of San José Mogote, both in terms of population and the construction of non-residential public buildings. §REF§ (Feinman et al. 1985, 340) Gary M. Feinman, Stephen A. Kowalewski, Laura Finsten, Richard E. Blanton and Linda Nicholas. 1985. 'Long-term Demographic Change: A Perspective from the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico'. Journal of Field Archaeology 12 (3): 333-62. §REF§ Other sites remained relatively small during this period and were located on more productive land in the low piedmont and alluvial zones. §REF§ (Feinman et al. 1985, 340) Gary M. Feinman, Stephen A. Kowalewski, Laura Finsten, Richard E. Blanton and Linda Nicholas. 1985. 'Long-term Demographic Change: A Perspective from the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico'. Journal of Field Archaeology 12 (3): 333-62. §REF§
Population and political organization
The degree of social stratification during the San José and Guadalupe phases is a matter of scholarly debate. Archaeologists Joyce Marcus and Kent Flannery identify the emergence of a chiefdom, which would have directed the construction of ceremonial and public spaces. §REF§ (Marcus and Flannery 1996, 93-110) Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery. 1996. Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ However, Richard Blanton et al. §REF§ (Blanton et al. 1999, 36-42) Richard E. Blanton, Gary M. Feinman, Stephen A. Kowalewski and Linda M. Nicholas. 1999. Ancient Oaxaca. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ have argued for a more 'corporate form of governance', in which 'members of prominent households' collectively contributed to political decision-making and status distinctions were achieved rather than inherited. §REF§ (Joyce 2009, 111) Arthur A. Joyce. 2009. Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico. Malden, MA: Wiley‐Blackwell. §REF§ While there is no evidence for distinct social classes, burial goods and a range of larger residences suggest that some individuals were more highly ranked within the community than others. §REF§ (Kowalewski, Fisch and Flannery 1983, 50-53) Stephen Kowalewski, Eva Fisch and Kent V. Flannery. 1983. 'San José and Guadalupe Settlement Patterns in the Valley of Oaxaca', in The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations, edited by Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus, 50-53. New York: Academic Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Flannery and Marcus 1983, 53-55) Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus. 1983. 'The Growth of Site Hierarchies in the Valley of Oaxaca: Part I', in The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations, edited by Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus, 53-64. New York: Academic Press. §REF§ Based on the cranial deformation of some individuals, it has also been argued that there may be evidence for hereditary social rank, although these individuals were not buried with rich goods and so cannot be directly linked with chiefly status within the community. It is possible that although status was mostly determined based on achievements during a person's lifetime, higher status would be more likely for people with a certain parentage. §REF§ (Marcus and Flannery 1996, 106) Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery. 1996. Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ The remains of limestone and travertine building materials from a source 5 kilometres from San José Mogote suggest that the occupants of San José Mogote were beginning to extend their authority to surrounding settlements.
It has been estimated that there were over 1000 people living at San José Mogote during this period. §REF§ (Flannery and Marcus 2005, 11) Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus. 2005. Excavations at San José Mogote 1: The Household Archaeology. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology. §REF§ The entire valley had an estimated population of around 2000 people divided among 40 communities in the San José phase (1150-850 BCE) and 2000-2500 persons during the Guadalupe phase (850-700 BCE), but these were not integrated into a single polity at this time. §REF§ (Marcus and Flannery 1996, 106, 112) Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery. 1996. Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",26.0,Valley of Oaxaca,Mexico,-96.761022000000,17.041135000000,Monte Alban,OAX,Mexico,North America,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
522,MxTieLa,-1400,-1150,Oaxaca - Tierras Largas,mx_tierras_largas,LEGACY,"The Tierras Largas phase refers to the period from 1400 to 1150 BCE. It was named for an archaeological site in the Etla subregion of the Valley of Oaxaca, Southern Mexico. §REF§ (Hodges 1989, 26) Denise C. Hodges. 1989. Agricultural Intensification and Prehistoric Health in the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico. Prehistory and Human Ecology of the Valley of Oaxaca, Vol. 9. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology. §REF§
Population and political organization
There is no evidence for a widespread unified polity during the Tierras Largas phase, and very little indication of social differentiation between or within communities. The period has therefore been characterized as one of egalitarian social organization, in which status could perhaps be achieved but not inherited. §REF§ (Flannery and Marcus 2005, 6) Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus. 2005. Excavations at San José Mogote 1: The Household Archaeology. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology. §REF§ The population, estimated at 500-1000, was dispersed throughout the valley with settlements clustered on the most fertile land in the Etla arm. §REF§ (Marcus and Flannery 1996, 88) Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery. 1996. Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ §REF§ (Joyce 2009, 74-75) Arthur A. Joyce. 2009. Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico. Malden, MA: Wiley‐Blackwell. §REF§ §REF§ (Flannery and Marcus 2005, 7) Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus. 2005. Excavations at San José Mogote 1: The Household Archaeology. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology. §REF§ §REF§ (Feinman et al. 1985, 337) Gary M. Feinman, Stephen A. Kowalewski, Laura Finsten, Richard E. Blanton and Linda Nicholas. 1985. 'Long-term Demographic Change: A Perspective from the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico'. Journal of Field Archaeology 12 (3): 333-62. §REF§ Most of these settlements were small (between one and three hectares), except for San José Mogote, which was larger (seven hectares), had a defensive palisade and featured larger buildings that could have been used as public spaces. §REF§ (Joyce 2009, 74) Arthur A. Joyce. 2009. Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico. Malden, MA: Wiley‐Blackwell. §REF§ However, there is no evidence that the influence of San José Mogote extended beyond the village to other settlements. §REF§ (Joyce 2009, 74) Arthur A. Joyce. 2009. Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico. Malden, MA: Wiley‐Blackwell. §REF§ The 'type site', Tierras Largas, covered around 1.6-2.2 ha and consisted of 5-10 households with nearby storage pits. §REF§ (Marcus and Flannery 1996, 84) Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery. 1996. Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley. London: Thames and Hudson. §REF§ The inhabitants of the valley cultivated domestic crops and supplemented their diet by gathering wild fruits and hunting animals. More intensive forms of agriculture had not yet developed. §REF§ (Hodges 1989, 28) Denise C. Hodges. 1989. Agricultural Intensification and Prehistoric Health in the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico. Prehistory and Human Ecology of the Valley of Oaxaca, Vol. 9. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",26.0,Valley of Oaxaca,Mexico,-96.761022000000,17.041135000000,Monte Alban,OAX,Mexico,North America,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
896,kz_oghuz_state,766,1055,Oghuz Yabgu State,kz_oghuz_state,OTHER_TAG,,Oghuz Turks,,2024-07-03T14:38:17.555313Z,2024-07-03T14:38:17.555327Z,,,,,,,,,,,13,Turkestan,"Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
297,KzOirat,1368,1630,Oirats,kz_oirat,LEGACY,"
“During this time the power of the Oirat rulers in the western part of the Mongolian steppe was growing. The Oirats had sworn fealty to Chinggis Khan shortly after his rise to power. Their nobility had been appointed to senior positions in the empire and diplomatic marriages between the Oirat aristocracy and the Chinggisid imperial house had continued since that time. At the end of the fourteenth century Oirat rulers began to challenge the power of the fractious Chinggisid emperors of the northern Yuan. They came to play the role of king makers, installing compliant emperors and taking the title taishi (grand preceptor). With the Ming still doggedly hostile to the northern Yuan, the Oirats became increasingly powerful. The Oirat ruler, Esen, who had succeeded his father as taishi, attacked the Ming, subjugating parts of Manchuria and the Hami region in Turkestan. He invaded northern China and captured the Ming emperor. When attacked in 1452 by his nominal overlord, the emperor Togoo-Bukha, Esen defeated him and took the title of Great Khan of the Yuan for himself. But Esen’s reign as Yuan emperor was short, one of his generals turned against him in 1454 and he was killed as he fled. The Yuan throne was recaptured by the house of Qubilai once more, and the Chinggisids had some success against the Ming in the Ordos. The Oirat descendants of Esen remained powerful in the west, and Oirats continued to hold the powerful position of taishi, but around 1480 a vigorous new ruler appeared to unite the Chinggisid noble houses.”§REF§(Sneath 2010: 395) Sneath, David. 2010. “Introduction,” in The History of Mongolia: Volume II, Yuan and Late Medieval Period, vol. 2, 3 vols. Kent: Global Oriental. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FBJBCKMT§REF§
“In this period, Mongolian lands were divided into three parts: the ‘central’ division, comprising East Mongolia; the West, or Oirat, Mongolia; and the South-Western part, the Uriankhai frontier… In comparison with East Mongolia, Oirat or Western Mongolia had a good level of internal unity, at first, and was less subject to military attack. Consequently, the Oirats used their political unity and economic superiority to try to unite all the Mongols. Having been just four myangan (mingghan – units of a thousand) in the times of the Great Mongol Empire, the Oirats, who had been subjects of the Mongol emperors, had grown to four tümen (units of ten thousand). In the late fourteenth century, when East Mongolia had become a site of continuous political crisis and struggle, Ugechi Khasakha the lord of the Khoit, re-established the League of the Four Oirats, that had been dissolved a century before, and became its khan, organizing the Oirat into the Baatuud, Barga, Buriad, Khori, Tümed and Choros divisions. Breaking away from East Mongolian rule, Ugechi Khasakha began to challenge the political authority of members of the Golden Lineage. At that time a Taiyu (Teivei) [from the Chinese taiwei – senior military official] named Khuukhai served as the representative of the Four Oirats in the court of the Mongol Great Khaan (emperor), Elbeg the Compassionate, who ruled from 1393 to 1399.”§REF§(Jamsran 2010: 497-498) Jamsran, L. 2010. “The Crisis of the Forty and the Four,” in The History of Mongolia: Volume II, Yuan and Late Medieval Period, ed. David Sneath, vol. 2, 3 vols. Kent: Global Oriental. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/D8IE2XAD§REF§
“The Oirats largely disappeared from China’s frontier history following Esen’s death in the mid- fifteenth century, when the Eastern Mongols became dominant in southern Mongolia. However, Esen’s failure did not lead to an immediate breakup of the Ojirat confederation outside of this area. The Oirats continued to occupy northern Mongolia and Esen’s son recouped some of his confederation’s losses by attacking the Kazakhs in the west to bring the strategic Ili Valley under Oirat control. From here the Oirats dominated the oasis cities in eastern Turkestan and controlled trade through that region. This more remote but fairly stable empire, which lasted for about a century, ruled northern Mongolia unt, after suffering a number of defeats at the hands of the Eastern Mongols, they lost Karakorum to Altan Khan in 1552. This forced an Oirat withdrawal into the Tarbaghatai region which had been their homeland. The movement of retreating tribes led to a breakdown of the confederation and its reorganization.”§REF§(Barfield 1989: 277) Barfield, Thomas J. 1989. The Perilous Frontier: Nomadic Empires and China 221 B.C. to AD 1757 Cambridge: Wiley-Blackwell. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/D2MQHV94§REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,13,Turkestan,"Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
61,GrCrOPa,-1900,-1700,Old Palace Crete,gr_crete_old_palace,LEGACY,"Crete is a large island in the Eastern Mediterranean. Here we consider the phase of its history best known as the Old Palace or Protopalatial Era. This period began around 1900 §REF§ (Shelmerdine 2008, 4) Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. 2008. ‘Background, sources, and methods,’ in The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age, edited by Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ , and ended around 1700, with a series of conflagration across the entire island, possibly caused by earthquake, possibly by inter-island wars §REF§ (La Rosa 1999, 81-89) V. La Rosa. 1999. ""Πολιτική εξουσία και σεισμικές καταστροφές στη Μινωική Κρήτη: η περίπτωση της Φαιστού"" in Κρήτες Θαλασσοδρόμοι, edited by A. Karetou. Heraklion §REF§ §REF§ (Cadogan 2014, 43-54) G. Cadogan. 2014. ""War in the Cretan Bronze Age: the realism of Stylianos Alexiou"". Kritika Chronika 34: 43-54. §REF§ .
Population and Political Organization
The Old Palace period is marked by the appearance of regional states, and, in each of these, political, religious, ideological and/or economic authorities governed from “palaces”, that is, monumental court-centered building compounds such as the ones at Knossos, Malia, Phaistos and Petras §REF§ (Manning 2008, 119) S.W. Manning. 2008. ‘: Protopalatial Crete. 5A: Formation of the palaces,’ in The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age, edited by Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ . However, evidence for administration is limited and consists mostly of clay archival documents. §REF§ (Weingarten 2010, 317-318) J. Weingarten. 2010. ‘Minoan seals and sealings,’ in The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean (ca. 3000-1000 BC), edited by E.H. Cline. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ .
According to Renfrew, each regional state had a population of 215,000 §REF§ (Renfrew 1972, 249) Colin Renfrew. 1972. The Emergence of Civilisation. Oxford: Oxbow. §REF§ .",,,,2024-09-26T09:23:10.739873Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",4.0,Crete,Southeastern Europe,25.144200000000,35.338700000000,Heraklion,GR,Greece,Europe,19,Southeastern Europe,"Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
853,ch_swiss_conf_1,1315,1515,Old Swiss Confederacy,ch_swiss_conf_1,OTHER_TAG,,Swiss Confederation,,2024-04-10T10:15:47.687389Z,2024-04-10T10:15:47.687401Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
366,OmImamat,1160,1660,Oman Imamate,om_nabhani_imamate,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,44,Arabia,Arabian Peninsula,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
756,om_yaruba_imamate,1160,1660,Oman Imamate Yaruba Period,om_yaruba_imamate,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,44,Arabia,Arabian Peninsula,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
357,OmAzd,632,702,Omani Azd Tribe,om_azd,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,44,Arabia,Arabian Peninsula,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
29,USOneot,1400,1650,Oneota,us_oneota,LEGACY,"'Oneota' is the modern name given to a group of late prehistoric or protohistoric cultures, known solely from their material remains and centred on modern-day Iowa, Minnesota and Wisconsin in the Midwestern United States. §REF§ (Hall 1997, 142) Hall, Robert L. 1997. An Archaeology of the Soul: North American Indian Belief and Ritual. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8KH357GV. §REF§ Oneota migrations can be traced archaeologically: for instance, some groups using Oneota-style material culture began appearing alongside Mississippian populations in the American Bottom region (modern southwestern Illinois) during the Sand Prairie phase (c. 1275-1400 CE). §REF§ (Pauketat 1994, 47) Pauketat, Timothy R. 1994. The Ascent of Chiefs: Cahokia and Mississippian Politics in Native North America. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NJHPTUJ8. §REF§ We are concerned here with the period of Oneota activity between c. 1400 and 1650 CE, but it should be noted that the roots of the tradition are to be found before 1400. Small quantities of European trade goods appear in the Illinois archaeological record around the beginning of the 17th century CE, marking the beginning of the 'protohistoric' period in this region. §REF§ (Emerson and Brown 1992, 102) Emerson, Thomas E., and James A. Brown. 1992. ""The Late Prehistory and Protohistory of Illinois."" In Calumet and Fleur-De-Lys: French and Indian Interaction in the Midcontinent, edited by J. Walthall and T. Emerson, 77-125. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/C877T4HD. §REF§
Population and political organization
Oneota society was relatively egalitarian, more so than the preceding Mississippian cultures: there is a lack of evidence from Oneota settlements or funerary contexts for inherited status or class distinctions. §REF§ (Gibbon 2001, 390-91) Gibbon, Guy E. 2001. ""Oneota."" In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 6: North America, edited by Peter N. Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 389-407. New York: Springer Science+Business Media. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QU7PNRMC. §REF§ It has been suggested that political leadership was provided by 'big men', who relied on informal support from village populations and could not pass on their positions to their children. §REF§ (Gibbon 2001, 390-91) Gibbon, Guy E. 2001. ""Oneota."" In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 6: North America, edited by Peter N. Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 389-407. New York: Springer Science+Business Media. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QU7PNRMC. §REF§
Reliable estimates for the size of the Oneota population between 1400 and 1650 CE are lacking. §REF§ (Hart 1990, 570-71) Hart, John P. 1990. ""Modeling Oneota Agricultural Production: A Cross-Cultural Evaluation."" Current Anthropology 31 (5): 569-77. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MJKQA3W5. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",28.0,Cahokia,Mississippi Basin,-90.062035000000,38.658938000000,St. Louis,USMO,United States,North America,24,Mississippi Basin,From the Great Lakes to Louisiana,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
446,PgOrokL,1884,1942,Orokaiva - Colonial,pg_orokaiva_colonial,LEGACY,"The Northern Province of Papua New Guinea has long been inhabited by the Orokaiva. This is an umbrella term used to describe a number of culturally similar groups, including the Aiga, Binandele, Hunjara, Mambare, and Wasida. §REF§ (Reay 1953, 110) Reay, Marie. 1953. “Social Control amongst the Orokaiva.” Oceania 24 (2): 110-18. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FQKM3Z7S. §REF§ Though these groups did not have an inclusive name for themselves until Westerners coined the label 'Orokaiva', they distinguished among themselves as the river (umo-ke), saltwater (eva'embo), and inland (periho) peoples. §REF§ (Latham and Beierle 2004) Christopher S. Latham and John Beierle. 2004. Culture Summary: Orokaiva. New Haven: HRAF. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000. §REF§ The Orokaiva were primarily subsistence farmers in the period under consideration (1884-1942 CE). §REF§ (Latham and Beierle 2004) Latham, Christopher S., and John Beierle. 2004. “Culture Summary: Orokaiva.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7. §REF§ The first known contact with Europeans occurred in the 18th century, but the Orokaiva formally became part of a wider polity in 1888, when the British annexed the island. §REF§ (Latham and Beierle 2004) Latham, Christopher S., and John Beierle. 2004. “Culture Summary: Orokaiva.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7. §REF§
Population and political organization
The Orokaiva lacked central authority and hereditary leadership. The closest thing they had to leaders were big men (embo dambo) and elders, who commanded the respect of their neighbours due to their personal qualities, including their ability to make wise decisions and their skill in organizing ceremonies. However, they still lacked authorities with the power to issue sanctions. §REF§ (Latham and Beierle 2004) Latham, Christopher S., and John Beierle. 2004. “Culture Summary: Orokaiva.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7. §REF§
The number of Orokaiva at the time of Western contact is unknown. §REF§ (Latham and Beierle 2004) Latham, Christopher S., and John Beierle. 2004. “Culture Summary: Orokaiva.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7. §REF§ In the early 20th century, the anthropologist Francis Edgar Williams estimated that the Orokaiva numbered around 20,000 people. §REF§ (Williams and Murray 1930, 7) Williams, Francis Edgar. 1930. Orokaiva Society. London: Humphrey Milford on behalf of Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KUPJA2X4. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",35.0,Oro PNG,New Guinea,148.193783000000,-8.590711000000,Oro,NG,Papua New Guinea,Oceania-Australia,29,New Guinea,New Guinea,"{'id': 8, 'name': 'Oceania-Australia'}"
445,PgOrokE,1734,1883,Orokaiva - Pre-Colonial,pg_orokaiva_pre_colonial,LEGACY,"The Northern Province of Papua New Guinea has long been inhabited by the Orokaiva. This is an umbrella term used to describe a number of culturally similar groups, including the Aiga, Binandele, Hunjara, Mambare, and Wasida. §REF§ (Reay 1953, 110) Reay, Marie. 1953. “Social Control amongst the Orokaiva.” Oceania 24 (2): 110-18. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FQKM3Z7S. §REF§ Though these groups did not have an inclusive name for themselves until Westerners coined the label 'Orokaiva', they distinguished among themselves as the river (umo-ke), saltwater (eva'embo), and inland (periho) peoples. §REF§ (Latham and Beierle 2004) Christopher S. Latham and John Beierle. 2004. Culture Summary: Orokaiva. New Haven: HRAF. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000. §REF§ The Orokaiva were primarily subsistence farmers in the period under consideration (1734-1883 CE). §REF§ (Latham and Beierle 2004) Latham, Christopher S., and John Beierle. 2004. “Culture Summary: Orokaiva.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7. §REF§ The first known contact with Europeans occurred in the 18th century, but the Orokaiva formally became part of a wider polity in 1888, when the British annexed the island. §REF§ (Latham and Beierle 2004) Latham, Christopher S., and John Beierle. 2004. “Culture Summary: Orokaiva.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7. §REF§
Population and political organization
The Orokaiva lacked central authority and hereditary leadership. The closest thing they had to leaders were big men (embo dambo) and elders, who commanded the respect of their neighbours due to their personal qualities, including their ability to make wise decisions and their skill in organizing ceremonies. However, they still lacked authorities with the power to issue sanctions. §REF§ (Latham and Beierle 2004) Latham, Christopher S., and John Beierle. 2004. “Culture Summary: Orokaiva.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7. §REF§
The number of Orokaiva at the time of Western contact is unknown. §REF§ (Latham and Beierle 2004) Latham, Christopher S., and John Beierle. 2004. “Culture Summary: Orokaiva.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7. §REF§ In the early 20th century, the anthropologist Francis Edgar Williams estimated that the Orokaiva numbered around 20,000 people. §REF§ (Williams and Murray 1930, 7) Williams, Francis Edgar. 1930. Orokaiva Society. London: Humphrey Milford on behalf of Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KUPJA2X4. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",35.0,Oro PNG,New Guinea,148.193783000000,-8.590711000000,Oro,NG,Papua New Guinea,Oceania-Australia,29,New Guinea,New Guinea,"{'id': 8, 'name': 'Oceania-Australia'}"
186,ItOstrg,489,554,Ostrogothic Kingdom,it_ostrogoth_k,LEGACY,"Beginning with the Emperor Honorius (r. 393-423 CE), the Western Empire experienced a continuous decline and a series of invasions at the hands of Germanic, Vandal, Alan, and Hun forces throughout the 5th century. In 476 CE, a Roman military officer of likely Germanic decent (though his exact ancestry is not certain) named Odoacer led a revolt against the western emperor Romulus Augustus (r. 475-476 CE), a child whose rule was overseen by his father, a high-ranking general named Orestes. Odoacer and his fellow soldiers killed Orestes and effectively deposed Romulus Augustus, and Odoacer's authority was recognized by the Eastern Roman emperor at the time, Zeno, although he was not proclaimed Emperor in the West. In 480 CE, after the death of Julius Nepos, whom Zeno recognized as the legitimate Western Emperor, Zeno abolished the co-emperorship, claiming to rule over both halves of the Empire, although much of the Western Empire had already been lost and Italy itself remained under the control of Odoacer, who ruled as king. §REF§ (Cameron 1993) Averil Cameron. 1993. The Later Roman Empire, A.D. 284-430. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Burns 1991, 74) Thomas S. Burns. 1991. A History of the Ostrogoths. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. §REF§
In 488 CE, the Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno convinced Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths (r. 475-526), to invade Italy and remove Odoacer from power. §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 21) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Theodoric and his Ostrogoths were successful, expelling Odoacer from Italy and establishing an Ostrogothic Kingdom over most of Italy, which lasted from 489 to 554 CE. Theodoric's agreement with Zeno, which may have been written down but no longer exists, §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 20) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ led Theodoric's rule to be officially recognized by the Eastern Empire in Constantinople. §REF§ (Stearns, ed. 2001, 169) Peter N. Stearns, ed. 2001. The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. 6th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. §REF§
The period ends with Ostrogothic Italy's defeat at the hands of the Byzantine/Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I in 455 CE. Justinian managed to reassert Roman rule and institutions over much of Italy, though this quickly evaporated in the face of invasions by Salvic, Turkic, and Germanic tribes. Only central and some parts of southern Italy remained under Byzantine authority into the later half of the 5th century CE. §REF§ (Burns 1991, 215) Thomas S. Burns. 1991. A History of the Ostrogoths. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
The Ostrogothic Kingdom was essentially split between three separate power centres: Constantinople, Ravenna and Rome. The Ostrogothic king, traditionally elected by a Gothic military elite, §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 21) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ but made hereditary after Theodoric, made high-level administrative appointments to a court based in Ravenna and to the northern Italian cities of Pavia and Verona. §REF§ (Barnish 2007, 327) Sam J. Barnish. 2007. 'Cuncta Italiae Membra Componere: Political Relations in Ostrogothic Italy', in The Ostrogoths from the Migration Period to the Sixth Century: An Ethnographic Perspective, edited by Sam J. Barnish and Federico Marazzi, 317-37. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. §REF§ The Ostrogothic King was, however, in principle under the authority of the Byzantine/Eastern Roman Empire in Constantinople, on whose invitation Theodoric had invaded Odoacer's Italy. The emperors in Constantinople retained the right to name senators, consuls, and other high-ranking officials for the West, §REF§ (Wolfram and Dunlap 1990, 287-88) H. Wolfram and T. J. Dunlap. 1990. History of the Goths. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ while Rome remained an influential symbolic, economic, and ecclesiastical centre. §REF§ (Barnish 2007, 327) Sam J. Barnish. 2007. 'Cuncta Italiae Membra Componere: Political Relations in Ostrogothic Italy', in The Ostrogoths from the Migration Period to the Sixth Century: An Ethnographic Perspective, edited by Sam J. Barnish and Federico Marazzi, 317-37. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. §REF§ The Roman Senate at Rome functioned as a local governing centre; §REF§ (Arnold, Bjornlie and Sessa 2016, 8) Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa. 2016. 'Introduction', in A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 1-13. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ many wealthy Romans found traditional positions of authority and prestige in the administration at Ravenna. §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 25) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ §REF§ (Arnold, Bjornlie and Sessa 2016, 8) Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa. 2016. 'Introduction', in A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 1-13. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Ostrogothic kings kept the existing late Roman governmental structure relatively unchanged, §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 59) Shane M Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration.' in A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy edited by Jonathan J Arnold, Shane M Bjornlie, Kristina Sessa. Leiden: BRILL. §REF§ but reduced in size §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 53) Shane M. Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration', in A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 47-72. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ and more tightly centred on the royal court. §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 26) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§
The king's administrative and advisory council was made up of both Gothic and Roman officials. §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 58) Shane M. Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration', in A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 47-72. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ §REF§ (Barnish 2007, 322) Sam J. Barnish. 2007. 'Cuncta Italiae Membra Componere: Political Relations in Ostrogothic Italy', in The Ostrogoths from the Migration Period to the Sixth Century: An Ethnographic Perspective, edited by Sam J. Barnish and Federico Marazzi, 317-37. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. §REF§ This period also saw a 'blurring of the boundaries between civil and military functions'. §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 26) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The praetorian prefect was the most powerful individual in the kingdom below the king; he was responsible for enforcing the king's laws, had some power to issue his own edicts and set taxation rates, received the taxes from all provinces, paid military and administrative salaries, made personnel recommendations to the king and had the right of dismissal. §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 61) Shane M. Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration', in A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 47-72. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ He also commanded the largest branches of the bureaucracy, was responsible for the public food supply, and was the final judge of appeal. §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 61) Shane M. Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration', in A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 47-72. Leiden: Brill. §REF§
The Ostrogothic Kingdom reached a population of approximately 5.5 million people and witnessed a revival in economic fortunes for the region of Italy. Apart from the many Roman institutions, the Roman aristocracy and their privileges that were maintained, tax receipts were spent on public services §REF§ (Wolfram and Dunlap 1990, 296) H. Wolfram and T. J. Dunlap. 1990. History of the Goths. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ and Theodoric commanded that money be set aside for the restoration of walls and monuments in several Roman cities. §REF§ (Purton 2009, 14) Peter Purton. 2009. A History of the Early Medieval Siege, c. 450-1220. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. §REF§ Theodoric also oversaw the construction of baths and an amphitheatre, and restored aqueducts from Ravenna to Rome - the latter had seen its population fall to around 100,000-200,000 inhabitants - and built churches such as the Arian Saint Theodor, the palatial San Apollinare Nuovo, and the San Andrea dei Gothi. §REF§ (Burns 1991, 129) Thomas S. Burns. 1991. A History of the Ostrogoths. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",1.0,Latium,Southern Europe,12.486948000000,41.890407000000,Rome,IT,Italy,Europe,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
173,TrOttm1,1299,1402,Ottoman Emirate,tr_ottoman_emirate,LEGACY,"The polity of the Ottomans was originally one of many small Turkish principalities on the border of the Byzantine realm §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 429) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ against whom their ghazi chieftain launched raids for territory and plunder. Through both warfare and diplomacy with farmers, townspeople and Christian nobles, they eventually forced the submission of the western Balkans and then annexed their rival Turkish principalities in western Anatolia. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 429) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ The massive expansion of the Ottoman polity (18,000 km2 in 1320 CE to 690,000 km2 by 1400 CE) came to an abrupt halt with the invasion of Timur in 1402 CE who conquered the Ottomans and made its ruler a vassal. There was then a civil war for control of the Ottoman state which ends the first period (1290-1402 CE).
As the polity rapidly expanded, the Ottoman government was run out of a succession of capitals: Sogut (1299-1325 CE), Bursa (1326-1364 CE), and Adrianople (1364-1413 CE) all provided a base for a period. The title of Sultan was introduced in 1383 CE by Murat I (1362-1389 CE). His government was an extension of his court and the top officials were directly appointed, and increasingly powerful through the period. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 148) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ An Imperial Council (divan) §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ issued his decrees and made less important and administrative policy decisions. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ Viziers in the government were able to make some appointments in the name of the Sultan at the very least by the fifteenth century. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 156) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ The date when the Grand Vizier became the most powerful official in the state is disputed; some scholars believe this occurred c1360 CE §REF§ (Shaw 1976, 22) Stanford J Shaw. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey: Volume 1, Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1280-1808. Cambridge University Press. §REF§ while Ottoman tradition has it when Mehmed II stopped attending meetings in early 15th century. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 156) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§
Provinces with governors probably did not exist until the 1380s CE. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 177) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ The rapid increase in size of the Ottoman state meant that the winner of the Ottoman civil war would gain control of territory that held 5 million people.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",11.0,Konya Plain,Anatolia-Caucasus,32.521164000000,37.877845000000,Konya,TR,Turkey,Southwest Asia,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
174,TrOttm2,1402,1517,Ottoman Empire I,tr_ottoman_emp_1,LEGACY,"During the fifteenth century the Ottomans reconstructed the state following the damaging civil war (which ended 1412 CE) and the devastating Mongol invasion under Timur (in 1402 CE). The period ends with the Ottoman conquest of Mamluk Egypt and Syria, which began a ""stronger Islamisation of the Empire."" §REF§ Personal communication. Johannes Preiser-Kapeller. 2016. Institute for Medieval Research. Division of Byzantine Research. Austrian Academy of Sciences. §REF§
Ottoman government had an elaborate set of institutions but was ultimately highly autocratic, run out of the court of the Sultan §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 437) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ who would frequently execute men of high rank in rituals of death that ""symbolised the absolute power of the sultan within his own household, and the abject status of even his most powerful counsellors."" §REF§ (Imber 2002, 156) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ The court often ""by-passed formal structures of government such as in diplomatic negotiations"" and Colin Imber notes that there was an informal aspect to policy making that depended a great deal on the personality of the Sultan ""and the individuals or factions who had his ear."" §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§
The main institution of government was the Imperial Council (divan) which was under the presidency of the Grand Vizier. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ In the regions provinces were run by governors (beylerbeyi). §REF§ (Imber 2002, 177-178) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ The Ottoman army was financed by land grants: between 1400-1590 CE army officers were assigned timar holdings from which they could raise revenue as a form of salary. Numbering 27,500 in 1527 CE they ""formed the most important element in the Ottoman army."" §REF§ (Imber 2002, 256-257) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 440) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§
At this time the Ottoman Empire was very heterogeneous in language and culture and while Islam predominated as the state religion the Greek and Armenian Orthodox Churches retained some influence within the Ottoman government and served large concentrations of Christians. After their expulsion from Spain in 1492 CE there were also many Jews, in addition to Maronites and Druzes. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 1-2) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ After the final conquest of Byzantine Constantinople in 1453 CE, the city became the Ottoman capital, now called Istanbul, and boomed in size again from about 50,000 to perhaps as many as 400,000 residents.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",11.0,Konya Plain,Anatolia-Caucasus,32.521164000000,37.877845000000,Konya,TR,Turkey,Southwest Asia,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
175,TrOttm3,1517,1683,Ottoman Empire II,tr_ottoman_emp_2,LEGACY,"In the 15th century CE, the Turkic Ottoman Sultan Mehmet II conquered Constantinople, took from the last vestiges of the defeated Roman Empire the famous title 'caesar', and added to it the grandiose title 'ruler of the two continents and the two seas'. §REF§ (Inalcik and Quataert 1997, 18) Halil Inalcik and Donald Quataert. 1997. 'General Introduction', in An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, Volume One: 1300-1600, edited by Halil Inalcik with Donald Quataert, 1-8. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ However, it was Suleiman I (1520-1566 CE) who earned his sobriquets 'the Magnificent' and 'the Lawgiver' when he reformed the Ottoman system of government, codified Ottoman secular law, and extended the Ottoman Empire into Europe as far as Vienna.
Population and political organization
The Ottoman Empire was a hereditary dynasty under the rule of an Ottoman Sultan. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 87) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The Ottoman 'slave-elite' differed from that of the Mamluk Sultanate in that the Ottoman slaves could never achieve the position of sultan, which remained the hereditary property of the Osman dynasty. With its capital in Istanbul, the main organ of state power was the 'elaborate court, palace, and household government'. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 437) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Policy-making was weakly institutionalized: in theory, all decisions were made by the sultan himself, and so Ottoman policies were shaped by the sultan's personal character and by the 'individuals or factions who had his ear'. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The sultans appointed their own staff and paid them with a wage or (increasingly after 1600 CE) a fief. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 171) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ State funding came in large part from money raised by fief holders until Grand Vizier Ibrahim Pasha Kulliyesi (in office from 1718 CE) introduced a property tax. §REF§ (Palmer 1992, 33-34) Alan Palmer. 1992. The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire. London: John Murray. §REF§
The administrative and military officials around the sultan were slaves educated in palace schools. §REF§ (Nicolle 1983, 10) David Nicolle. 1983. Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300-1774. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. §REF§ The source of this non-Turkish administrative class was the devsirme tribute, which began in 1438 CE; by the 16th century about 1,000 boys were taken per year per recruiting province in the Balkans and non-Muslim communities in Anatolia. The system divided these slaves into those who would serve the bureaucracy and those who would form the elite military corps known as janissaries. In 1582 CE, recruits of non-devsirme origin, including free Muslims, were permitted to join the janissaries and after 1648 CE the devsirme system was no longer used to recruit for the janissaries. §REF§ (Nicolle 1983, 9-11, 20) David Nicolle. 1983. Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300-1774. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. §REF§ The imperial household together with its armies and administrative officials was truly vast, numbering about 100,000 people by the 17th century. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 437) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The renowned Ottoman architect Sinan was a tribute slave; he notably designed the Sehzade and Süleyman külliyes (complexes of buildings including mosques and mausoleums) and the Selim Mosque at Edirne (1569-1575 CE), with its four 83-metre-high minarets. §REF§ (TheOttomans.org 2002) TheOttomans.org. 2002. 'Architecture'. http://www.theottomans.org/english/art_culture/architec.asp, accessed 3 April 2017. §REF§ §REF§ (Freely 2011, 15, 29, 215, 269) John Freely. 2011. A History of Ottoman Architecture. Southampton: WIT Press. §REF§
Ottoman sultans issued decrees through an imperial council (divan) §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ and the chief executive power below the sultan, the grand vizier. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 156) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Although certain regions (Egypt, for example) may have differed slightly in their governing structure, Ottoman regional government typically involved governors (beylerbeyi) §REF§ (Imber 2002, 177-78) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ whose provinces were split into districts (sanjaks) under district governors (sanjak beyi). §REF§ (Imber 2002, 184) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The sanjak beyi also was a military commander. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 189) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Fief-holding soldiers were responsible for local law and order within their districts. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 194) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ By the late 16th century, the lowest level of this system had transformed into a system of tax farms or fiefs given to non-military administrators. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 209, 215) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ In 1695 CE, these tax farms were 'sold as life tenures (malikane)', and later shares in tax farms were sold to the public. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 473) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
Ottoman law was divided into religious - Islamic sharia - and secular kanun law. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 244) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Kanun law essentially served to fill the gaps left by the religious legal tradition, regulating 'areas where the provisions of the sacred law were either missing or too much at at odds with reality to be applicable'. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 244) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ In the Ottoman Empire, this included aspects of criminal law, land tenure and taxation; kanun law drew its legitimacy from precedent and custom. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 244) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Military judges (kadi'asker) were the heads of the empire's judiciary and heard cases brought before the imperial council. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 157) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§
Ottoman Anatolia further enhanced many aspects of Byzantine culture. In 1331, in an attempt to spread Islam to new territories, Iranian and Egyptian scholars were brought to Iznik in northwestern Anatolia to teach at the first Ottoman college. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 440) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Palace schools were created to train the next generation of Ottoman officials. During the 15th and 16th centuries CE, about 500 libraries were built by sultans and high Ottoman dignitaries. These were maintained by waqf religious foundations; the majority in Istanbul, Bursa and Erdine. Initially, these were madrassa libraries and specialist libraries, but the first independent Ottoman waqf libraries were founded by the Koprulu family in 1678 CE. §REF§ (Agoston and Masters 2009, 333-34) Gabor Agoston and Bruce Masters. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. New York: Facts On File. §REF§
The Ottoman postal system (ulak) structured around postal stations (similar to the Mongol yam) §REF§ (Królikowska 2013, 59) Natalia Królikowska. 2013. 'Sovereignty and Subordination in Crimean-Ottoman Relations (Sixteenth-Eighteenth Centuries)', in The European Tributary States of the Ottoman Empire in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, edited by Gábor Kármán and Lovro Kunčević, 43-66. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ spanned an empire of 5.2 million square kilometres at its greatest extent, §REF§ (Turchin, Adams and Hall 2006) Peter Turchin, Jonathan M. Adams and Thomas D. Hall. 2006. 'East-West Orientation of Historical Empires'. Journal of World-Systems Research 12 (2): 219-29. §REF§ with a population of approximately 28 million people in 1600 CE. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 137) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. London: Allen Lane. §REF§ Istanbul likely had a population of at least 650,000 in 1600 CE. §REF§ (Bairoch 1988, 378) Paul Bairoch. 1988. Cities and Economic Development: From the Dawn of History to the Present. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",11.0,Konya Plain,Anatolia-Caucasus,32.521164000000,37.877845000000,Konya,TR,Turkey,Southwest Asia,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
176,TrOttm4,1683,1839,Ottoman Empire III,tr_ottoman_emp_3,LEGACY,"The Ottoman Empire during the period between 1683 and 1839 CE was at its most powerful, but was frequently beset by revolts that threatened to break it apart, particularly in Egypt. However, the dynasts in Istanbul successfully retained power behind a protective veil of elite slaves, acquired by tribute from conquered provinces and raised and educated to run the government and military. The Ottoman 'slave-elite' differed from that of the Mamluk Sultanate in that the Ottoman slaves could never achieve the position of sultan, which remained the hereditary property of the Osman dynasty. Although this failed to prevent palace intrigues or succession crises, the sultans of this period made progress toward greater unification of the empire's dense patchwork of languages and ethnicities. Trading on their successful military conquests, the Ottoman sultans claimed the title of 'caliph of all the Muslims in the world'. §REF§ (Inalcik and Quataert 1997, 20) Halil Inalcik and Donald Quataert. 1997. 'General Introduction', in An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, Volume One: 1300-1600, edited by Halil Inalcik with Donald Quataert, 1-8. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
The Ottoman Empire was a hereditary dynasty under the rule of an Ottoman Sultan. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 87) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The Ottoman 'slave-elite' differed from that of the Mamluk Sultanate in that the Ottoman slaves could never achieve the position of sultan, which remained the hereditary property of the Osman dynasty. With its capital in Istanbul, the main organ of state power was the 'elaborate court, palace, and household government'. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 437) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Policy-making was weakly institutionalized: in theory, all decisions were made by the sultan himself, and so Ottoman policies were shaped by the sultan's personal character and by the 'individuals or factions who had his ear'. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The sultans appointed their own staff and paid them with a wage or (increasingly after 1600 CE) a fief. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 171) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ State funding came in large part from money raised by fief holders until Grand Vizier Ibrahim Pasha Kulliyesi introduced a property tax around 1718 CE. §REF§ (Palmer 1992) Alan Palmer. 1992. The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire. London: John Murray. §REF§
The administrative and military officials around the sultan were slaves educated in palace schools. §REF§ (Nicolle 1983, 10) David Nicolle. 1983. Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300-1774. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. §REF§ The source of this non-Turkish administrative class was the devsirme tribute, which began in 1438 CE; by the 16th century about 1,000 boys were taken per year per recruiting province in the Balkans and non-Muslim communities in Anatolia. The system divided these slaves into those who would serve the bureaucracy and those who would form the elite military corps known as janissaries. In 1582 CE, recruits of non-devsirme origin, including free Muslims, were permitted to join the janissaries and after 1648 CE the devsirme system was no longer used to recruit for the janissaries. §REF§ (Nicolle 1983, 9-11, 20) David Nicolle. 1983. Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300-1774. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. §REF§ The imperial household together with its armies and administrative officials was truly vast, numbering about 100,000 people by the 17th century. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 437) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
Ottoman sultans issued decrees to their approximately 24 million subjects through an imperial council (divan) §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ and the chief executive power below the sultan, the grand vizier. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 156) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Although certain regions (Egypt, for example) may have differed slightly in their governing structure, Ottoman regional government typically involved governors (beylerbeyi) §REF§ (Imber 2002, 177-78) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ whose provinces were split into districts (sanjaks) under district governors (sanjak beyi). §REF§ (Imber 2002, 184) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The sanjak beyi also was a military commander. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 189) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Fief-holding soldiers were responsible for local law and order within their districts. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 194) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ By the late 16th century, the lowest level of this system had transformed into a system of tax farms or fiefs given to non-military administrators. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 209, 215) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ In 1695 CE, these tax farms were 'sold as life tenures (malikane)', and later shares in tax farms were sold to the public. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 473) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
Ottoman law was divided into religious - Islamic sharia - and secular kanun law. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 244) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Kanun law essentially served to fill the gaps left by the religious legal tradition, regulating 'areas where the provisions of the sacred law were either missing or too much at at odds with reality to be applicable'. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 244) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ In the Ottoman Empire, this included aspects of criminal law, land tenure and taxation; kanun law drew its legitimacy from precedent and custom. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 244) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Military judges (kadi'asker) were the heads of the empire's judiciary and heard cases brought before the imperial council. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 157) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",11.0,Konya Plain,Anatolia-Caucasus,32.521164000000,37.877845000000,Konya,TR,Turkey,Southwest Asia,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
177,TrOttm5,1839,1922,Ottoman Empire IV,tr_ottoman_emp_4,LEGACY,,,,,2023-11-20T10:36:18.319606Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",11.0,Konya Plain,Anatolia-Caucasus,32.521164000000,37.877845000000,Konya,TR,Turkey,Southwest Asia,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
542,YeOttoL,1873,1920,Ottoman Empire Late Period,tr_ottoman_emp_4_copy,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
663,ni_oyo_emp_1,1300,1535,Oyo,ni_oyo_emp_1,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
396,InPala,750,1174,Pala Empire,in_pala_emp,LEGACY,,,,,2025-04-08T15:47:28.395933Z,"{'id': 147, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,37,Eastern South Asia,"Bangladesh + Indian states of West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and Sikkim","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
697,in_pandya_emp_2,590,915,Pandya Dynasty,in_pandya_emp_2,POL_SA_SI,"The Pandya dynasty revived its political power in 590 CE when Maravarman Avanishulamani ended Kalabhra rule. §REF§ (Singh 2008, 558) Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Delhi: Pearson Longman. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UJG2G6MJ/collection §REF§ The Pandya dynasty thus established its capital in Madurai with its main ports at Kanyakumari, Kottalam, and Sunchindram. §REF§ (Middleton 2015, 716) 2015. ‘Pandya Dynasty’ In World Monarchies and Dynasties: Vol 1-3. Edited by John Middleton. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/BISZJCDB/collection §REF§ §REF§ (Kamlesh 2010, 596) Kamlesh, Kapur. 2010. ‘Pandya Dynasty’ In Portraits of a Nation: History of Ancient India. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/3TS5DCT6/collection §REF§
The Pandya dynasty, as in earlier periods, continued their support of education and the building of schools and knowledge centres. §REF§ (Kamlesh 2010, 600) Kamlesh, Kapur. 2010. ‘Pandya Dynasty’ In Portraits of a Nation: History of Ancient India. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/3TS5DCT6/collection §REF§ The Pandyan dynasty was likewise supporters of Shaivist Hindu religion and patrons of different temples. §REF§ (Pal 1988, 259) Pal, Pratapadiya. 1988. Indian Sculpture: 700-1800 Vol. 2. Berkeley: University of California Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/GI668E2K/collection §REF§ §REF§ (Kamlesh 2010, 600) Kamlesh, Kapur. 2010. ‘Pandya Dynasty’ In Portraits of a Nation: History of Ancient India. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/3TS5DCT6/collection §REF§ The Pandya dynasty was also a naval superpower in the region and made many campaigns against Ceylon. §REF§ (Kamlesh 2010, 599) Kamlesh, Kapur. 2010. ‘Pandya Dynasty’ In Portraits of a Nation: History of Ancient India. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/3TS5DCT6/collection §REF§ In 915 CE the Cholas invaded the Pandya region and ruled over the territory for the next thirty years. §REF§ (Middleton 2015, 717) 2015. ‘Pandya Dynasty’ In World Monarchies and Dynasties: Vol 1-3. Edited by John Middleton. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/BISZJCDB/collection §REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
627,in_pandya_emp_3,1216,1323,Pandya Empire,in_pandya_emp_3,POL_SA_SI,"“The Pandyan dynasty and the goddess Minakshi serve as excellent examples of the Dravidian model of kingship and of the Sankritization process. The royal Pandyan dynasty is mentioned in texts dating from the fourth century BCE and the dynastic title lasted, in one form or another through a series of families, for about 1,500 years. They were based in the dry upland interior of the Tamil-speaking region. While the Pandyans did not customarily build dams, they developed a distinctive technology of two specific types of piston valves to control water flow from the reservoir sluices.” §REF§ (Fisher 2018, 74) Fisher, Michael H. 2018. An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/MIEG8XAK/collection §REF§",,,,2024-07-03T08:02:32.122965Z,"{'id': 55, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
192,ItPapM1,1527,1648,Papal States - Early Modern Period I,it_papal_state_3,LEGACY,"The polity period begins with the imperial sack of Rome (1527). This devastating sack at the hands of largely Protestant mercenaries-theoretically in the service of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V-marks an absolute nadir of papal fortunes for the early modern period. The sack provoked the papacy to reform itself, take the Protestant revolt seriously, and initiate the Counter-Reformation (aka the Catholic Reformation). §REF§ (Martin 2002, 39-42) John M Marino, ed. 2002. Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ The age of the Council of Trent (1543-1563) dramatically altered the Catholic Church, enhancing the papacy's power within the Church and enhancing its ability to police the laity, with institutions such as the Roman Inquisition being established in 1542 by Paul III. §REF§ (Martin 2002, 42) John M Marino, ed. 2002. Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ The index of banned books was established, tighter clerical control over canonization imposed, and in general the Catholic Church ratcheted down on orthodoxy in the face of the Protestant threat. §REF§ (Schutte 2002, 126-127) John M Marino, ed. 2002. Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§
The sack of Rome was compounded by malaria epidemics and food shortages, to drastically reduce the population of Rome to perhaps 10,000 in 1527-28. §REF§ (Black 2001, 9) Christopher F Black. 2001. Early modern Italy. A social history. London: Routledge. §REF§ Despite this, the city soon recovered and boomed in the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries as the capital of a more or less stable Papal State, under Spanish protection. By the turn of the century, Rome's population may have been around 100,000. §REF§ (Goldthwaite 2009, 173) Richard A Goldthwaite. 2009. The economy of renaissance Florence. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins UP, 2009. §REF§ Marino has characterized the early modern city's economy as parasitic, consuming and not producing wealth §REF§ (Marino 2002, 66) John M Marino, ed. 2002. Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ ; Goldthwaite, similarly, describes late medieval and early modern Rome thus: ""Rome, however, was a city that consumed but did not produce; in contrast to Avignon, it was not a regional export market of any importance."" §REF§ (Goldthwaite 2009, 173) Richard A Goldthwaite. 2009. The economy of renaissance Florence. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins UP, 2009. §REF§ A major part of this consumption was cultural: ""Rome...exploded [in the sixteenth century] into an enormous market for luxury goods...."" §REF§ (Goldthwaite 2009, 173) Richard A Goldthwaite. 2009. The economy of renaissance Florence. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins UP, 2009. §REF§ Despite the sack, the most important papal building project of the early modern period, St. Peter's Basilica, was completed in 1626. Spanish financial and military support was crucial to the survival of the Papal State; a famous letter of Charles V, written to his son Philip II between 1545 and 1558, declared that ""'the states of the church are in the center of Italy, but [they are] surrounded by ours in such a way that one can say that they form one kingdom.'"" §REF§ (Dandelet 2003, 221) Thomas Dandelet. 2003. ""The Spanish Foundations of Late Renaissance and Baroque Rome."" In Beyond Florence. The Contours of Medieval and Early Modern Italy.Paula Findlen, Michelle M. Fontaine, and Duane J. Osheim eds. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP. pp. 219-232 §REF§ De facto Spanish hegemony over the Papal State would not be seriously challenged between the mid-16th century and the pontificate of Urban VIII (1623-44). §REF§ (Dandelet 2003, 221) Thomas Dandelet. 2003. ""The Spanish Foundations of Late Renaissance and Baroque Rome."" In Beyond Florence. The Contours of Medieval and Early Modern Italy.Paula Findlen, Michelle M. Fontaine, and Duane J. Osheim eds. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP. pp. 219-232 §REF§
By the sixteenth century, the papacy was firmly in control of the Papal State, and the polity was at peace after the end of the Great Italian Wars (1559). The Spanish alliance remained a cornerstone of papal policy into the early 18th century. §REF§ (Dandelet 2002, 29) John M Marino, ed. 2002. Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ The papacy ruled Rome and the State through a sophisticated bureaucracy based on patronage, cronyism, and the purchase of offices. §REF§ (Dandelet 2002, 20) John M Marino, ed. 2002. Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 696-698) Fernand Braudel. 1973. The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II. Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§ The feudal barons and nobles were subject to clerical officials appointed by the Papacy. §REF§ (Symcox 2002, 114) John M Marino, ed. 2002. Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ Although this bureaucracy was usually able to meet the basic requirements of government-collecting taxes, administering justice, and protecting subjects-this does not mean that the Papal State was free of violence, famine, and so forth. Banditry remained a major problem during the period and would straight through to the late nineteenth century. §REF§ (Symcox 2002, 110) John M Marino, ed. 2002. Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 745-746) Fernand Braudel. 1973. The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II. Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§
After the end of the Wars, military action involving the papacy shifted to the Mediterranean. The Ottomans had begun raiding papal possessions on the Adriatic littoral from the mid-15th century, following the fall of Constantinople. These raids were not preludes to conquest, but were a serious disruption to trade and daily life in le Marche; in 1518, Selim I's forces had torched Porto Recanati, the port for Loreto, site of a major shrine to the Virgin. This imminent threat, compounded with the papacy's traditional role as organizer and propagandist of the crusade, resulted in deep papal involvement in the struggle against the Ottomans. Initially, these efforts were not successful. The major Turkish victory at Prevesa (1538) opened the Central Mediterranean to Turkish raiding and piracy; the Ottomans' alliance with the French even allowed the Turkish fleet to winter in Toulon. §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 906) Fernand Braudel. 1973. The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II. Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§ This ability of the Turks to winter in the western Mediterranean exposed the coast of Lazio to Turkish piracy; for example, Andrea Doria, leading a mixed papal-Genoese fleet, was defeated by Turks and North Africans off Terracina in 1552. §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 924) Fernand Braudel. 1973. The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II. Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§
Confronted with this Turkish menace, the papacy was crucial in organizing Christian campaigns against the Turks in North Africa and Greece, and in funding coastal defences for Lazio and the Kingdoms of Sicily & Naples. Pius V (1566-1572) was of particular importance in this effort, laying the groundwork for a papal fleet. §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 1083) Fernand Braudel. 1973. The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II. Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§ Pius granted major sources of ecclesiastical revenue to the Spanish Philip II, and was instrumental in organizing the councils and diplomatic wrangling that led to the creation of the Holy League in 1570, in particular convincing the Spanish to come to the aid of the Ventians. §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 1029) Fernand Braudel. 1973. The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II. Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§ The Holy League consisted of the Papacy, Spain, and Venice; by the final agreement, each party agreed to contributions for 3 years, for an annual expedition consisting of 200 galleys, 100 roundships, 50,000 infantry and 4,500 light infantry. §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 1091) Fernand Braudel. 1973. The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II. Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§ The Christian fleet met and decisively defeated a comparable Turkish squadron at Lepanto, off the Greek Ionian littoral, on 7 October 1571. It was the greatest battle in the Mediterranean in the 16th century, and it marked a substantive end to Turkish raiding on the papal lands and, more importantly, led to the division of the Mediterranean into a Turkish east and a Christian west. The papacy's international prestige rose to new heights with the victory, as well, but declined during the seventeenth century due to the grasping annexation of the duchy of Urbino and Urban VIII's foolish war of Castro in the early 1640s. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 9-10) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London & New York: Longman. §REF§
Italy enjoyed several decades of peace following the peace of Cateau-Cambresis of 1559 between France and Spain. Yet economically and demographically, the 1590s and the first half of the seventeenth century were a period of general crisis in Italy. The ""decline of Italy"" is a venerable aspect of early modern historiography, but depends on a particular view of what counts in assessing quality of life: see Black, (2001, 32), for an approving echo of Braudel's comments to the contrary §REF§ (Black 2001, 32) Christopher F Black. 2001. Early modern Italy. A social history. London: Routledge. §REF§ Papal revenues were aided by the popes' ability to draw on Spanish ecclesiastical revenues. §REF§ (Dandelet 2003, 219-232) Thomas Dandelet. 2003. ""The Spanish Foundations of Late Renaissance and Baroque Rome."" In Beyond Florence. The Contours of Medieval and Early Modern Italy.Paula Findlen, Michelle M. Fontaine, and Duane J. Osheim eds. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP. pp. 219-232 §REF§ Demographically, the first half of the seventeenth century was a succession of plagues and famines in many parts of the peninsula. §REF§ (Black 2001, 23) Christopher F Black. 2001. Early modern Italy. A social history. London: Routledge. §REF§ A particularly virulent plague cycle hit Rome in 1656, §REF§ (Cipolla 1981, 90) Carlo M Cipolla. 1981. Fighting the plague in Seventeenth-century Italy. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. §REF§ dropping its population from 120,000 to 100,000. §REF§ (Black 2001, 23) Christopher F Black. 2001. Early modern Italy. A social history. London: Routledge. §REF§",,,,2024-10-16T08:49:41.821749Z,"{'id': 38, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",1.0,Latium,Southern Europe,12.486948000000,41.890407000000,Rome,IT,Italy,Europe,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
193,ItPapM2,1648,1809,Papal States - Early Modern Period II,it_papal_state_4,LEGACY,"The papacy was victorious in the Second War of Castro (1649). This was only the denouement of a minor episode, however, and in general the Papal State was a political fossil, undertaking no reforms in the spirit of the Enlightenment, and increasingly irrelevant to European affairs. §REF§ (Symcox 2002, 118) John M Marino, ed. 2002. Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§
The first part of this period marked the definitive eclipse of the papacy as a power of any reckoning in international relations. Pope Urban VIII had annexed the Duchy of Urbino to the Papal States in 1631, thereby alienating the papacy from the other Italian powers. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 9-10) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London & New York: Longman. §REF§ The first war of Castro broke out in 1641 when Urban declared war on the Farnese, the ruling family of Parma, over the poor finances of Castro, a small fiefdom held by the Farnese just north of Rome. Tuscany, Modena and Venice joined the Farnese to resist the papacy, and inflicted humiliating defeats on the papal armies. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 10) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London & New York: Longman. §REF§ In 1644, the French imposed a peace settlement. Although Pope Innocent X's troops took Castro and razed it to the ground in 1649, the papacy was now isolated internationally and increasingly irrelevant. The papacy took no part in the Peace of Westphalia, and it was also not consulted in the Franco-Spanish Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659). §REF§ (Sella 1997, 11) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London & New York: Longman. §REF§ The papacy took no part in European wars for the rest of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
The papacy's irrelevance internationally can be seen as part of the decline of the Spanish empire, as had benefited from Spanish protection during the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. §REF§ (Dandelet 2003, 219-232) Thomas Dandelet. 2003. ""The Spanish Foundations of Late Renaissance and Baroque Rome."" In Beyond Florence. The Contours of Medieval and Early Modern Italy.Paula Findlen, Michelle M. Fontaine, and Duane J. Osheim eds. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP. pp. 219-232 §REF§ The French came to dominate European affairs during the reign of Louis XIV, but the struggle for power in Europe did not seriously affect the Papal State until the turn of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Warfare ravaged the peninsula in the early eighteenth century, as the (Austrian) Habsburgs and French Bourbons battled to fill the vacuum created by Spain's gradual eclipse. §REF§ (Woolf 1979, 29) S J Woolf. 1979. A History of Italy 1700-1860: The Social Constraints of Political Change. 2nd Ed. London: Methuen. §REF§ These wars were external events imposed on the Italian states, and they took as little part as possible. Spanish attempts to recruit troops at Rome in the 1730s were met by serious riots, for example. §REF§ (Woolf 1979, 35) S J Woolf. 1979. A History of Italy 1700-1860: The Social Constraints of Political Change. 2nd Ed. London: Methuen. §REF§ The War of the Austrian Succession devastated areas of the Marches and Romagna, but the papacy, it seems, was powerless to prevent foreign armies' depredations. §REF§ (Woolf 1979, 35) S J Woolf. 1979. A History of Italy 1700-1860: The Social Constraints of Political Change. 2nd Ed. London: Methuen. §REF§
As the eighteenth century progressed, this weakness, even impotence, became ever more marked. Clement XI in 1720 and Clement XII called for an Italian league to expel northern rulers, but these appeals were meaningless because the papacy controlled no armies worth speaking of. §REF§ (Woolf 1979, 37) S J Woolf. 1979. A History of Italy 1700-1860: The Social Constraints of Political Change. 2nd Ed. London: Methuen. §REF§ Thus, international relations between the papacy and the European powers during the later 18th century consisted of papal resistance to European states' attempts to restrain the power of the Church. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 68) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ This took its characteristic form in the French and Spanish expulsion of the Jesuit Order from their domains; in 1773, Pope Clement XIV suppressed the order. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 40) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ As a reward, the French restored Avignon and the Spanish Benevento to the papacy. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 42) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§
The papacy opposed the French Revolution from the beginning, and by 1792, there was a schism in France between Catholics who supported the Church sanctioned by the Revolutionary regime, and those who remained faithful to Rome. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 80) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ Pius VI sympathized with the Habsburgs and the revolutionary regime's enemies, and his successor was powerless in the face of Bonaparte's 1796 invasion of the peninsula. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 80-81) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ Indeed, the papal ambassador Zelada's reply to British requests for papal approval of the war against the French was the following: §REF§ (Hay 1975, 98) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ ""'It is true that there was a time when the voice of the Roman Pontiff was heard, respected, and obeyed; now...it is scarcely listened ever listened to, and never has any effect.'"" Although the British fleet had briefly protected the Papal States' coasts from the French, by 1796 the British had withdrawn. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 98) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ Napoleon did not initially invade the Papal States proper, only the Legation cities of Ravenna, Bologna, and Ferrara; in the following peace treaty, the French annexed Ravenna, Bologna, Ancona, and the right of entry to all papal ports. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 99) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ The papacy furthermore had to pay Napoleon 21 million crowns. War recommenced in 1797, and Bonaparte marched almost unopposed down the eastern coast of the peninsula, stealing whatever the papal government had not yet removed of the treasury at Loreto and forcing terms on the papacy at Tolentino in mid-February. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 101) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ Refusing to acquiesce in French domination, Pius VI was arrested in February 1798 and bundled off to prison in Valence, France.
The second half the 1600s was marked by a renewal of ""Christianization"" efforts, i.e., to educate the laity and ensure a stricter adherence to post-Tridentine Catholicism. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 106-115) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London & New York: Longman. §REF§ The wars, famines, and epidemics between 1610 and the mid-1650s had disrupted these efforts, but there was a ""Tridentine revival"" in the second half of the century resulting in Jesuit missions to the Kingdom of Naples, and more frequent pastoral visits by bishops. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 107) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London & New York: Longman. §REF§ The Inquisition, which had been institutionalized as the Roman Inquisition in the sixteenth century, was still active, although it may not have burnt as many heretics and witches as authorities north of the Alps. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 160) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London & New York: Longman. §REF§ The Inquisition censored books, although it was not necessarily successful at preventing their spread. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 160) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London & New York: Longman. §REF§ Pilgrimage remained popular, especially in Jubilee years (in this period, 1725, 1750, and 1775), and confraternities showed remarkable staying power, especially in the duchy of Benevento and the kingdom of Naples. Baptism and the Mass remained little changed, although parish records became a standard part of the Church's institutional machinery.
The seventeenth century was a period of major demographic and economic contraction, but by the mid-18th century, recovery had begun. §REF§ (Carpanetto and Recuperati 1987, 47) Dino Carpanetto. Giuseppe Ricuperati. 1987. Italy in the Age of Reason, 1685-1789. Trans. Caroline Higgit. London/New York: Oxford UP. §REF§ Gross has estimated that in 1684, the Papal States' trade and payment deficit was five million scudi; in 1786, the Papal States' imports exceeded their exports by three times. §REF§ (Gross 1990, 88) Gross, Hanns. Rome in the Age of Enlightenment: The post-Tridentine syndrome and the ancien regime. Cambridge, CUP. §REF§ Rome remained what it had long been, a parasitic drain on the Agro Romano. §REF§ (Carpanetto and Recuperati 1987, 15) Dino Carpanetto. Giuseppe Ricuperati. 1987. Italy in the Age of Reason, 1685-1789. Trans. Caroline Higgit. London/New York: Oxford UP. §REF§ The city consisted of a small plutocracy and a vast mass of artisans, courtiers, workers, and a major substratum of the permanently indigent; pilgrims added to the city's population and its coffers periodically. Ancona, on the other hand, experienced revived prosperity in the mid-18th century following Clement XII's decree making it a free port. §REF§ (Carpanetto and Recuperati 1987, 16) Dino Carpanetto. Giuseppe Ricuperati. 1987. Italy in the Age of Reason, 1685-1789. Trans. Caroline Higgit. London/New York: Oxford UP. §REF§ Bologna's economy was in decline due to the implosion of the textile trade. §REF§ (Carpanetto and Recuperati 1987, 16) Dino Carpanetto. Giuseppe Ricuperati. 1987. Italy in the Age of Reason, 1685-1789. Trans. Caroline Higgit. London/New York: Oxford UP. §REF§ An important contribution to the future demographic and economic health of Lazio was the draining of the Pontine Marshes, carried out under Popes Benedict XIV, Clement XIII, and Pius VI. §REF§ (Carpanetto and Recuperati 1987, 48) Dino Carpanetto. Giuseppe Ricuperati. 1987. Italy in the Age of Reason, 1685-1789. Trans. Caroline Higgit. London/New York: Oxford UP. §REF§",,,,2024-10-16T08:52:32.181633Z,"{'id': 39, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",1.0,Latium,Southern Europe,12.486948000000,41.890407000000,Rome,IT,Italy,Europe,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
190,ItPapHM,1198,1309,Papal States - High Medieval Period,it_papal_state_1,LEGACY,"In the 1198-1309 CE period the Papacy, from Innocent III, extended its power over the temporal realm, and over Christendom. The period ends with the Angevin exile from 1309 CE.
The term Christendom (Christianitas) reflects the supranational scope of the Papacy, which being also an international religion, had a degree of control beyond the territorial borders of the Papal State. §REF§ (Madigan 2015) K Madigan. 2015. Medieval Christianity: A New History. Yale University Press. New Haven. §REF§ Whilst in previous times Rome was dominated by France and then German monarchs, under the rule of Pope Innocent III (r. 1198-1216 CE), 'the king maker of Christendom', papal authority, particularly in influence around Europe, was at its medieval height. He initiated several crusades and presided over the Fourth Lateran Council §REF§ (Vauchez 2010, 356) André Vauchez ed. Roma Medievale. Rome: Editori Laterza, 2010 [2001]. §REF§ that defined an important Catholic ritual, the Eucharist.
Innocent III ""viewed himself explicitly as the vicar of Christ, priest and king, who possessed unrivaled temporal and religious authority"" §REF§ (Madigan 2015, 291) K Madigan. 2015. Medieval Christianity: A New History. Yale University Press. New Haven. §REF§ and this combined with a ""general acceptance that the pope was the vicar of Christ and the growing sense of Christians, nourished by the reforms of the eleventh century, that they were part of a supranational entity, Christendom (Christianitas), and that their primary loyalty was to that body and to the pope as head of Christendom, rather than to any local, regional, or even national entity."" §REF§ (Madigan 2015, 291) K Madigan. 2015. Medieval Christianity: A New History. Yale University Press. New Haven. §REF§
Armies of the Papal States were a conglomeration of international allies, friendly towns and nobles, volunteer crusaders, and the forces directly raised by the pope. §REF§ (Waley 1957, 1-30) D P Waley. January 1957. Papal Armies of the Thirteen Century, Vol. 72, No. 282, The English Historical Review. pp. 1-30 §REF§ The papal state formed many alliances with during this period, held the nominal allegiance of some polities (the Norman duchies to the south are just one good example of both of these), and held vassals of its own (albeit ones that were notoriously difficult to control). War with the Holy Roman Empire characterised the Papal State's international relations.
Based at the Lateran Palace in Rome, the Papal bureaucracy consisted of scribes, archivists, tax collectors, papal messengers, and administrators charged with the upkeep of the city §REF§ Carocci and Vendittelli, 74-75 §REF§ which at this time was no greater than the size of a large town, with about 35,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Brentano 1991, 13) Robert Brentano. 1991. Rome Before Avignon: A Social History of Thirteenth-Century Rome. Berkeley: University of California Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",1.0,Latium,Southern Europe,12.486948000000,41.890407000000,Rome,IT,Italy,Europe,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
191,ItPapRn,1378,1527,Papal States - Renaissance Period,it_papal_state_2,LEGACY,"The 1378-1527 CE period of the Papal States is known for 'Renaissance popes' who ""concentrated their efforts on protecting their Italian domain and in lavishly reconstructing the city of Rome."" §REF§ (Madigan 2015, 386) K Madigan. 2015. Medieval Christianity: A New History. Yale University Press. New Haven. §REF§ The Sistine Chapel, a popular symbol of the renaissance, was built between 1475-1481 CE commissioned by Sixtus IV. Goldthwaite has argued that the papacy's return to Rome in 1378 inaugurated a phase of economic growth for the Rome and its hinterland, reflecting Rome's dependence on the papacy, and not Lazio's productivity, to stimulate the economy. §REF§ (Goldthwaite 2010, 172) Richard Goldthwaite. 2010. The Economy of Renaissance Florence. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University. §REF§ Before the sack of Rome in 1527 CE §REF§ (Bairoch et al 1988, 47) Paul Bairoch. Jean Batou. Pierre Chèvre. 1988. The Population of European Cities from 800 to 1850. Geneva: Droz. §REF§ the population had finally begun to grow again, from about 30,000 early in the 14th century to 55,000.
The Renaissance Popes attempted to systematize and unify the financial administration of the Papal State. This meant ending financial and judicial immunities, and rolling back the power of locally powerful bishops and abbots. §REF§ Partner, 385-87; Braudel, 697 §REF§ However, the vast bureaucracy the Pope oversaw was a fundamentally corrupt one, by the late 14th century founded on bribery, the sale of offices, and patronage politics. §REF§ (Martin 2002, 34) John M Marino, ed. Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ During the fifteenth century, the sale of offices within the curia became routinized; and Peterson has estimated that under Pope Leo X (1513-1521), two thousand offices were for sale in the city of Rome alone. §REF§ (Peterson 2010, 74) John M Najemy, ed. 2010. Italy in the Age of the Renaissance: 1300-1500. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§
The papacy's ability to control the regions of the Papal States fluctuated dramatically during this period, especially during the Great Schism (1378-1417 CE). During the Schism, numerous ecclesiastical territories in the Papal State were seized by or alienated to secular lords. §REF§ (Partner 1972, 385) Peter Partner. 1972. The lands of Saint Peter. The Papal State in the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance. Berkeley: University of California Press. §REF§ The 1380s and 1390s were characterized by a long and futile struggle between the Roman and Avignon popes for control of territory and finances in central and southern Italy, with the long-term result being the destabilization of central Italy and the intensified decentralization of power in the Papal State, especially in the Romagna and le Marche. §REF§ (Partner 1972, 371) Peter Partner. 1972. The lands of Saint Peter. The Papal State in the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance. Berkeley: University of California Press. §REF§
In general, the various lords, cities, and feudatories of the papal states were ready and willing to rebel when possible, for example, in 1375 CE. §REF§ (Partner 1972, 366-367) Peter Partner. 1972. The lands of Saint Peter. The Papal State in the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance. Berkeley: University of California Press. §REF§ Furthermore, the lords of the petty Lords known as the Romagna were de facto independent for much of the late 14th and early 15th centuries. §REF§ For these petty lordships, see Larner §REF§ During the mid-15th century, King Ferrante of Naples deliberately contracted with Roman barons for them to raise mercenary bands for his service, undercutting these barons' feudal ties to the papacy. §REF§ (Mallett and Shaw 2012, 10) Michael Mallett and Christine Shaw. 2012 The Italian Wars, 1494-1559: War, state and society in early modern Europe. Harlow, England: Pearson. §REF§
As distinct from the previous centuries, up until 1494 CE the Papal States was usually free from influence of German emperors or Spanish kings, §REF§ (Najemy 2010) John M Najemy, ed. 2010. Italy in the Age of the Renaissance: 1300-1500. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ but the drastically changed situation between 1494-1527 CE, following the French king Charles VIII's invasion of Italy. §REF§ (Ady 1975, 343-367) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",1.0,Latium,Southern Europe,12.486948000000,41.890407000000,Rome,IT,Italy,Europe,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
402,InParam,974,1235,Paramara Dynasty,in_paramara_dyn,LEGACY,,,,,2023-11-14T13:52:35.590267Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
125,IrPart1,-247,40,Parthian Empire I,ir_parthian_emp_1,LEGACY,"The first ruler of the Parthian dynasty was Arsaces who lived at about 240 BCE §REF§ (Neusner 2008, 16) JAcob Neusner. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene. §REF§ but the founder of the Parthian Empire (171 BCE - 40 CE period) was Mithridates I, who initiated the Parthian conquest of Persia and Babylonia from the Seleucids. §REF§ (Neusner 2008, 16) Jacob Neusner. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene. §REF§ The Parthians were essentially ""a military aristocracy"" §REF§ (Dabrowa 2012, 180) Edward Dabrowa. The Arcasid Empire. in Daryaee, Touraj ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. §REF§ that ruled the many different peoples (e.g. Persians, Greeks, Jews, Babylonians) who lived in Persia and Babylonia.
Parchments and ostra found at Dura-Europas show the Parthians had ""an extensive and developed bureaucracy"". §REF§ (Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) G A Koshelenko. V N Pilipko. in Ahmad Hasan Dani. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. §REF§ The Parthians, who were originally a nomadic tribe (the Parni) from northeastern Iran §REF§ (Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) G A Koshelenko. V N Pilipko. in Ahmad Hasan Dani. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. §REF§ , conquered Seleucid territory that already possessed municipal, provincial (satrapal) and central government. The Parthians had some centralized institutions but these were not based at a capital city but ""moved from city to city along with their administration."" §REF§ Khodadad Rezakhani. 2016. Arsacid Society and Culture. Accessed 06.09.2016: https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/ §REF§
The Parthian nobility was inserted into the regional governance structures they inherited §REF§ (Neusner 2008, 18) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene. §REF§ as satraps appointed by the king, while much of the rest of the territory consisted of directly granted personal fiefs §REF§ (Neusner 2008, 18) Jacob Neusner. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene. §REF§ or vassal kingdoms. §REF§ (Koshelenko and Pilipko 1994, 141) G A Koshelenko. V N Pilipko. Parthia. in Janos Harmatta. B N Puri. G F Etemadi. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing. §REF§ In terms of central government the Parthian Arsacids retained the Achaemenid model (as had the Seleucids) which had departments called diwans ""responsible for record-keeping, communication, budgeting, and taxation."" The departments were run by individuals called dibirs who were themselves responsible to a first-minister. §REF§ Khodadad Rezakhani. 2016. Arsacid Society and Culture. Accessed 06.09.2016: https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/ §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",9.0,Susiana,Levant-Mesopotamia,48.235564000000,32.382851000000,Susa (Shush),IR,Iran,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
483,IrPart2,41,226,Parthian Empire II,iq_parthian_emp_2,LEGACY,"Originally the Parthian were a nomadic tribe, called the Parni, from northeastern Iran. The date of their invasion of ‘Parthia’ is usually given as 247 BCE. The campaigns of Mithridates I (171-138 BCE) spread the authority of the Parthian kings. In 113 BCE Mithridates II took the title of ‘King of Kings’. For 300 years from 92 BC, the Parthian Empire was seen as the main foe of the Roman Empire. Parthian power derived from their military successes and control of commerce. Trade flourished as Parthia was an intermediary between Rome and Far East and became part of the network of Silk Roads. ""There was an extensive and developed bureaucracy, as attested by ostraca from Nisa and by the Parthian parchments and ostraca from Dura-Europos."" §REF§ (Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) Koshelenko, G A. Pilipko, V N. in Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. §REF§ The provinces and cities outside the Parthia heartlands paid tribute or allegiance to the ‘king of kings’, but regional lords retained their own power. Although the Parthians themselves were Zoroastrian, the empire was multi-ethnic and multi-religious and revolts against the Parthian King were common. There were also challenges form within the Parthian elites. Parthian Kings were chosen from the Arascid clan, but they were 'appointed' by nobles rather than automatically succeeding to rule. After 40 BCE Parthian military power was weakening and they could not mount offensive operations into Roman territory. They suffered a series of military defeats to the Romans and a smallpox epidemic between 161 CE and 217 CE. However it was invasion by the Sassanians from Iran that ended their rule.
Bureaucracy characteristics. “It was status as an agnate [kin group or clan] in one of the noble groups that alone gave access to appointment to any state or court official of importance. Certain offices even became, with the passing of time, hereditary in a particular group”. The groups had ""preferential right"" to hold the office. §REF§ Perikhanian, A., ‘Iranian Society and Law’, in The Cambridge history of Iran: the Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods. Part 2, ed. by Ehsan Yar-Shater (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), vol.3, P.645 §REF§
Law. There were law courts in the main town of the districts and in every rural district §REF§ Perikhanian, A., ‘Iranian Society and Law’, in The Cambridge history of Iran: the Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods. Part 2, ed. by Ehsan Yar-Shater (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983),vol. III, p.676. §REF§
Military Technologies. Our information on Parthian armies comes mainly from their enemies, especially Roman sources. Like many central Asian armies, horses were central to their war fighting, foot solders less so. Parthian cavalry was divided into heavy and light forces. The 'Parthian shot' became infamous to the Romans: Plutarch describes their tactic at the battle of Carrhae in 53 BC. Parthian cavalry pretended to flee, then turned in the saddle and fired their bow and arrows. §REF§ Ted Kaizer, ‘The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires c.247 BC - AD 300’, in Thomas Harrison (ed.), The Great Empires of the Ancient World (London: Thames & Hudson, 2009), P.187 §REF§ Cassius Dio [c. CE 155 - 235] in Roman History: “The Parthians make no use of a shield, but their forces consist of mounted archers and pikemen, mostly in full armour. Their infantry is small, made up of the weaker men; but even these are all archers. They practise from boyhood, and the climate and the land combine to aid both horsemanship and archery... They are really formidable in warfare, but nevertheless they have a reputation greater than their achievements, because in spite of their not having gained anything from the Romans, and having besides, given up certain portions of their own domain, they have not yet been enslaved, but even to this day hold their own in the wars they wage against us.” §REF§ quoted in Ted Kaizer, ‘The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires c.247 BC - AD 300’, in Thomas Harrison (ed.), The Great Empires of the Ancient World (London: Thames & Hudson, 2009), p.186 §REF§
""The standard turn-out would have included helmets of bronze or iron, sometimes with a neck guard and/or an aventail of lamellar, scale or mail, sometimes sporting a small plume of horsehair, either dyed or left natural; and a corselet of lamellar, mail or scale for the torso. Arm guards were also worn, and some wore guantlets too. The feet were often protected by armour over mail 'socks', and mail was often used to bridge defences at limb joints. A small fabric tabard and/or cloak might be worn, and this was very likely to be made of a rich material such as silk brocade."" §REF§ (Penrose 2008, 223) Penrose, Jane. 2008. Rome and Her Enemies: An Empire Created and Destroyed by War. Osprey Publishing. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",8.0,Southern Mesopotamia,Levant-Mesopotamia,44.420000000000,32.470000000000,Babylon (Hillah),IQ,Iraq,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
543,CnPeili,-7000,-5001,Peiligang,cn_peiligang,LEGACY,"The Peiligang culture existed from 7000 to 5000 BC in the Yi-Luo river basin of the Middle Yellow River Valley (modern Henan Province, China). There have been over 100 sites along river banks identified with this Neolithic culture. §REF§ (Liu, 2005. 25)Li Liu. 2005. The Chinese Neolithic: Trajectories to Early States. Cambridge University Press. §REF§
Archaeologists have found bone and stone tools and ceramics from the period as well as weapons including harpoons with bone points, stone spears, and arrows which suggests evidence of the use of bows during this time.
The people of the Peiligang culture hunted deer and wild boar and fished using nets. Animal husbandry was also practiced, with pigs, dogs and possibly chickens being reared. §REF§ (Liu, 2005. 25)Li Liu. 2005. The Chinese Neolithic: Trajectories to Early States. Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Stone tools were used for harvesting millet. Pottery that has been unearthed – some of the oldest pottery found in China - was using for cooking and food storage.
Little is known about the settlements and hierarchies during this period, but archaeologists generally agree that it was an egalitarian society with little to no political organisation and that settlements were small and self-sufficient. §REF§ (Liu, 2005. 25)Li Liu. 2005. The Chinese Neolithic: Trajectories to Early States. Cambridge University Press. §REF§",,,,2024-01-04T15:27:50.070756Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",20.0,Middle Yellow River Valley,North China,112.517587000000,34.701825000000,Luoyang,CN,China,East Asia,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
737,cn_chinese_peoples_rep,1950,2024,People's Republic of China,cn_chinese_peoples_rep,OTHER_TAG,,,,,2024-11-13T14:14:35.500221Z,"{'id': 102, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
349,TrPergm,-282,-133,Pergamon Kingdom,tr_pergamon_k,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
104,LbAcPho,-1200,-332,Phoenician Empire,lb_phoenician_emp,LEGACY,"The term 'Phoenicia' refers to a group of allied cities - rather than a politically centralized state - located in the southern Levant, in present-day Lebanon and northern Israel. It is difficult to assign exact dates to this quasi-polity, §REF§ (Röllig 1983) Röllig, Wolfgang. 1983. “The Phoenician Language: Remarks on the Present State of Research.” In Atti Del I. Congresso Internazionale Di Studi Fenici E Punici: Roma, 5-10 Novembre 1979, 375-85. Rome: Istituto per la Civiltà Fenicia e Punica. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KKX2FPFB. §REF§ but here we focus on the period between c. 1200 BCE and 332 BCE, when the Phoenician city of Tyre fell to Alexander the Great. §REF§ (Briant 2010, 9) Briant, Pierre. 2010. Alexander the Great and His Empire: A Short Introduction. Translated by Amélie Kuhrt. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2BWW9KRM. §REF§ The Phoenicians were skilled traders and seafarers. §REF§ (Kaufman 2014, 3-4) Kaufman, Bret. 2014. “Empire without a Voice: Phoenician Iron Metallurgy and Imperial Strategy at Carthage.” PhD Dissertation, Los Angeles, CA: UCLA. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6HWAI37J. §REF§
Population and political organization
The ruler of a Phoenician city was somewhere between human and divine. He was not a god, but was the highest priest with a privileged relationship to the city's patron deity. §REF§ (Bonnet 2004, 102) Bonnet, Corinne. 2004. I Fenici. Rome: Carocci. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CHKFPEHR. §REF§ However, his power was not unlimited: merchant families also wielded considerable influence in public affairs and, at least in Byblos, Sidon, and possibly Tyre, the king was assisted by a council of elders. In Tyre, between 605 and 561 BCE, the monarchy was replaced with a republic, in which the government was led by a series of judges known as suffetes, who ruled for only short terms. §REF§ (Etheredge 2011, 122) Etheredge, Laura. 2011. Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B8B3HGFK. §REF§
Reliable population figures for the Phoenician cities are lacking.",,,,2023-10-23T16:23:53.991090Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",10.0,Galilee,Levant-Mesopotamia,35.303500000000,32.699600000000,Nazareth,IL,Israel,Southwest Asia,61,Levant,"Israel/Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
166,TrPhryg,-900,-695,Phrygian Kingdom,tr_phrygian_k,LEGACY,"The Phrygian Kingdom (c900-695 BCE) came into existence after the migration of a people to Anatolia in the early Iron Age, after the fall of the Hittite Empire. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 39-40) T Bryce. 2002. ‘’Life and Society in the Hittite World’’. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The name the people called themselves is unknown because there are no Phrygian sources telling us about it. 'Phrygian' is a Greek name while Assyrian texts refer to a Muški kingdom §REF§ (Roller 2011, 563) L Roller. 2011. ""Phrygian and the Phrygians"" Oxford Handbook of Ancien Anatolia §REF§ ""a fierce, aggressive, tribal people"" who could be a separate people or a people who formed a union with the Phrygians in the 8th century. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 40) §REF§ The kingdom's most developed phase occurred under king Midas who ruled from the city of Gordium in the late 8th century. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 41) T Bryce. 2002. ‘’Life and Society in the Hittite World’’. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
We cannot say much about the organization of Phrygia at its peak development except that it was a monarchy that ruled from Gordium, a town of perhaps 20,000 inhabitants. The capital of Midas's hypothesized Mushki-Phrygian union is assumed to have been named after Midas's father. Earlier names in the dynasty are unknown. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 41) T Bryce. 2002. ‘’Life and Society in the Hittite World’’. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Archaeologist know of three political documents but have not been able to decipher them. The Phrygian language is not known, and its similarity to Greek languages has only allowed for fragments of texts to be understood.
While we nothing about a central (palace based?) administration that may have been present archaeologists believe that other cities in Phrygia had their own governments §REF§ (Atasoy 1982, 158) Buluç E A Atasoy. 1982. ""Metallurgical and Archaeological Examination of Phrygian Objects"". Anatolian Studies. Vol. 32. §REF§ and a great deal of autonomy. §REF§ (Atasoy 1982, 158) Buluç E A Atasoy. 1982. ""Metallurgical and Archaeological Examination of Phrygian Objects"". Anatolian Studies. Vol. 32. §REF§ The biggest cities had governors. §REF§ (Atasoy 1982, 158) Buluç E A Atasoy. 1982. ""Metallurgical and Archaeological Examination of Phrygian Objects"". Anatolian Studies. Vol. 32. §REF§
The beginning date for the Phrygian period is somewhat arbitrary, based on archaeological records. The end of the Phrygian period, however, is clearly marked by a conquest - it is the year when the Phrygian Kingdom was conquered by the Lydian Kingdom, which de facto put an end to the existence of the Phrygian period.",,,,2023-03-17T15:33:57.137751Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",11.0,Konya Plain,Anatolia-Caucasus,32.521164000000,37.877845000000,Konya,TR,Turkey,Southwest Asia,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
579,gb_england_plantagenet,1154,1485,Plantagenet England,gb_england_plantagenet,LEGACY,"
The Plantagenet Dynasty originated from a powerful aristocratic family from Anjou in France. Geoffrey, count of Anjou (from 1129) and duke of Normandy (from 1144), was the patrilineal ancestor of the Plantagenet kings through his marriage to Empress Matilda, the daughter of King Henry I of England. The nickname ‘plantagenet’ allegedly comes from the yellow flower planta genista that Geoffrey wore in his hat.
Though the monarch still had ultimate power in the kingdom, the period of Plantagenet England saw a move away from absolute monarchy. A series of conflicts with the powerful barons and the church led to the signing of the Magna Carta by King John in 1215; a treaty between the king and the barons with compromises on both sides, neither of which were adhered to, which led to a series of civil wars known as the Barons’ Wars in the thirteenth century.
The Hundred Years’ War with France (1337-1453) originated from a dispute over the French throne between the Plantagenets and the French House of Valois. There were three phases of the war separated by truces, but ultimately the Plantagenets were defeated and reneged their claim.
During this period a distinct English identity was shaped, which is still recognisable today. This was partly due to ongoing conflicts with their surrounding neighbours on the isle, the Scots, Welsh and Irish, but also with their distancing from relations with France. The English language was solidified and became the primary language of the country, eschewing the French and Latin languages which had also commonly been used. Through military campaigns, Wales was brought under English rule. The basis of English law and government administration also has its roots in this period. Despite the economic and demographic expansion of England in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, famines and the Black Death of the early fourteenth century curbed England’s growth.
The rivalry between the two main cadet branches of the Plantagenet dynasty – Lancaster and York – led to the War of the Roses (1455-1487). Elite in-fighting, civil war and succession struggles resulted in the male lines of both dynasties becoming almost extinct. This left open an opportunity for Henry Tudor (of the Beaufort family branch) to push his tenuous claim to the throne by defeating and killing Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485. He assumed the throne as Henry VII and married Elizabeth of York (the daughter of former king, Edward IV). Through this marriage alliance the Plantagenet dynasty ended, and the period of Tudor England began.
§REF§(Prestwich 2005) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ §REF§(Ormrod 2000) Ormrod, W. ‘England: Edward II and Edward III’, in The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 6: C.1300–c.1415, ed. Michael Jones, vol. 6, The New Cambridge Medieval History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 271–96, https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521362900.014. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Y46E5QCH§REF§",,,,2024-05-16T13:38:35.411192Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
334,PlPoLit,1386,1569,Poland-Lithuania Kingdom,pl_jagiellonian_dyn,LEGACY,,,,,2024-03-12T09:43:17.211764Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
317,PlPoliK,963,1138,Polish Kingdom - Piast Dynasty,pl_piast_dyn_1,LEGACY,"The Kingdom of Poland, was a significant medieval polity in Central Europe, primarily encompassing the territory of modern-day Poland. Initially a fragmented region, Poland began to coalesce into a more unified entity under the Piast dynasty, which emerged in the late 10th century. Mieszko I, recognized as the first ruler of Poland, adopted Christianity in 966, aligning the kingdom more closely with Western Europe.§REF§Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland: In Two Volumes, Rev. ed. (Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005). Zotero link: LUJ3NYJU§REF§
Under the Piast dynasty, Poland experienced periods of expansion and consolidation, extending its influence over neighboring Slavic tribes and territories. The reign of Bolesław I the Brave (992-1025) was notable for its military campaigns and the establishment of Poland's first archbishopric in Gniezno, affirming Poland's status within Christendom.§REF§Eduard Mühle, Die Piasten: Polen im Mittelalter, Bsr 2709 (München: Verlag C.H. Beck, 2011). Zotero link: EVZQ25XL§REF§The kingdom faced challenges, including internal divisions, succession disputes, and external threats from the Holy Roman Empire, the Kievan Rus', and later, the Teutonic Knights. Despite these challenges, the Piast rulers managed to maintain a degree of autonomy.§REF§Eduard Mühle, Die Piasten: Polen im Mittelalter, Bsr 2709 (München: Verlag C.H. Beck, 2011). Zotero link: EVZQ25XL§REF§
The fragmentation period (1138-1320) saw Poland divided into several duchies, weakening central authority and leading to increased German influence in some regions. This period was characterized by internal strife and the gradual erosion of the Piast dynasty's power.",,,,2024-04-05T10:45:51.367873Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
809,pl_piast_dyn_2,1139,1382,Polish Kingdom - Piast Dynasty Fragmented Period,pl_piast_dyn_2,OTHER_TAG,"When Bolesław III Wrymouth died on 28 October 1138, he was aware of the potential for conflict among his sons and devised a testament aiming to prevent the fragmentation of the kingdom. His will, known as the Testament of Bolesław III Wrymouth§REF§Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland: In Two Volumes, Rev. ed. (Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005). Zotero link: LUJ3NYJU§REF§, divided Poland among his sons, granting them hereditary duchies while trying to maintain some level of unity under the senioral principle. This principle established that the eldest member of the dynasty, holding the Seniorate Province with Kraków as its capital, would have a primacy over the other dukes and the right to be called the High Duke of Poland. The ""Senioral Principle"" was soon broken, leading to a period of nearly 200 years of disintegration known as feudal fragmentation which divided the Polish state into several semi-independent principalities without a single ruler governed by various branches of the Piast dynasty.§REF§Eduard Mühle, Die Piasten: Polen im Mittelalter, Bsr 2709 (München: Verlag C.H. Beck, 2011). Zotero link: EVZQ25XL§REF§
The reunification of Poland under Władysław I in 14th century marked the end of fragmentation. His son, Casimir III the Great (1333-1370) strengthened royal authority. Casimir's reign, devoid of major external conflicts, allowed for significant internal development, including the founding of the University of Krakow in 1364, one of the oldest universities in Europe.§REF§Eduard Mühle, Die Piasten: Polen im Mittelalter, Bsr 2709 (München: Verlag C.H. Beck, 2011). Zotero link: EVZQ25XL§REF§
The end of the Piast dynasty in 1370, with the death of Casimir III, led to the initiation of the Angevin and later Jagiellonian dynasties, under which Poland entered into a union with Lithuania.§REF§Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland: In Two Volumes, Rev. ed. (Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005). Zotero link: LUJ3NYJU§REF§",,I expanded the end date of this polity to include the last personal union between Hungary and Poland during Louis I of Hungary's reign.,2024-02-28T14:45:23.434662Z,2024-06-12T12:00:04.748967Z,"{'id': 25, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
864,pl_polish_peoples_rep,1953,1989,Polish People's Republic,pl_polish_peoples_rep,OTHER_TAG,,Republic of Poland,,2024-04-11T07:08:29.149178Z,2024-04-11T07:08:29.149190Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
808,pl_poland_lithuania_commonwealth,1570,1791,Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth,pl_poland_lithuania_commonwealth,OTHER_TAG,,,,2024-02-26T15:45:42.966810Z,2024-02-26T15:45:42.966825Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
630,sl_polonnaruva,1070,1255,Polonnaruwa,sl_polonnaruva,POL_SA_SI,"“Certainly, the critical reappraisal of archaeological evidence allows us to narrow the gap between Anurādhapura and Polonnaruva. While the latter has long been archaeologically interpreted as a cosmopolitan urban centre, similar evidence from Anurādhapura has been largely undervalued but is now over- whelming. The remains of Polonnaruva, traditionally dated to between 1017 and 1293 CE have revealed Buddhist monasteries and Hindu temples with bronze sculptures of Hindu deities. This has led some scholars, rightly in our opinion, to speak of religious plurality and harmony. Excavations within the Alahana Pirivena in Polonnaruva uncovered quantities of pottery with appliqué designs, including swastika, śrīvasta and vajra or triśūla, which have now also been identified in the city’s hinterland (Figure 1.7). Bronze figurines excavated at Polonnaruva and representing deities such as Śiva and Parvati have been put forward as evidence of the presence of Hinduism in the city. And yet such evidence was not restricted to Polonnaruva.” §REF§ Coningham et al. 2017, 40) Coningham et al. 2017. ‘Archaeology and cosmopolitanism in early historic and medieval Sri Lanka.’ Sri Lanka at the Crossroads of History. Edited by Zoltán Biedermann and Alan Strathern. London: UCL Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/DCQMW8E3/collection §REF§",,,,2025-04-15T09:40:32.455725Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,63,Sri Lanka,Sri Lanka,"{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
709,pt_portuguese_emp_2,1640,1806,Portuguese Empire - Early Modern,pt_portuguese_emp_2,OTHER_TAG,,,,2023-10-25T13:59:24.938475Z,2023-10-25T13:59:24.938487Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
708,pt_portuguese_emp_1,1495,1579,Portuguese Empire - Renaissance Period,pt_portuguese_emp_1,OTHER_TAG,,,,2023-10-25T13:49:59.636980Z,2024-04-10T08:42:10.711578Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
88,InDecKg,-205,-101,Post-Mauryan Kingdoms,in_post_mauryan_k,LEGACY,"Here we look at Southern India in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE, that is, between the collapse of the Mauryan Empire and the rise of the Satavahana Dynasty. Unfortunately, this appears to be a very poorly understood period in this region.
Population and political organization
No population estimates could be found in the literature. Information relating to political organization within our region of interest--roughly corresponding to the Bellary district in the modern-day Indian state of Karnataka--is also lacking, though sources suggest the existence of monarchies and an accompanying bureaucratic apparatus (scribes and mints, for example) in neighbouring regions. §REF§ (Shimada 2012, 118-119) Shimada, Akira. 2012. Early Buddhist Architecture in Context: The Great Stupa at Amaravati (ca. 300 BCE-300 CE). Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/AVB94HR2. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",15.0,Deccan,Central India,76.625407000000,15.386856000000,Kampli,DEC,India,South Asia,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
64,GrCrPPa,-1300,-1200,Postpalatial Crete,gr_crete_post_palace_1,LEGACY,"At the end of the Late Minoan IIIA2 period, the destruction of the ""palace"" at Knossos, the oldest monumental building compound of the island, marked the end of a political authority which had controlled most of Crete during the Late Minoan II and Late Minoan IIIA periods. Regional centers, once secondary capitals under the Knossian control, subsequently regained a degree of independence. Regional elites exerted their authorities over the land by adopting social instruments and ideological strategies which turned out to be very similar to those used by the previous Knossian power, possibly including the use of Linear B script for bureaucratic purposes. §REF§ (Borgna 2003, 153-183) Elisabetta Borgna. 2003. 'Regional settlement patterns in Crete at the end of LBA'. SMEA 45: 153-83. §REF§ Things changed in the eleventh century, with the fall of the great Eastern Mediterranean powers and a resulting period of instability in both the region generally and the island specifically. §REF§ (Hallager 2010, 157-158) Erik Hallager. 2010. 'Crete' in The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean, edited by E.H. Cline. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
Firth estimated the Cretan population during Late Minoan IIIA and IIIB periods (1400-1200 BCE) at 110,000 people §REF§ (Firth 1995, 33-55) R. Firth. 1995. 'Estimating the population of Crete during LM IIIA/B'. Minos 29-30: 33-55. §REF§ As for political organization, the supreme leader of the state was the king (wanax), presided over the political, economic and religious hierarchy, though possibly lacked military and judicial authority §REF§ (Shelmerdine and Bennet 2008, 292-295) C.W. Shelmerdine and J. Bennet. 2008. 'Mycenaean states. Economy and administration,' in The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age, edited by C.W. Shelmerdine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",4.0,Crete,Southeastern Europe,25.144200000000,35.338700000000,Heraklion,GR,Greece,Europe,19,Southeastern Europe,"Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
485,IrPrCer,-7800,-7200,Pre-Ceramic Period,ir_susiana_pre_ceramic,LEGACY,"""The chronological position of the Chogha Bonut Aceramic period vis-a-vis the Buz Murdeh phase in Deh Luran has theoretical implications in terms of the occupation of the lowland on the eve of domestication. However, the paucity of excavated materials dating to the initial phases of the Neolithic prevents us from proposing a chronological framework without the use of radiocarbon dating. Nevertheless, comparative analyses of the pottery sequences from the early villages in Susiana and Deh Luran indicate that, at least in southwestern Iran, pottery manufacture began earlier in Susiana than it did in Deh Luran and continued to influence Deh Luran for several millennia. Moreover, the culture-specific T-shaped figurines, so characteristic of the early Neolithic sites in western southwestern Iran (Sarab, Chogha Bonut, Chogha Mish, Tappeh Ali Kosh) and northeastern Iraq (Jarmo), occur from the beginning of the occupation at Chogha Bonut but appear later in the Mohammad Jaffar phase at Tappeh Ali Kosh. Admittedly, such a conclusion is based on uncertain grounds. It is perfectly possible that Chogha Bonut and Tappeh Ali Kosh are contemporary, but given the present evidence from Chogha Bonut, it seems highly unlikely that Tappeh Ali Kosh, or any other early Neolithic sites in Iran (with the possible exception of Tappeh Asiab) would be earlier. The implication is that during the eighth millennium B.C., the environmental conditions were favorable in Iran (if not the whole Near East) to allow the establishment of early villages in a number of environmental niches suitable for the transition from collecting and hunting food to producing it."" §REF§ (Alizadeh 2003, 8) §REF§
""The Aceramic Phase: Initial Colonization of Lowland Susiana. The earliest, basal levels at Čoḡā Bonut that did not produce any ceramic vessels comprise the initial Aceramic phase. In this phase, the early settlers of the Susiana plain chose to settle on top of a low natural hill surrounded by shallow marshes at an elevation where dry farming was possible. Even today, when the region is much drier than it was in early Neolithic times, dry agriculture is still practiced as supplement. The early farmers of lowland Susiana cultivated wheat, barley, and lentils and had domesticated sheep, goats, pigs, and dogs. Hunting and gathering supplemented this mixed subsistence economy. During this initial phase, the chipped stone industry and manufacture of stone vessels were highly developed. In the limited exposure of the 1996 excavations, no traces of solid architecture were found, but fragmentary pieces of straw-tempered mud bricks suggest the existence of solid architecture. Most probably, the early inhabitants of this site came from the highlands, for there is a great similarity between the chipped stone industry, clay and stone figurines, and tokens of Coga Bonut, on the one side, and those found at the early sites in the piedmonts of the Zagros Mountains, on the other."" §REF§ (Alizadeh 2009, Encyclopedia Iranica Online, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coga-bonut-archaeological-site) §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",9.0,Susiana,Levant-Mesopotamia,48.235564000000,32.382851000000,Susa (Shush),IR,Iran,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
773,mw_pre_maravi,1151,1399,Pre-Maravi,mw_pre_maravi,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,6,Southern Africa,"Namibia, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique and south","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
616,si_pre_sape,600,1400,Pre-Sape Sierra Leone,si_pre_sape,POL_AFR_WEST,"""It is generally accepted that the Limba, Bullom, Kissi, Krim, Vai, and Themne peoples were in Sierra Leone before the 16th century. The Limba and Bullom groups are regarded as the earliest autochthonous groups. The Limba preceded every other group, including the Bullom, in settling the area. Cecil Magbaily Fyle places Limba presence in the Wara Wara Mountains of northern Sierra Leone in the 7th century, based on the research findings of the archeologist John Atherton. Atherton discovered stone tools and other artifacts in the Wara Wara hills that are dated to the 7th century. [...] After settling the Wara Wara Mountains, the Limba expanded their territory and interaction with other groups. Their cultural encounters with later arrivals, such as the Themne and Loko, would produce Limba subgroups including the Biriwa, Wara Wara, Saffroko, and Sela, who inhabit the present-day Sierra Leone districts of Bombali, Kambia, and Koinadugu. [...] While the Limba may have preceded the Bullom in Sierra Leone, Rodney notes that the Bullom were the “single dominant element along the coast” by the 12th century. He associates the Bullom with the Kissi and Krim groups, who all shared “extremely closely related” languages. Rodney points out that the Kissi occupied much of the “eastern portion of the present Republic of Guinea and the region along the present Sierra Leone–Liberia frontier, with the Krim to their south or near the coast.” The Kissi continue to be a transnational group, found in the southeastern region where the borders of Sierra Leone, Guinea, and Liberia converge.""§REF§(Cole 2021) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/WBFJ8QU5/collection.§REF§",,,,2024-01-11T13:45:35.889752Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
60,GrCrPre,-3000,-1900,Prepalatial Crete,gr_crete_pre_palace,LEGACY,"The Cretan Prepalatial era is divided in Early Minoan I (3000-2700 BCE), Early Minoan IIA (2700-2400 BCE), Early Minoan IIB (2400-2200 BCE), Early Minoan III (2200-2000 BCE) and Middle Minoan IA (2000-1900 BCE) periods. §REF§ (Shelmerdine 2008, 4) Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. 2008. 'Background, sources, and methods' in The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age, edited by Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
Population estimates for the entire island at this time do not appear to be available in the literature. However, Whitelaw has estimated the population of Knossos, Crete's largest centre, at 2,600 to 11,000 inhabitants, that of Phaistos at 1,660 to 5,400, and that of Malia at 1,500 to 3,190. §REF§ (Whitelaw 2012, 156) Todd Whitelaw. 2012. 'The urbanization of prehistoric Crete: settlement perspectives on Minoan state formation', in Back to the Beginning: Reassessing Social and Political Complexity on Crete during the Early and Middle Bronze Age, edited by I. Schope, P. Tomkins and J. Driessen. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",4.0,Crete,Southeastern Europe,25.144200000000,35.338700000000,Heraklion,GR,Greece,Europe,19,Southeastern Europe,"Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
849,gr_achaea_principality,1204,1432,Principality of Achaea,gr_achaea_principality,OTHER_TAG,,Principality of Achaea,,2024-04-10T09:57:12.864472Z,2024-04-10T09:57:12.864486Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,19,Southeastern Europe,"Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
852,hu_hungary_principality,895,999,Principality of Hungary,hu_hungary_principality,OTHER_TAG,,Principality of Hungary,,2024-04-10T10:09:06.802118Z,2024-04-10T10:09:06.802130Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
836,md_moldavia_principality_1,1346,1503,Principality of Moldavia I,md_moldavia_principality_1,OTHER_TAG,,Principality of Moldavia,,2024-04-10T08:12:33.349305Z,2024-04-10T08:12:33.349319Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,16,Eastern Europe,"Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
837,md_moldavia_principality_2,1504,1710,Principality of Moldavia II,md_moldavia_principality_2,OTHER_TAG,,Principality of Moldavia,,2024-04-10T08:13:22.432767Z,2024-04-10T08:13:22.432779Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,16,Eastern Europe,"Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
838,md_moldavia_principality_3,1711,1859,Principality of Moldavia III,md_moldavia_principality_3,OTHER_TAG,,Principality of Moldavia,,2024-04-10T08:13:59.832317Z,2024-04-10T08:13:59.832332Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,16,Eastern Europe,"Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
292,RuRyazan,1097,1521,Principality of Ryazan,ru_ryazan_principality,LEGACY,,,,,2023-11-14T16:26:17.052387Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,16,Eastern Europe,"Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
891,ro_transylvania_principality,1570,1711,Principality of Transylvania,ro_transylvania_principality,OTHER_TAG,,Principality of Transylvania,,2024-07-03T13:49:06.202738Z,2024-07-03T13:49:06.202754Z,,,,,,,,,,,16,Eastern Europe,"Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
827,ro_wallachia_k,1330,1416,Principality of Wallachia I,ro_wallachia_principality_1,OTHER_TAG,,Principality of Wallachia,became independent from Hungary in 1330. Forced to accept Ottoman suzerainty in 1417.,2024-04-09T13:15:39.453156Z,2024-07-03T13:07:33.689752Z,"{'id': 69, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,16,Eastern Europe,"Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
887,ro_wallachia_principality_2,1417,1714,Principality of Wallachia II,ro_wallachia_principality_2,OTHER_TAG,,Principality of Wallachia,"Forced to accept Ottoman suzerainty in 1417. 1714 marks the death of Wallachian ruler Constantin Brâncoveanu, after which Ottomans start to appoint Phanariotes (Greek-speaking officials) to govern Wallachia",2024-07-03T13:08:07.709452Z,2024-07-03T13:08:07.709468Z,,,,,,,,,,,16,Eastern Europe,"Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
888,ro_wallachia_principality_3,1715,1858,Principality of Wallachia III,ro_wallachia_principality_3,OTHER_TAG,,Principality of Wallachia,"From Phanariote period up to union with Moldavia in 1859. A complex period, with interventions from the Ottomans, Habsburgs and Russians",2024-07-03T13:09:03.663560Z,2024-07-03T13:09:03.663575Z,,,,,,,,,,,16,Eastern Europe,"Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
456,FrMervL,687,751,Proto-Carolingian,fr_merovingian_emp_3,LEGACY,"This polity represents the late period of the Merovingian Kingdom, from 687 to 751 CE.
Population and political organization
Merovingian France was a largely decentralized kingdom based on the pre-existing Roman administrative system, in which cities were the basic units. §REF§ (Loseby 1998, 245-49) Loseby, S. T. 1998. “Gregory’s Cities: Urban Functions in Sixth-Century Gaul.” In Franks and Alamanni in the Merovingian Period: An Ethnographic Perspective, edited by I. N. Wood, 239-69. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DT5E5GNS. §REF§ The city rulers, known as counts or grafio, who sent the king his tax revenue and carried out judicial and administrative functions, had access to both administrative officials and city archives (gesta municipalia). §REF§ (Wood 1994, 204) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35. §REF§ §REF§ (Loseby 1998, 245-49) Loseby, S. T. 1998. “Gregory’s Cities: Urban Functions in Sixth-Century Gaul.” In Franks and Alamanni in the Merovingian Period: An Ethnographic Perspective, edited by I. N. Wood, 239-69. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DT5E5GNS. §REF§ Groups of cities and counts could be placed under a duke for military and administrative purposes. §REF§ (Bachrach 1972, 67) Bachrach, Bernard S. 1972. Merovingian Military Organization 481-751. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SG5XNFPG. §REF§
In contrast, there was no elaborate central administration, the highest non-royal official being a figure known as the mayor of the palace. §REF§ (Halsall 2003, 28) Halsall, Guy. 2003. Warfare and Society in the Barbarian West, 450-900. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z5EZBP2R. §REF§ The king's capital and main residence was at Paris, where the population may have reached 30,000 by the 8th century CE, §REF§ (Clark and Henneman, Jr. 1995, 1316) Clark, William W., and John Bell Henneman, Jr. 1995. “Paris.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1314-30. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HS8644XK. §REF§ although the court was always a peripatetic institution. §REF§ (Wood 1994, 150-53) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35. §REF§ The king consulted a group of magnates (obtimates) at an annual gathering around 1 March. Written references to royal edicts are known from 614 CE onwards, but earlier royal legislation has not survived. §REF§ (Fouracre 1998, 286-89) Fouracre, P. J. 1998. “The Nature of Frankish Political Institutions in the Seventh Century.” In Franks and Alamanni in the Merovingian Period: An Ethnographic Perspective, edited by Ian Wood, 285-316. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GT2AINW4. §REF§ Merovingian kings had the authority to appoint dukes and counts as well as bishops, who were often 'royal servants with no known connections with their sees'. §REF§ (Wood 1994, 78) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35. §REF§
From 622 CE onwards the basic territorial divisions of the Merovingian Kingdom were Neustria (centred on the Seine and Oise rivers and associated with the Pactus Legis Salicae law code), §REF§ (Wood 1994, 112-15) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35. §REF§ Burgundy (where the Liber Constitutionum was developed), and Austrasia (by the Rhine and Meuse, which came to possess its own mayor of the palace §REF§ (Fanning 1995, 157) Fanning, Steven. 1995. “Austrasia.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 156-57. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR2MKFDX. §REF§ and followed the Lex Ribvaria). §REF§ (Wood 1994, 112-15) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35. §REF§ A fourth area, Aquitaine, had a special status due to its distance from the royal centres and was under less direct Merovingian control. §REF§ (Wood 1994, 100, 146) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",2.0,Paris Basin,Western Europe,2.312458000000,48.866111000000,Paris,FR,France,Europe,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
457,FrCaptE,987,1150,Proto-French Kingdom,fr_capetian_k_1,LEGACY,"The Capetian period in France began with the accession of Hugh Capet to the Frankish throne in 987 CE. In the early period (987-1150 CE), the area under the control of the Capetian monarchs was relatively restricted in comparison to the late period (1150-1328 CE), which saw a massive expansion in territory and increasing urbanization. §REF§ (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 111) Turchin, Peter, and Sergey Nefedov. 2009. Secular Cycles. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH. §REF§
Population and political organization
The Capetian monarchs ruled their kingdom via decree. Louis VI (r. 1108-1137 CE) was recognized as the legitimate ruler by his vassals and, after the early 12th century, the great lords of France generally submitted to Capetian authority. §REF§ (Bouchard 1995, 313-17) Bouchard, Constance B. 1995. “Capetian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 312-17. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNRCJVG. §REF§ However, the dynasty had less power outside the region of Paris and the Counts of Bois and Troyes were arguably more powerful than the king in some respects. The Capetians drew their legitimacy from their stronger links to the Catholic church. §REF§ (Bouchard 1995, 313-17) Bouchard, Constance B. 1995. “Capetian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 312-17. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNRCJVG. §REF§
Before Philip II (r. 1180-1223 CE), government was very simple and closely linked to the king's court, which was still itinerant, moving wherever the king went. §REF§ (Clark and Henneman 1995, 1317) Clark, William W., and John Bell Henneman, Jr. 1995. “Paris.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1314-30. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HS8644XK. §REF§ At the core of the French king's government were a few major officials with household titles (chancellor, seneschal, butler, chamberlain and constable). §REF§ (Bradbury 2013, 249) Bradbury, Jim. 2013. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E. §REF§ From the 12th century onwards, these positions were the preserve of the aristocracy. §REF§ (Bradbury 2013, 249) Bradbury, Jim. 2013. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E. §REF§ §REF§ (Pegues 1995, 1333) Pegues, Franklin J. 1995. “Parlement de Paris.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1332-33. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HHFUSQER. §REF§ The clergy of the Church provided a pool of 'educated, literature and numerate subjects' and were a vital resource for the government and administration of the Capetian Kingdom. §REF§ (Bradbury 2013, 248-49) Bradbury, Jim. 2013. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E. §REF§
Innovations in agriculture resulted in population increases during this period, especially in northern and western France, but demographic expansion would not begin in earnest until the later Capetian era. §REF§ (Percy, Jr. 1995, 1416) Percy, Jr., William A. 1995. “Population and Demography.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1415-17. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QI73FMSM. §REF§ From the 11th to the 14th century CE, the French population almost quadrupled from about 4 to 15 million. §REF§ (Percy, Jr. 1995, 1416) Percy, Jr., William A. 1995. “Population and Demography.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1415-17. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QI73FMSM. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",2.0,Paris Basin,Western Europe,2.312458000000,48.866111000000,Paris,FR,France,Europe,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
100,UsIroqP,1300,1565,Proto-Haudenosaunee Confederacy,us_proto_haudenosaunee,LEGACY,"Provide a descriptive paragraph detailing the key features of the polity, which will help understanding the codes below.",,,,2023-06-27T16:20:05.802884Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",29.0,Finger Lakes,East Coast,-77.021375000000,42.704980000000,Seneca Falls,USNY,United States,North America,22,East Coast,East Coast of US,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
655,ni_proto_yoruba,301,649,Proto-Yoruba,ni_proto_yoruba,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
664,ni_proto_yoruboid,-300,300,Proto-Yoruboid,ni_proto_yoruboid,POL_AFR_WEST,"“It was an era of climatic change and ecological crisis, innovation in technology and social organization, and unprecedented scale of migration. More important, the period also marked the beginning of the splitting of proto-Yoruboid into new daughter languages and dialects. [...] The adjustment to and consequences of the ecological crisis of the Archaic period also instigated other processes of cultural change that launched the proto-Yoruboid people on the path of sociopolitical and demographic differentiation from several of their proto-Benue-Kwa peers in the confluence area. Until the beginning of the first millennium AD, the proto-Yoruboid were undifferentiated from the other confluence language communities in group size, modes of subsistence, and technology. But as the nine-month dry season became the new normal in the guinea savanna and as several water sources dried up, it became more frequent for communities, households, and individuals to branch off from the older units in search of greener pastures.”§REF§(Ogundiran 2020: 42)§REF§",,,,2024-01-11T13:45:09.343232Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
109,EgPtol1,-305,-217,Ptolemaic Kingdom I,eg_ptolemaic_k_1,LEGACY,"The Ptolemaic Kingdom (or Empire) was one of the successor states to the Macedonian Empire created by the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BCE. When Alexander died in Babylon in 323, Ptolemy, as one of his most favoured generals and bodyguards, was appointed satrap (governor) of Egypt, Libya and parts of Arabia. §REF§ (Hӧlbl 2001, 12, 14) Günther Hӧlbl. 2001. A History of the Ptolemaic Empire. London: Routledge. §REF§ §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 389) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The next few decades after 323 were characterized by incessant warfare between those who wished to maintain the unity of the Macedonian Empire, nominally still intact, §REF§ (Lloyd 2010, xl) Alan B. Lloyd. 2010. 'Chronology', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, xxxii-xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ and those who aspired to rule their own kingdoms independently. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 389) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Ptolemy was firmly on the separatist side, and in 305 BCE he successfully declared himself king of Egypt. In doing so, he became Ptolemy I Soter ('the saviour') §REF§ (Thompson 2005, 113) Dorothy J. Thompson. 2005. 'The Ptolemies and Egypt', in A Companion to the Hellenistic World, edited by Andrew Erskine, 105-20. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ , founder of a powerful dynasty (sometimes known as the Lagides, after his father Lagos) §REF§ (Myśliwiec 2000, 179) Karol Myśliwiec. 2000. The Twilight of Ancient Egypt: First Millennium B.C.E., translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ that was to rule Egypt for almost three centuries.
Ptolemy I and his successors had expansionist ambitions, seeking to carve out more and more territory for their new kingdom, often at the expense of the other kingdoms that had splintered from Alexander's empire, especially the Seleucid Kingdom of the Middle East. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ At its greatest extent, the Ptolemaic Empire reached as far south as Lower Nubia (southern Egypt), west to Cyrenaica (modern-day Libya), east to Cyprus, Syria, Phoenicia and Asia Minor (Turkey), and north into the Aegean. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169-71) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ In the words of one researcher, Egypt became for the first time a true 'Mediterranean power' under its new Macedonian rulers. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§
The peak of the Ptolemaic period is generally considered to correspond to the reigns of the first three Ptolemies in the 3rd century BCE. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 11) Michel Chauveau. 2000. Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ We divide the kingdom into two polities: the first begins with Ptolemy I's accession in 305 and ends with the Battle of Raphia in 217. In this battle, Ptolemy IV defeated the Seleucid king Antiochus III, who had invaded Ptolemaic-controlled lands in Palestine. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 394) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The late 3rd and early 2nd centuries saw conflict within the ruling family and revolts by the Egyptian population, representing an 'age of crisis' between two periods of relative stability. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 165-66) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Our second polity runs from 217 up to the famous suicide of Cleopatra VII, the last ruler in the Ptolemaic line, and the Roman annexation of Egypt in 30 BCE. §REF§ (Lloyd 2010, xl) Alan B. Lloyd. 2010. 'Chronology', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, xxxii-xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ §REF§ (Newman 2015) Frances Stickney Newman. 2015. 'Cleopatra VII', in Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia. Ipswich, MA: Salem Press. Accessed 22 February 2017. §REF§ Overall, the Ptolemies were a successful dynasty: in concert with their expansionist policies, they managed to transform Egypt ‒ and the new city of Alexandria in particular ‒ into the cultural and economic centre of the Hellenistic world. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 173-75) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§
Population and Political Organization
The Ptolemies were the longest-lived foreign dynasty ever to rule Egypt. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 159) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ They presided over a 'double society', portraying themselves as Graeco-Macedonian kings to the many resident Greeks and divine pharaohs to the 'native' Egyptian population. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 33, 37) Michel Chauveau. 2000. Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 171) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Greeks and Egyptians were subject to different judicial systems and Greeks tended to dominate the highest echelons of society. §REF§ (Manning 2003, 53, 131) J. G. Manning. 2003. Land and Power in Ptolemaic Egypt: The Structure of Land Tenure. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 409) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Alexandria, built as an ideal Greek-style Hellenistic city with its magnificent library, stadium, theatre, gymnasium and lighthouse, was always set apart from the rest of the country. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 174) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 400-01) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Over time, however, and especially from 200 BCE onwards, the boundaries between 'Greek' and 'Egyptian' became blurred. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 171-73) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§
The chief aim of government was to draw as much revenue ‒ in money and in wheat ‒ as possible from the population, and for this reason the burden of taxation was heavy. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 78) Michel Chauveau. 2000. Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ The Ptolemies left many Pharaonic Egyptian institutions intact, such as the temple hierarchy with its priests and scribes. However, they used state functionaries and tax farmers to divert more and more wealth from temples, agricultural estates, especially those of granted to soldiers (known as cleruchs), and ordinary peasant farmers to the royal coffers. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 404-05) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Egypt under the Ptolemies also became more outward-looking, extending commercial and political power into the Levant, the Black Sea and the shores of the Mediterranean as far west as Sicily. §REF§ (Thompson and Buraselis 2013, 2-4) Dorothy J. Thompson and Kostas Buraselis. 'Introduction', in The Ptolemies, the Sea and the Nile: Studies in Waterborne Power, edited by Kostas Buraselis, Mary Stefanou and Dorothy J. Thompson, 1-18. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
The population of Egypt during the Ptolemaic period has been estimated at around 4 million people in the 3rd century BCE, of which between 5 and 10 percent were Greeks. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2011, 135-37) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2011. 'Counting the Greeks in Egypt: Immigration in the First Century of Ptolemaic Rule', in Demography in the Graeco-Roman World, edited by C. Holleran and A. Pudsey, 135-54. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The total population of the entire Ptolemaic Empire may have reached 7 million. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 149) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",5.0,Upper Egypt,Northeastern Africa,32.714706000000,25.725715000000,Luxor,EG,Egypt,Africa,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
207,EgPtol2,-217,-30,Ptolemaic Kingdom II,eg_ptolemaic_k_2,LEGACY,"The Ptolemaic Kingdom (or Empire) was one of the successor states to the Macedonian Empire created by the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BCE. When Alexander died in Babylon in 323, Ptolemy, as one of his most favoured generals and bodyguards, was appointed satrap (governor) of Egypt, Libya and parts of Arabia. §REF§ (Hӧlbl 2001, 12, 14) Günther Hӧlbl. 2001. A History of the Ptolemaic Empire. London: Routledge. §REF§ §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 389) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The next few decades after 323 were characterized by incessant warfare between those who wished to maintain the unity of the Macedonian Empire, nominally still intact, §REF§ (Lloyd 2010, xl) Alan B. Lloyd. 2010. 'Chronology', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, xxxii-xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ and those who aspired to rule their own kingdoms independently. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 389) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Ptolemy was firmly on the separatist side, and in 305 BCE he successfully declared himself king of Egypt. In doing so, he became Ptolemy I Soter ('the saviour') §REF§ (Thompson 2005, 113) Dorothy J. Thompson. 2005. 'The Ptolemies and Egypt', in A Companion to the Hellenistic World, edited by Andrew Erskine, 105-20. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ , founder of a powerful dynasty (sometimes known as the Lagides, after his father Lagos) §REF§ (Myśliwiec 2000, 179) Karol Myśliwiec. 2000. The Twilight of Ancient Egypt: First Millennium B.C.E., translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ that was to rule Egypt for almost three centuries.
Ptolemy I and his successors had expansionist ambitions, seeking to carve out more and more territory for their new kingdom, often at the expense of the other kingdoms that had splintered from Alexander's empire, especially the Seleucid Kingdom of the Middle East. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ At its greatest extent, the Ptolemaic Empire reached as far south as Lower Nubia (southern Egypt), west to Cyrenaica (modern-day Libya), east to Cyprus, Syria, Phoenicia and Asia Minor (Turkey), and north into the Aegean. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169-71) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ In the words of one researcher, Egypt became for the first time a true 'Mediterranean power' under its new Macedonian rulers. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§
The peak of the Ptolemaic period is generally considered to correspond to the reigns of the first three Ptolemies in the 3rd century BCE. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 11) Michel Chauveau. 2000. Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ We divide the kingdom into two polities: the first begins with Ptolemy I's accession in 305 and ends with the Battle of Raphia in 217. In this battle, Ptolemy IV defeated the Seleucid king Antiochus III, who had invaded Ptolemaic-controlled lands in Palestine. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 394) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The late 3rd and early 2nd centuries saw conflict within the ruling family and revolts by the Egyptian population, representing an 'age of crisis' between two periods of relative stability. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 165-66) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Our second polity runs from 217 up to the famous suicide of Cleopatra VII, the last ruler in the Ptolemaic line, and the Roman annexation of Egypt in 30 BCE. §REF§ (Lloyd 2010, xl) Alan B. Lloyd. 2010. 'Chronology', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, xxxii-xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ §REF§ (Newman 2015) Frances Stickney Newman. 2015. 'Cleopatra VII', in Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia. Ipswich, MA: Salem Press. Accessed 22 February 2017. §REF§ Overall, the Ptolemies were a successful dynasty: in concert with their expansionist policies, they managed to transform Egypt ‒ and the new city of Alexandria in particular ‒ into the cultural and economic centre of the Hellenistic world. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 173-75) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§
Population and Political Organization
The Ptolemies were the longest-lived foreign dynasty ever to rule Egypt. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 159) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ They presided over a 'double society', portraying themselves as Graeco-Macedonian kings to the many resident Greeks and divine pharaohs to the 'native' Egyptian population. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 33, 37) Michel Chauveau. 2000. Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 171) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Greeks and Egyptians were subject to different judicial systems and Greeks tended to dominate the highest echelons of society. §REF§ (Manning 2003, 53, 131) J. G. Manning. 2003. Land and Power in Ptolemaic Egypt: The Structure of Land Tenure. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 409) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Alexandria, built as an ideal Greek-style Hellenistic city with its magnificent library, stadium, theatre, gymnasium and lighthouse, was always set apart from the rest of the country. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 174) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 400-01) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Over time, however, and especially from 200 BCE onwards, the boundaries between 'Greek' and 'Egyptian' became blurred. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 171-73) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§
The chief aim of government was to draw as much revenue ‒ in money and in wheat ‒ as possible from the population, and for this reason the burden of taxation was heavy. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 78) Michel Chauveau. 2000. Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ The Ptolemies left many Pharaonic Egyptian institutions intact, such as the temple hierarchy with its priests and scribes. However, they used state functionaries and tax farmers to divert more and more wealth from temples, agricultural estates, especially those of granted to soldiers (known as cleruchs), and ordinary peasant farmers to the royal coffers. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 404-05) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Egypt under the Ptolemies also became more outward-looking, extending commercial and political power into the Levant, the Black Sea and the shores of the Mediterranean as far west as Sicily. §REF§ (Thompson and Buraselis 2013, 2-4) Dorothy J. Thompson and Kostas Buraselis. 'Introduction', in The Ptolemies, the Sea and the Nile: Studies in Waterborne Power, edited by Kostas Buraselis, Mary Stefanou and Dorothy J. Thompson, 1-18. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
The population of Egypt during the Ptolemaic period has been estimated at around 4 million people in the 3rd century BCE, of which between 5 and 10 percent were Greeks. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2011, 135-37) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2011. 'Counting the Greeks in Egypt: Immigration in the First Century of Ptolemaic Rule', in Demography in the Graeco-Roman World, edited by C. Holleran and A. Pudsey, 135-54. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The total population of the entire Ptolemaic Empire may have reached 7 million. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 149) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ ",,,,2024-04-18T13:32:02.471239Z,"{'id': 27, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",5.0,Upper Egypt,Northeastern Africa,32.714706000000,25.725715000000,Luxor,EG,Egypt,Africa,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
509,IrQajar,1794,1925,Qajar Dynasty,ir_qajar_dyn,LEGACY,"The Qajar Dynasty was in place in Iran from 1794-1925 CE following a 50-year struggle between Qajar tribal leaders for the throne from 1747. Eventually Aqa Mohammad Khan Qajar (c.1742-c.1797) was crowned in 1796 and founded this dynasty. §REF§ (Ghani 2000, 1) Cyrus Ghani. 2000. Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah. From Qaja Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I B Tauris. London. §REF§
By 1900 CE this polity had assumed what is now modern Iranian borders, and the territory had decreased from approximately 2 million km2 in 1800 to 1.6million km2 in 1900. The population however had increased from approximately 6 million to 10 million people by 1900 §REF§ (Martin 2005, 15) Vanessa Martin. 2005. The Qajar Pact: Bargaining, Protest and the State in Nineteenth-Century Persia. I. B. Tauris. London. §REF§ , with the largest settlement, Tehran, holding about 210,000 inhabitants.Settlement hierarchies were similar to previous polities, and included the capital city, other large regional cities, towns and villages. Although there was some centralisation of power, communication and bureaucratic reach was limited, and the Shah relied on the cooperation of many groups to keep administration running and by 1903 there was a movement calling for political reform. §REF§ (Martin 2005, 13-14) Vanessa Martin. 2005. The Qajar Pact: Bargaining, Protest and the State in Nineteenth-Century Persia. I. B. Tauris. London. §REF§ §REF§ (Ghani 2000, 7) Cyrus Ghani. 2000. Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah. From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I B Tauris. London. §REF§
In 1851 the first institution of higher education, the polytechnic institute Dar ul-Funun which offered studies in medicine, engineering, geology, and military sciences, was founded by Prime Minister Amir Kabir. §REF§ (Maranlou 2016, 144-145) Sahar Maranlou. Modernization Prospects For Legal Education In Iran. Mutaz M Qafisheh. Stephen A Rosenbaum. eds. 2016. Experimental Legal Education in a Globalized World: The Middle East and Beyond. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Newcastle upon Tyne. §REF§",,,,2025-04-17T14:45:04.687011Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",9.0,Susiana,Levant-Mesopotamia,48.235564000000,32.382851000000,Susa (Shush),IR,Iran,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
835,tr_qara_qoyunlu,1375,1468,Qara Qoyunlu,tr_qara_qoyunlu,OTHER_TAG,,Qara Qoyunlu,,2024-04-09T15:00:16.337997Z,2024-04-09T15:00:16.338010Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
785,ye_qasimid_dyn_222222,1637,1805,Qasimid Dynasty XXXXXXX,ye_qasimid_dyn_222222,OTHER_TAG,,,"This polity seems to have sc data already from another source. JR: yes, this polity should be merged into ye_qasimid_dyn, and then ye_qasimid_dyn_222222 can be deleted. It shouldn't take an RA too long to do this. MB: So you mean all the values coded for the _22222 polity should be associated with ye_qasimid_dyn? We will then have three different capitals.",2023-11-03T19:42:57.118579Z,2024-04-15T14:18:19.304693Z,"{'id': 9, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,44,Arabia,Arabian Peninsula,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
539,YeQatab,-450,-111,Qatabanian Commonwealth,ye_qatabanian_commonwealth,LEGACY,"The Yemeni Coastal Plain or Plateau is the northwestern region of modern Yemen that lies between the Red Sea and the Yemeni Mountains. Beginning in the ninth and eighth centuries BCE, this region became part of a wider ""Sabaean"" culture region (from the name of the dominant kingdom, Saba), in which many relatively small kingdoms across south and western Arabia, as well as Ethiopia, shared the same alphabet, the same iconographic repertoire (e.g. widespread depiction of animals such as ibexes and oryxes, and use of symbols such as hands, crescents, and circles), and the same vocabulary and turns of phrases in inscriptions. §REF§ (Robin 2015: 94-96) Robin, Christian Julien. 2015. “Before Himyar: Epigraphic Evidence for the Kingdoms of South Arabia.” In Arabs and Empires before Islam, edited by Greg Fisher, 91-126. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZMFH42PE. §REF§
At this time, the largest town in the Yemeni Coastal Plain was Marib, which covered an area of 100 hectares, for a population of about 30,000-40,000. §REF§ (Edens and Wilkinson 1998: 96) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HGK23ABQ. §REF§ It is unclear, however, what the average population of a single kingdom would have been.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",12.0,Yemeni Coastal Plain,Arabia,43.315739000000,14.850891000000,Sanaa,YE,Yemen,Southwest Asia,44,Arabia,Arabian Peninsula,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
889,cn_qi_spring_autumn,-770,-489,Qi - Spring and Autumn,cn_qi_spring_autumn,OTHER_TAG,,Qi,,2024-07-03T13:17:40.506675Z,2024-07-03T13:17:40.506696Z,,,,,,,,,,,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
890,cn_qi_warring_states,-488,-222,Qi - Warring States,cn_qi_warring_states,OTHER_TAG,,Qi,,2024-07-03T13:24:23.028413Z,2024-07-03T13:24:23.028432Z,,,,,,,,,,,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
250,CnImQin,-338,-207,Qin Empire,cn_qin_emp,LEGACY,,,,,2024-11-20T15:57:47.259332Z,"{'id': 144, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
901,cn_qocho_k,843,1132,Qocho Kingdom,cn_qocho_k,OTHER_TAG,,Qocho Kingdom,,2024-07-04T14:37:53.393983Z,2024-07-04T14:37:53.393998Z,,,,,,,,,,,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
860,tr_ramadanid_emirate,1397,1517,Ramadanid Emirate,tr_ramadanid_emirate,OTHER_TAG,,Ramadanid Emirate,,2024-04-10T10:21:08.171606Z,2024-04-10T10:21:08.171621Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
93,InRasht,753,973,Rashtrakuta Empire,in_rashtrakuta_emp,LEGACY,"The Rashtrakuta Empire extended over an area roughly corresponding to the modern-day Indian states of Karnataka, Goa, and Telangana, the state of Maharashtra minus its eastern region (Nagpur), the Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh, and South Gujarat. §REF§ (Kamath 1980) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ It could be said to have started in 753 CE, when Dantidurga, a rebellious provincial ruler, defeated his imperial overlords, the Chalukyas of Badami, in battle; however, Dantidurga had already begun to annex territories some time before this date. §REF§ (Basavaraja 1984, 62) K. R. Basavaraja. 1984. History and Culture of Karnataka: Early Times to Unification. Dharwad: Chalukya Publications. §REF§ The empire collapsed around 973, when, weakened by a Pallava raid and an inept king, it was unable to quash the rebellion of one of its feudatories, Tailapa II, who took the capital. Subsequently, a number of other feudatories declared independence from Rashtrakuta rule. Eventually, most of them were brought under control by the newly re-established Chalukyas. §REF§ (Basavaraja 1984, 82-83) K. R. Basavaraja. 1984. History and Culture of Karnataka: Early Times to Unification. Dharwad: Chalukya Publications. §REF§
The Rashtrakutas rapidly became undisputed rulers of the Deccan Plateau, and organized several successful expeditions in Northern India, even securing, for a time, the long-contested region of Kanauj (under Indra III). However, none of the territorial gains made during these expeditions could be held for more than a short period, and it appears that the main aim of the expeditions was not so much to extend Rashtrakuta rule as to advertise its military might and increase its prestige. §REF§ (Basavaraja 1984, 62-83) K. R. Basavaraja. 1984. History and Culture of Karnataka: Early Times to Unification. Dharwad: Chalukya Publications. §REF§ Under the long and relatively peaceful reign of Amoghavarsa I or Nrpatunga (814-878 CE), literature and the arts flourished, and the capital of Malkhed was built. §REF§ (Madan 1990, 120-22) A. P. Madan. 1990. The History of the Rashtrakutas. New Delhi: Harman. §REF§
Population and political organization
The Rashtrakuta emperor was the head of the civil, military and judicial administration. §REF§ (Madan 1990, 193) A. P. Madan. 1990. The History of the Rashtrakutas. New Delhi: Harman. §REF§ However, he did not rule directly over annexed territories: rather, he subdivided his empire among his subordinates (feudatories), who in turn subdivided their own territories among their own subordinates (sub-feudatories), and feudatories and sub-feudatories enjoyed a significant degree of autonomy. §REF§ (Madan 1990, 192) A. P. Madan. 1990. The History of the Rashtrakutas. New Delhi: Harman. §REF§
No overall population estimates could be found in the literature. The capital, Malkhed or Manyakheta, may have had around 100,000 inhabitants, §REF§ Christopher Chase-Dunn 2001, personal communication. §REF§ However, estimates are made difficult by the fact that the capital was destroyed by Chola armies in the 10th century CE, and what was left was subsequently destroyed by the armies of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughals. Today, the Rashtrakuta capital is little more than a village. Not only that, but what little information exists about the city's heyday appears to be strongly influenced by Jain tradition, which may be biased, considering that Malkhed used to be a major centre for the religion. §REF§ (Mishra 1992, 208) Jayashri Mishra. 1992. Social and Economic Conditions under the Imperial Rashtrakutas. New Delhi: Commonwealth. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",15.0,Deccan,Central India,76.625407000000,15.386856000000,Kampli,DEC,India,South Asia,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
368,YeRasul,1229,1453,Rasulid Dynasty,ye_rasulid_dyn,LEGACY,"The Yemeni Coastal Plain or Plateau refers to the north-western region of modern Yemen, lying between the Red Sea and the Yemeni Mountains. During the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries CE, the region—along with the eastern portion of southern Arabia—was ruled by the Rasūlid Dynasty. Prior to this date, Yemen had formed part of the Ayyūbid Sultanate, centered in Egypt. When the last Ayyūbid ruler of Yemen, al-Mas‘ūd Yūsuf, was summoned to govern Syria in the early thirteenth century, de facto control passed to his trusted second-in-command, the Rasūlid Nūr al-Dīn ‘Umar. §REF§ (Stookey 1978, 106–07) Robert W. Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GIDWD7R3. §REF§ The Rasūlids, a Sunnī Muslim dynasty, presided over a prosperous and largely stable period in Yemeni history, developing a centralized bureaucracy, patronizing scholarly and religious institutions, and controlling important ports of trade. §REF§ (Varisco 1993, 13–15, 21–22) Varisco, Daniel Martin. “Texts and Pretexts: The Unity of the Rasulid State under Al-Malik Al-Muzaffar.” Revue Du Monde Musulman et de La Méditerranée 67 (1993): 13–24. doi: 10.3406/remmm.1993.1584. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TV9TVUZ5. §REF§ §REF§ (Stookey 1978, 114) Robert W. Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GIDWD7R3. §REF§
No population estimates for the entire polity could be found in the sources consulted, but Aden, the capital, likely had a population of c. 50,000 under the Rasūlids. §REF§ (Bidwell 1983, 14) Bidwell, Robin Leonard. 1983. The Two Yemens. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WR5RMRMQ/. §REF§ ",,,,2024-07-05T08:49:23.176435Z,"{'id': 72, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",12.0,Yemeni Coastal Plain,Arabia,43.315739000000,14.850891000000,Sanaa,YE,Yemen,Southwest Asia,44,Arabia,Arabian Peninsula,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
45,ThRattn,1782,1873,Rattanakosin,th_rattanakosin,LEGACY,"After the destruction of the city of Ayutthaya by the Burmese in 1767, the Chao Phraya Basin was briefly ruled by Phaya Taksin, a charismatic warrior-king of obscure origins who chose Thonburi as his capital, near Bangkok, an old Chinese trading settlement. In 1782, what remained of the old Ayutthaya aristocracy staged a coup and put their leader on the throne. This leader took the name of Rama I Chakri and moved the capital to Bangkok, known at the time as Rattanakosin or Krungthep. §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 27, 31) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. A History of Thailand. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Under Rama I, the kingdom rapidly expanded to the south (where it extended its control to the Malay peninsula), the north (where Chiang Mai became a new tributary), and the east (taking control of Vientiane and much of Cambodia). §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 27-28) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. A History of Thailand. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ It could be said to have reached its peak between 1793 and 1810, when it found new stability, regained control over important Asian trade networks, and witnessed a literary florescence, with the translation of several classics from different Asian languages. §REF§ (Wyatt 1984, 154-55) David K. Wyatt. 1984. Thailand: A Short History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§ Our 'ThRattn' polity spans the 89 years between 1782 and 1873, when Rama V began a comprehensive series of modernizing reforms. §REF§ (Wyatt 1984, 194) David K. Wyatt. 1984. Thailand: A Short History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
The Rattanakosin kingdom was ruled by the Thai aristocracy. The king was simply a primus inter pares ‒ indeed, some kings, such as Rama II and Rama IV, actually retreated into a ritual role and left the administration of the kingdom entirely to the nobility. Even during the reign of more active kings, such as Rama I and Rama III, the aristocracy still monopolized the key posts in the central administration. However, the king always led the country in spiritual matters: he was seen as a bodhisattva, a spiritually superior superhuman being tasked with preserving Buddhism and aiding his subjects in their ascent toward nirvana, for example through moral laws banning sinful pursuits. §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 31-32) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. A History of Thailand. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
Evidence for the size of this polity's population before 1911, the year of the first census, is sparse and unreliable. However, a reasonable estimate would be that, following slow growth beginning in the 1780s, the population reached just below 5 million by the middle of the 19th century. §REF§ (Dixon 2002, xxxii) Chris Dixon. 1999. The Thai Economy: Uneven Development and Internationalisation. London: Routledge. §REF§ It is not clear whether this estimate includes tributary states and cities.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",17.0,Cambodian Basin,Siam,103.866700000000,13.412500000000,Angkor Wat,KH,Cambodia,Southeast Asia,41,Mainland Southeast Asia,"Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
832,it_florence_rep,1115,1568,Republic and Duchy of Florence,it_florence_rep,OTHER_TAG,,Republic of Florence,,2024-04-09T14:48:56.334682Z,2024-04-09T14:48:56.334694Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
741,af_afghanistan_rep,1974,2020,Republic of Afghanistan,af_afghanistan_rep,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,8,Afghanistan,Afghanistan,"{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
727,ch_chile_rep_1,1818,1990,Republic of Chile I,ch_chile_rep_1,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,32,Andes,From Ecuador to Chile,"{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}"
784,cn_chinese_rep,1913,1949,Republic of China,cn_chinese_rep,OTHER_TAG,,,,2023-10-27T12:37:01.400913Z,2024-01-17T15:52:23.711590Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
728,co_colombia_rep_1,1819,1958,Republic of Colombia I,co_colombia_rep_1,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,21,Caribbean,"Caribbean islands, Panama, coastal Columbia-Venezuela","{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}"
732,cr_costa_rica_rep,1838,2020,Republic of Costa Rica,cr_costa_rica_rep,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
734,cu_cuba_rep_1,1902,1956,Republic of Cuba I,cu_cuba_rep_1,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,21,Caribbean,"Caribbean islands, Panama, coastal Columbia-Venezuela","{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}"
723,eg_egypt_rep,1959,2024,Republic of Egypt,eg_egypt_rep,OTHER_TAG,,,,,2024-11-18T17:21:34.989042Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,4,Northeast Africa,Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
751,su_finland_rep,1917,2020,Republic of Finland,su_finland_rep,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,17,Northern Europe,"Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
825,it_genoa_rep_1,1099,1284,Republic of Genoa I,it_genoa_rep_1,OTHER_TAG,,Republic of Genoa,"JR: Majid, please change the polID to it_genoa_rep_1 (we decided to split up this polity)",2024-04-09T12:58:53.034871Z,2024-04-13T11:59:25.533761Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
830,it_genoa_rep_2,1285,1528,Republic of Genoa II,it_genoa_rep_2,OTHER_TAG,,Republic of Genoa,,2024-04-09T14:45:36.405371Z,2024-04-09T14:45:36.405383Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
831,it_genoa_rep_3,1529,1797,Republic of Genoa III,it_genoa_rep_3,OTHER_TAG,,Republic of Genoa,,2024-04-09T14:46:12.111976Z,2024-04-09T14:46:12.111990Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
763,id_indonesian_rep,1949,2020,Republic of Indonesia,id_indonesian_rep,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,42,Maritime Southeast Asia,"Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
758,iq_iraq_rep,1959,2020,Republic of Iraq,iq_iraq_rep,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,62,Mesopotamia,"Iraq, Kuwait","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
753,ei_ireland_rep,1922,2024,Republic of Ireland,ei_ireland_rep,OTHER_TAG,,,extended the date to 2024,,2024-11-18T12:02:43.737969Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,20,Western Europe,"British Isles, France, Low Countries","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
736,ko_korean_rep,1948,2020,Republic of Korea,ko_korean_rep,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,14,Northeast Asia,"Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
863,pl_polish_rep_1,1919,1939,Republic of Poland I,pl_polish_rep_1,OTHER_TAG,,Second Polish Republic,,2024-04-11T07:07:03.136488Z,2024-05-30T10:28:28.813314Z,"{'id': 47, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
725,rw_rwanda_rep,1962,2020,Republic of Rwanda,rw_rwanda_rep,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,1,Central Africa,Angola and DRC,"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
721,sa_south_africa_rep,1920,2020,Republic of South Africa,sa_south_africa_rep,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,6,Southern Africa,"Namibia, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique and south","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
188,ItStPet,752,904,Republic of St Peter I,it_st_peter_rep_1,LEGACY,"The Papal State originated in the Patrimony of St. Peter, which initially included over four hundred estates, many of them in Sicily. These came from donations from wealthy Christians, whose philanthropy accelerated after Emperor Constantine. §REF§ (Brown 2003, 206) Brown, Peter. 2003. The Rise of Western Christendom. Triumph and Diversity, 200-1000. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, Inc. §REF§ The eighth century popes called their state ""The Republic of St. Peter"". The popular name ""Papal States"" was only used from the late middle ages. §REF§ (Noble 2011, xxi) T F X Noble. 2011. The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 680-825, University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§
The Republic of St Peter (711-904 CE) was under nominal Byzantine suzerainty until 781 CE when the capital of the Byzantine exarchate was at Ravenna §REF§ (Partner 1972, 9) P Partner. 1972. The Lands of St. Peter: The Papal State in the Middle Ages and the Early Renaissance, University of California Press §REF§ which was connected to Rome by the thin strip of Byzantine territory running across the Appennines and through Perugia. The Pope was elected by citizens and the army - usually based on the choice of the clergy. Representatives would the certify the choice to the Exarch in Ravenna for imperial approval. The Exarch could make the choice himself in case of disagreement. §REF§ (Trevor, 1869, 113) G Trevor. 1869. Rome and Its Papal Rulers, A History of Eighteen Centuries, The Religious Tract Society, London [1] §REF§
In 781 CE Charlemagne asserted Frankish suzerainty over the region. After this time, the years of the Byzantine Emperor's reign were no longer used for dating Papal documents or on the minting of imperial coins in the mint of Rome. §REF§ (Grierson and Blackburn 2007, 259) §REF§ During the ninth century the Papacy was released from Carolingian influence as the Frankish empire began to break up. §REF§ (Barraclough 1968, 55) Geoffrey Barraclough. 1968. The Medieval Papacy Norwich: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1968. §REF§
This also meant that between the end of the ninth century and the 960s, the papacy had no powerful protectors outside Italy. Political power in Rome and Lazio lay in the hands of elite families, such as the Theophylacti and other powerful Roman baronial families. §REF§ (Stearns 2001 173) P Stearns. 2001. The Encyclopedia of World History. 6th Edition. James Clarke & Co Ltd. Cambridge. §REF§
Papal governmental administration was small-scale but effective and organized into departments, with separate heads for the chancery and archives. §REF§ (Partner 1972, 9) P Partner. 1972. The Lands of St. Peter: The Papal State in the Middle Ages and the Early Renaissance, University of California Press §REF§ Notaries were career bureaucrats with the primicerius notariorum the head of college of notaries. §REF§ (Richards 1979, 290-292) J Richards. 1979. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages, 476-752, Routledge & Kegan Paul §REF§ The governance of the wider mountainous region was characterised by small countships and marquisates centered upon a fortified rocca.
The population of the polity is hard to estimate but it is likely the city of Rome lost half its population between 800 CE and 900 CE when it held a mere 40,000 people.",,,,2025-01-23T15:20:52.749781Z,"{'id': 127, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",1.0,Latium,Southern Europe,12.486948000000,41.890407000000,Rome,IT,Italy,Europe,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
722,tn_tunisia_rep,1956,2020,Republic of Tunisia,tn_tunisia_rep,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,3,Maghreb,From Morocco to Libya,"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
605,tr_turkey_rep,1923,2020,Republic of Turkey,tr_turkey_rep,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
731,ve_venezuela_rep_1,1830,1983,Republic of Venezuela I,ve_venezuela_rep_1,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,21,Caribbean,"Caribbean islands, Panama, coastal Columbia-Venezuela","{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}"
544,ItVenR3,1204,1563,Republic of Venice III,it_venetian_rep_3,LEGACY,,,,,2024-11-18T12:35:23.558179Z,"{'id': 129, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",4.0,Crete,Southeastern Europe,25.144200000000,35.338700000000,Heraklion,GR,Greece,Europe,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
545,ItVenR4,1564,1797,Republic of Venice IV,it_venetian_rep_4,LEGACY,,,,,2023-10-23T16:21:17.461559Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",4.0,Crete,Southeastern Europe,25.144200000000,35.338700000000,Heraklion,GR,Greece,Europe,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
765,vt_vietnam_rep,1955,1975,Republic of Vietnam,vt_vietnam_rep,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,41,Mainland Southeast Asia,"Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
762,pi_phililippines_rep,1946,2020,Republic of the Philippines,pi_phililippines_rep,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,42,Maritime Southeast Asia,"Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
71,TrRomDm,285,394,Roman Empire - Dominate,tr_roman_dominate,LEGACY,"The Roman Principate is generally regarded as ending during or just after the crisis of the 3rd century CE (235-284 CE). The date of 284 CE marks the accession of Diocletian §REF§ (Boatwright et al. 2012, 438) Mary T. Boatwright, Daniel J. Gargola, Noel Lenski and Richard J. A. Talbert. 2012. The Romans. From Village to Empire: A History of Rome from Earliest Times to the End of the Western Empire. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press. §REF§ and the period includes the Constantinian Dynasty (305-363 CE), Valentinian Dynasty (364-378 CE) and the early part of the Theodosian dynasty (379-457 CE). According to the historian David Baker, the 'Eastern Empire enjoyed an expansion phase c. 285-450'. §REF§ (Baker 2011, 245-46) David Baker. 2011. 'The Roman Dominate from the Perspective of Demographic-Structural Theory'. Cliodynamics 2 (2): 217-51. §REF§ The period ends after the reign of Theodosius, the last emperor to rule over both the Eastern and Western halves of the Empire. §REF§ (Morgan 2012) James F. Morgan. 2012. The Roman Empire: Fall of the West, Survival of the East. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse. §REF§
Near the end of the 3rd century, beginning at the end of the Severan Dynasty, the Principate nearly collapsed in the face of internal warfare and pressure from external foes, including the Sassanid Persian Empire and nomadic tribes from Germany and eastern Europe. Rome briefly lost control over parts of France, Britain, and southern Spain and suffered several significant losses in battle to the Sassanids. Under first the Emperor Aurelian (r. 270-275 CE) then Diocletian (r. 284-305), all territory was recovered and a series of administrative and economic reforms inaugurated a second phase of the Roman Empire, which we refer to as the Dominate (denoting the increasing centralization of authority and the development of a large bureaucratic apparatus). This period saw notably the increasing popularization of Christianity, culminating in its acceptance as the official state religion under the Emperor Theodosius at the end of the period. The late 3rd century also saw the Empire split into two distinct administrative halves: a Western half, with its capital at Rome, and an Eastern one, ruled first from Nicomedia in Anatolia and then from Byzantium (re-founded as Constantinople, modern-day Istanbul, by the Emperor Constantine I the Great in 330 CE). Each half was ruled by a different emperor along with a junior colleague, titled 'Caesar'. This arrangement is known as the Tetrarchy ('rule of four'), which lasted until Constantine I managed to once again rule both halves together. The Empire was divided a few more times, until Theodosius (r. 379-392 CE) united it for the final time. In 393, Theodosius once more divided the Empire, naming Arcadius Emperor in the East and Honorius Emperor in the West. This marks the end of the Dominate period, leading to a period of instability and, ultimately, the collapse of the Roman state in the west, yet recovery and the continuation of Roman rule in the east (which became known as the Byzantine Empire, after Constantinople's original name).
Population and political organization
During the Dominate period, the power centre of the Roman Empire shifted decisively away from Rome and Italy, beset by decades of crisis and civil infighting, to Anatolia; specifically, to the old Greek city of Byzantium that was re-founded and glorified by the Emperor Constantine I. Before this, Diocletian brought stability back to the Empire after the crises of the 3rd century CE by inaugurating a series of administrative and economic reforms. Although most offices and institutions of the preceding Principate period were retained, Diocletian increased the number of provinces, adding more governors and provincial officials who reported directly to the emperor, and further split the empire into two halves to aid in the administration of such a vast and diverse territory. §REF§ (Black 2008, 181) Jeremy Black. 2008. World History Atlas. London: Dorling Kindersley. §REF§ §REF§ (Cameron 1993) Averil Cameron. 1993. The Later Roman Empire, A.D. 284-430. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The early Dominate is known for the decline of autonomy, prestige, and power of Rome's provincial elite and the concomitant rapid increase in the power of the central bureaucracy. §REF§ (Loewenstein 1973, 238) Karl Loewenstein. 1973. The Governance of Rome. The Hague: Martin Nijhoff. §REF§ §REF§ (Eich 2005) Peter Eich. 2005. Zur Metamorphose des politischen Systems in der römischen Kaiserzeit: Die Entstehung einer ""personalen Bürokratie"" im langen dritten Jahrhundert. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. §REF§ §REF§ (Eich 2015) Peter Eich. 2015. 'The Common Denominator: Late Roman Imperial Bureaucracy from a Comparative Perspective', in State Power in Ancient China and Rome, edited by Walter Scheidel, 90-149. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
When Constantine I established Constantinople as the capital in 330 CE, he furnished the city with a palace, hippodrome, and a great imperial bureaucracy. In terms of personnel the administration in Constantinople reached its largest extent in the 4th century with 'somewhat over thirty thousand functionaries'. §REF§ (Lendon 1997, 3) J. E. Lendon. 1997. Empire of Honour: The Art of Government in the Roman World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Constantine was the first emperor to vigorously promote Christian religion and his patronage of the Christian church laid the foundations of a Christian empire. 'He built grand churches at the sacred loci of Christianity, including churches celebrating Christ's birth, baptism, and resurrection and Peter's death in Rome. ... Constantine's successors would continue this pattern. Many churches would become quite wealthy. Their clergy were exempt from taxation and other onerous obligations like labor.' §REF§ (Madigan 2015, 20) Kevin Madigan. 2015. Medieval Christianity: A New History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§
The Empire, creaking under its vast territory of 4.5 million square kilometres, supported a population of up to 70 million people. Rome had lost population from its peak under the Principate, probably supporting around 800,000 in 300 CE and around 500,000 by the beginning of the 5th century. Constantinople also had slightly under 500,000 inhabitants, though it developed rapidly under the patronage of Constantine I and his successors and became the new centre of literacy and culture in the Roman world - rivalling, if not surpassing, Rome herself. §REF§ (Lee 2013, 76) A. D. Lee. 2013. From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. §REF§",,,,2023-10-23T16:18:53.388454Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",11.0,Konya Plain,Anatolia-Caucasus,32.521164000000,37.877845000000,Konya,TR,Turkey,Southwest Asia,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
70,ItRomPr,-31,284,Roman Empire - Principate,it_roman_principate,LEGACY,"The Roman Principate (31 BCE-284 CE) refers to the first period of the Roman Empire, when the de facto ruler was termed the princeps, or 'leading citizen'. The period begins with the victory of the first emperor, Augustus (then Octavian) over his rival Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE and ends with the accession of Diocletian after the 'crisis' of the 3rd century CE (235-284 CE). §REF§ (Boatwright et al. 2012) Mary T. Boatwright, Daniel J. Gargola, Noel Lenski and Richard J. A. Talbert. 2012. The Romans. From Village to Empire: A History of Rome from Earliest Times to the End of the Western Empire. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press. §REF§
Retaining and solidifying many of the institutions, cultural forms, and economic base that had led to Rome's hegemonic position during the Republican period, the Empire became one of the largest, most long-lived, and most prosperous imperial states the world has ever known. Augustus established a dynasty lasting until the death of the Emperor Nero in 68 CE, after which followed a brief civil war between different potential successors. Despite repeated bouts of similar warfare during succession crises following the various dynasties that ruled the Principate, the Empire remained remarkably stable throughout this period. Rome was able to unite - and keep together - a huge swathe of territory encompassing all of western Europe, North Africa, Egypt, the eastern Mediterranean, most of Anatolia, and parts of the Near East. Integrating diverse regions into this single empire facilitated the spread of Roman institutions - notably its legal system, urban infrastructure, cultural forms, and political structure. It also promoted economic development by enabling the safe transport of goods and people to every corner of the empire. §REF§ (Bowman and Wilson 2009) Alan K. Bowman and Andrew Wilson. 2009. 'Quantifying the Roman Economy: Integration, Growth, Decline?', in Quantifying the Roman Economy: Methods and Problems, edited by Alan K. Bowman and Andrew Wilson, 3-86. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ It was during this period that Rome built some of its greatest structures: the Pantheon, the Coliseum, the imperial fora (market squares) in the heart of Rome, and many others. The Principate overall produced so much wealth and so many cultural achievements that the great 18th-century English historian Edward Gibbon proclaimed the Empire at its peak in the 2nd century CE to be 'the period in the history of the world, during which the condition of the human race was most happy and prosperous'. §REF§ (Gibbon [2003] 1869, 53) Edward Gibbon. [2003] 1869. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, edited by Hans-Friedrich Mueller. New York: Modern Library. §REF§
In the late 3rd century CE, beginning after the end of the Severan Dynasty, the Principate nearly collapsed in the face of internal warfare and pressure from external foes, including the Sassanid Persian Empire and nomadic tribes from Germany and eastern Europe. Rome briefly lost control over parts of France, Britain, and southern Spain and suffered several significant losses in battle to the Sassanids. Under first the Emperor Aurelian (r. 270-275 CE) then Diocletian (r. 284-305), however, all territory was recovered and a series of administrative and economic reforms inaugurated a second phase of the Roman Empire, which we refer to as the Dominate (denoting the increasing centralization of authority and the development of a large bureaucratic apparatus).
Population and political organization
Nominally, there was no change in political organization between the Republican period and the Principate. The first princeps, Augustus, kept all Republican institutions and offices, including the Senate, intact. There was clear practical change in the power structure, however, as Augustus, and all emperors after him, asserted personal control over almost the entire Roman army and were granted unprecedented legislative, religious, and judicial powers to shape politics and Roman society at large. Whereas a defining principle of Republican governance was that no individual should be able to hold multiple offices simultaneously, amassing power in several domains (military, legislative, religious, and so on), emperors broke this tradition and drew their authority from numerous offices, titles, and the authority they carried. §REF§ (Noreña 2010) Carlos Noreña. 2010. 'The Early Imperial Monarchy', in The Oxford Handbook of Roman Studies, edited by A. Barchiesi and W. Scheidel, 533-46. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
The Roman emperor was also generally one of the wealthiest people in the Principate, controlling huge agriculturally productive estates throughout the Empire, particularly in North Africa and Egypt. §REF§ (Kehoe 2007) Dennis P. Kehoe. 2007. Law and the Rural Economy in the Roman Empire. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ In this period, state revenues were split between the 'public' treasury (aerarium) and an imperial treasury (fiscus) under the direct control of the emperor. §REF§ (Adkins and Adkins 1998, 45) Lesley Adkins and Roy A. Adkins. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The Principate had a fairly limited reach, particularly outside of Italy, but the state did have some significant expenses which it met by collecting tax from the Empire's vast territory and large population, taking in rents from the imperial estates. In addition to paying the salaries of imperial officials - a relatively small expense as only limited central authority was exerted in the provinces (mainly the provincial governors and their retinue) - the emperor was responsible for financing a professional citizen army, the major state expense along with public works projects such as roads, aqueducts, and temples. The costs of these public works, though, were split between the personal fortune of the emperors who acted as patrons, particularly in Italy, and that of wealthy patrons in the provinces, who financed much of the urban growth in these regions. Further, beginning in the later Republican period and continuing throughout the Empire, the imperial state provided grain at reduced prices to citizens living in Rome; another considerable expense. §REF§ (Duncan-Jones 1994) Richard Duncan-Jones. 1994. Money and Government in the Roman Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Scheidel 2015) Walter Scheidel. 2015. 'State Revenue and Expenditure in the Han and Roman Empires', in State Power in Ancient China and Rome, edited by Walter Scheidel, 150-80. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Garnsey and Saller 1987) Peter Garnsey and Richard P. Saller. 1987. The Roman Empire: Economy, Society, and Culture. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§
The Emperor was assisted by his directly appointed consilium (advisory council), which was often made up of freedmen (manumitted slaves) and personal slaves. §REF§ (Noreña 2010, 538) Carlos Noreña. 2010. 'The Early Imperial Monarchy', in The Oxford Handbook of Roman Studies, edited by A. Barchiesi and W. Scheidel, 533-46. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Harries 2010) Jill Harries. 2010. 'Law', in The Oxford Handbook of Roman Studies, edited by Alessandro Barchiesi and Walter Scheidel, 637-50. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The Senate, not the emperor, formally retained ultimate executive power and could override or critique the emperor's actions, but in practice this was quite rare and could be dangerous to the critic. §REF§ (Harris 2010) W. V. Harris. 2010. 'Power', in The Oxford Handbook of Roman Studies, edited by Alessandro Barchiesi and Walter Scheidel, 564-78. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ This centralized exercise of power by the Emperor, though, did not extend to the provinces, where the focus of imperial administration was squarely on securing revenue (cash and in-kind tax and rents on imperial properties) and maintaining peace, both internally and against potential external enemies, notably the powerful Persian Empires to the East. Roman provinces were governed by fairly autonomous officials (procurator, curator, praefectus, proconsul, etc.) and priests (flamen, etc.). §REF§ (Talbert 1996) Richard J. A. Talbert. 1996. 'The Senate and Senatorial and Equestrian Posts', in The Cambridge Ancient History, edited by Alan K. Bowman, Edward Champlin and Andrew Lintott, 324-43. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Ando 2013) Clifford Ando. 2013. Imperial Ideology and Provincial Loyalty in the Roman Empire. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Urbanization was also encouraged throughout the Empire; provincial cities were administered as 'mini-Rome's, with local urban equivalents of the Senate and most administrative, judicial, and religious magistracies. Roman cultural and infrastructural achievements were widely mimicked, with aqueducts, temples, theatres, bathhouses, and material culture (for example, particular ceramic forms, a culture of communal feasting, and the habit of publicizing achievements with inscribed stone tablets) adapted by numerous provincial towns and cities. §REF§ (Wilson 2011) Andrew Wilson. 2011. 'City Sizes and Urbanization in the Roman Empire', in Settlement, Urbanization, and Population, edited by Alan K. Bowman and Andrew Wilson, 161-95. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ This was true across the Empire, though particularly salient in the west, whereas Roman settlements in the East tended to retain many of their pre-Roman urban forms and cultural traditions. §REF§ (Boatwright 2000) Mary Taliaferro Boatwright. 2000. Hadrian and the Cities of the Roman Empire. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Ando 2013) Clifford Ando. 2013. Imperial Ideology and Provincial Loyalty in the Roman Empire. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§
By the mid-2nd century CE, the city of Rome had reached over one million inhabitants, a significant feat for an ancient urban settlement. The population of the entire Empire is estimated at between 50 to over 60 million. §REF§ (Scheidel 2009) Walter Scheidel. 2009. 'Population and Demography', in A Companion to Ancient History, edited by A. Erskine, 234-45. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Estimating the number of state employees is an extremely difficult task, but one scholar has supposed that if the imperial government at its largest extent in the 4th century CE 'had somewhat over thirty thousand functionaries', then before this time a figure of 10,000-12,000 might be reasonable. §REF§ (Lendon 1997, 3) J. E. Lendon. 1997. Empire of Honour: The Art of Government in the Roman World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",1.0,Latium,Southern Europe,12.486948000000,41.890407000000,Rome,IT,Italy,Europe,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
181,ItRomRg,-716,-509,Roman Kingdom,it_roman_k,LEGACY,"The Regal Period refers to the period at the end of the Iron Age during which Rome developed as a uncleared settlement in the heart of Latium (modern-day Lazio), ruled over by 'Etruscan kings'. Although there is archaeological evidence for the permanent occupation of Rome from the Iron Age 'centuries before' the city's mythic foundation date of 754 BCE, §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 80) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§ perhaps from as early as 1000 BCE, §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 72) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§ we have chosen to begin this polity in 716, with the traditional death date of the city's legendary founder Romulus. §REF§ (Martin 2012, 42) Thomas R. Martin. 2012. Ancient Rome: From Romulus to Justinian. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§ The city prospered during this time, which saw the development of many of the institutions - political administration, legal system, religious practices - characteristic of the later Roman Republic. The last king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (534-509 BCE), was expelled from Rome for his and his family's tyrannical excesses. In his place, the leading Roman elites established an aristocratic city-state, ushering in the Republican period. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 118, 120) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§
Population and political organization
By end of the Regal Period, Rome was a well-developed city-state, boasting civic infrastructure (marsh drainage, roads), political institutions (assemblies, Senate), monuments (temples), and a powerful military. It held at least one third of the area of Latium vetus (Old Latium) §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 205) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§ and had a population of 20,000-50,000 people.
According to legend, Rome became a city when the eponymous founder Romulus slew his twin brother Remus, both outcasts from a nearby Latium settlement, in a contest over where to found their new city. Numa Pompilius (r. 715-673 BCE), of Sabine origin, was the next king. Pompilius is traditionally credited with establishing 'all the major religious institutions of the state, including the calendar and the priesthoods'. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 120) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§ Starting with Tarquinius Priscus (r. 616-579 BCE), Rome was ruled by a series of kings of Etruscan descent, who could thus draw on the legacy of this powerful and complex culture from north-central Italy (around modern-day Etruria). The Roman king served as chief legislator, military commander, highest judge and chief priest. §REF§ (Adkins and Adkins 1998, 62) Lesley Adkins and Roy A. Adkins. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 252) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§ Archaeological remains found on the Palatine Hill dating to the late 8th century BCE suggest that the king lived in a palace from the earliest times. Rome's relationship with other settlements in Latium, particularly on military matters, were important. §REF§ (Armstrong 2016, 73) Jeremy Armstrong. 2016. War and Society in Early Rome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The hereditary clan system (gens) formed the basis of the Roman nobility, §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 115) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§ likely serving first as the king's advisors, although administrative structures gradually became more institutionalized (for example, through the establishment of a formal senate and voting assemblies) throughout the late 8th and 7th centuries BCE.
The city of Rome, with a population somewhere between 14,000 and 57,000 during this period, fared well in military and economic terms. Several kings claimed important victories over nearby settlements in Latium and Etruria, expanding Rome's sphere of influence and establishing economic connections throughout central Italy. The Via Salaria ('salt road') and the Sacra Via in Rome were in existence from the beginning of the Roman Kingdom §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 48, 96) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§ - although at this time the roads would not have been paved. A port known as Caere was situated 50 kilometres northwest of Rome. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 128) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§ The first bridge, thought to be the Pons Sublicius, may have been built in 642 BCE under Ancus Marcius. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 128) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§ Roman kings also reclaimed marshland and carried out drainage works. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 164) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",1.0,Latium,Southern Europe,12.486948000000,41.890407000000,Rome,IT,Italy,Europe,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
189,ItPapEM,904,1198,Rome - Republic of St Peter II,it_st_peter_rep_2,LEGACY,"The term ""Papal States"" was not adopted until around 1200 CE §REF§ (Vauchez 2010, 356) André Vauchez ed. Roma Medievale. Rome: Editori Laterza, 2010 [2001]. §REF§ ; at this time the polity of the Papacy at Rome was called the Patrimony of St. Peter, Republic of St. Peter or Land of St. Peter. The population of Rome languished at a relative historical low of 35,000 people throughout this period, which was marked by a high degree of fragmentation and sub-regional autonomy. Various areas of the Patrimony of St. Peter were virtually independent of the Papacy or subject to central authority only in a very nominal way. §REF§ (Wickham 2009, 164) Chris Wickham. Early Medieval Italy. Central Power and Local Society, 400-1000. Ann Arbor, MA: University of Michigan, 2009 [1981]. §REF§
Through the 904-1198 CE period the polity, with its capital at Rome, was dominated by powerful families and a powerful foreign state. The Theophylacti, a noble family from Tusculanum, were the first of a number of aristocratic families who dominated the papacy. §REF§ (Marazzi 2001, 64) Federico Marazzi. ""Aristocrazia e società (secoli VI-XI),"" in Vauchez, ed., 41-69. §REF§ In the late eleventh and twelfth centuries, the papacy was frequently at war with the German emperors, which caused serious destabilization of political authority in the Patrimony. §REF§ (Partner 1972, 231) Peter Partner. 1972. The Lands of St. Peter: The Papal State in the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972. §REF§ The German Emperor Henry III, became the de facto guardian of the papacy and the Patrimony. §REF§ (Kreutz 1996, 151) Kreutz, Barbara M. Before the Normans. Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries. College Park, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996. §REF§
When Henry III granted the city of Benevento to Pope Leo IX this marked the furthest extent of (nominal) papal power until Pope Innocent III (r. 1198-1216 CE) began consolidating what would be called the Papal States. §REF§ (Kreutz 1996, 152) Kreutz, Barbara M. Before the Normans. Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries. College Park, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996. §REF§ It could be argued that the peak of the polity was under the Tusculan Reform Papacy c.1012-1036 CE because of internal and external stability and socioeconomic and (even if limited) demographic expansion.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",1.0,Latium,Southern Europe,12.486948000000,41.890407000000,Rome,IT,Italy,Europe,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
278,MnRourn,300,555,Rouran Khaganate,mn_rouran_khaganate,LEGACY,"The Orkhon Valley lies either side of the Orkhon River, in north-central Mongolia. Between about 300 and 550 CE, it was under the control of the Rouran. Though these began as nomadic pastoralists like their predecessors the Xianbei and Xiongnu, there is evidence that by the sixth century CE they had transitioned to a settled, agricultural way of life, and from shamanism to Buddhism. §REF§ (Kyzlasov 1996, 317) §REF§ At their peak, they ruled over an empire comprising around 4,000,000 squared kilometers, §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 220-221) §REF§ with a population of no less than 500,000. §REF§ (Kradin 2005, 165) §REF§ This empire was divided into an eastern and a western wing, each ruled by a silifa, who were subordinate to the paramount ruler or khagan. §REF§ (Kradin 2005, 162) §REF§ For ease of organisation, both the population and the army were divided into groups of hundreds and thousands. §REF§ (Kradin 2005, 154-155) §REF§",,,,2023-10-23T17:31:41.156401Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",24.0,Orkhon Valley,Mongolia,102.845486000000,47.200757000000,Karakorum,MN,Mongolia,Central Eurasia,9,Mongolia,"Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
171,TrRum**,1077,1307,Rum Sultanate,tr_rum_sultanate,LEGACY,"The Seljuk Sultanate of Rum (1077-1307 CE) was probably founded by Suleman Qotlomos after a Turkmen tribe in Syria asked him to lead them. §REF§ (Peacock 2010) Andrew Peacock 'Saljuqs iii. Saljuqs of Rum. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii §REF§ The early years of the Sultanate are, however, extremely murky as it is unlikely that any local Muslim chronicles were written. §REF§ (Peacock 2010) Andrew Peacock 'Saljuqs iii. Saljuqs of Rum. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii §REF§
It is likely that the government was a largely military arrangement. The regional apparatus was organised with military officials overseeing local tax collectors. The amirs were granted land by the Sultan in return for military service §REF§ (Fodor 2009, 197) Pal Fodor. “Ottoman Warfare, 1300-1453.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, edited by Kate Fleet, Suraiya Faroqhi, and Reşat Kasaba, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
At his royal court a core of senior bureaucrats and scribes assisted with the central administration. §REF§ (Peacock 2010) Andrew Peacock 'Saljuqs iii. Saljuqs of Rum. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii §REF§ Land, and the right to collect revenue for it, was also distributed by the Sultan to senior officials. §REF§ (Peacock 2010) Andrew Peacock 'Saljuqs iii. Saljuqs of Rum. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii §REF§ These positions and the land grants often became hereditary. §REF§ (Peacock 2010) Andrew Peacock 'Saljuqs iii. Saljuqs of Rum. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii §REF§
The early 13th century was probably the high point of the Sultanate of Rum §REF§ (Peacock 2010) Andrew Peacock 'Saljuqs iii. Saljuqs of Rum. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii §REF§ before Anatolia came under the authority of invading Mongols in the 1240s CE. §REF§ (Peacock 2010) Andrew Peacock 'Saljuqs iii. Saljuqs of Rum. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii §REF§ Konya was the largest city of the polity with 30,000-40,000 inhabitants. Crusaders who reached there in 1190 reckoned it was “the size of Cologne"". §REF§ (Cahen 2001, 121) Claude Cahen. 2001. The Formation of Turkey: The Seljukid Sultanate of Rūm: Eleventh to Fourteenth Century. Translated by P. M. Holt. A History of the Near East. Harlow, England: Longman. §REF§ ",,,,2025-03-10T14:31:01.374229Z,"{'id': 194, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",11.0,Konya Plain,Anatolia-Caucasus,32.521164000000,37.877845000000,Konya,TR,Turkey,Southwest Asia,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
600,ru_romanov_dyn_1,1614,1775,"Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty I",ru_romanov_dyn_1,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,16,Eastern Europe,"Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
571,ru_romanov_dyn_2,1776,1917,"Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty II",ru_romanov_dyn_2,LEGACY,,,,,2024-05-30T13:02:18.914134Z,"{'id': 51, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,16,Eastern Europe,"Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
910,ru_russian_federation,1992,2024,Russian Federation,ru_russian_federation,OTHER_TAG,,,,2024-10-17T08:30:41.948935Z,2024-10-17T08:30:41.948957Z,,,,,,,,,,,16,Eastern Europe,"Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
293,UaRusPr,1133,1240,Russian Principate,ua_russian_principate,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,16,Eastern Europe,"Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
432,MaSaadi,1554,1659,Saadi Sultanate,ma_saadi_sultanate,LEGACY,"This polity represents the period in which Morocco was ruled by the Saadi dynasty. Although the dynasty itself was founded in 1511 CE, we date the beginning of the polity to 1554, when the Saadis took Fez from their dynastic rivals, the Wattasids, and united Morocco under their rule. As for the polity's end, it seems most appropriate to date it to 1659, the year the last Saadi monarch was assassinated. Between 1554 and 1591, the boundaries of the Saadi Sultanate coincided with those of modern-day Morocco. Between 1591 and 1618, the Saadi also ruled over the Niger Inland Delta, though their control over this area seems to have been nominal. After the death of Sultan Ahmad Al-Mansur in 1603, the polity entered a period of instability that ultimately led to the loss of their Niger colony. §REF§ (El Fasi 1992, 200-32) M. El Fasi. 1992. 'Morocco'. In General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries, edited by Bethwell Allan Ogot, 200-32. London: Heinemann. §REF§
Population and political organization
In the 16th and 17th centuries CE, the Saadis ruled through an Ottoman-style hierarchical regime. §REF§ (García-Arenal 2009, 57-58) Mercedes García-Arenal. 2009. Ahmad Al-Mansur: The Beginnings of Modern Morocco. Oxford: OneWorld. §REF§ Atop this hierarchy stood the sultan, followed by the wazir or vizier, usually the crown prince. Then came the sultan's council, headed by the First Secretary, who fulfilled the roles of secretary of state, majordomo and treasurer. The vice-vizier was in charge of the army and the qadi al-qudat (chief religious judge) headed the judiciary and appointed regional qadis.
The Saadi Sultanate is likely to have had a population of no more than 3 million at its peak. This is based on the earliest available population estimate for Morocco, which dates to the 20th century. According to García-Arenal, '[t]he figure can hardly have been higher in the late sixteenth century or during the seventeenth, given that the country was subject to regular and devastating epidemics of plague'. §REF§ (García-Arenal 2009, 41) Mercedes García-Arenal. 2009. Ahmad Al-Mansur: The Beginnings of Modern Morocco. Oxford: OneWorld. §REF§ However, it is worth noting that this estimate does not take into account the population of the Niger Inland Delta.
",,,,2024-11-13T15:48:41.358328Z,"{'id': 106, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",6.0,Niger Inland Delta,Sahel,-3.041703000000,16.717549000000,Timbuctu,ML,Mali,Africa,3,Maghreb,From Morocco to Libya,"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
538,YeSabaC,-800,-451,Sabaean Commonwealth,ye_sabaean_commonwealth,LEGACY,"The Yemeni Coastal Plain or Plateau is the northwestern region of modern Yemen that lies between the Red Sea and the Yemeni Mountains. Beginning in the ninth and eighth centuries BCE, this region became part of a wider ""Sabaean"" culture region (from the name of the dominant kingdom, Saba), in which many relatively small kingdoms across south and western Arabia, as well as Ethiopia, shared the same alphabet, the same iconographic repertoire (e.g. widespread depiction of animals such as ibexes and oryxes, and use of symbols such as hands, crescents, and circles), and the same vocabulary and turns of phrases in inscriptions. §REF§ (Robin 2015: 94-96) Robin, Christian Julien. 2015. “Before Himyar: Epigraphic Evidence for the Kingdoms of South Arabia.” In Arabs and Empires before Islam, edited by Greg Fisher, 91-126. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZMFH42PE. §REF§
At this time, the largest town in the Yemeni Coastal Plain was Marib, which covered an area of 100 hectares, for a population of about 30,000-40,000. §REF§ (Edens and Wilkinson 1998: 96) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HGK23ABQ. §REF§ It is unclear, however, what the average population of a single kingdom would have been.",,,,2023-05-15T14:37:17.518133Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",12.0,Yemeni Coastal Plain,Arabia,43.315739000000,14.850891000000,Sanaa,YE,Yemen,Southwest Asia,44,Arabia,Arabian Peninsula,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
374,IrSafvd,1501,1722,Safavid Empire,ir_safavid_emp,LEGACY,"The Safavid period of rule in Persia (1501-1722 CE) was begun by Shah Ismail (1501-1524 CE) and is known as a 'gunpowder empire' due to the now widespread use of artillery and muskets on the battlefield. §REF§ (Haneda 1989, 62) Masashi Haneda. January 1, 1989. “The Evolution of the Safavid Royal Guard.” Iranian Studies 22, no. 2/3. §REF§
Shah Ismail, whose original power base was near the Caspian sea, began the conquest of Iran with the capture Tabriz from the Ak Koyunlu. He declared that the state religion was Shi'ia and the Safavids were decisive for the spread of Shi'ism in Iran.
While initially the governing system was ""largely a continuation of its Aq Qoyunlu counterpart and its Turco-Mongolian traditions"" §REF§ (Mitchell 2009, 29) Mitchell, Colin P. 2009. Practice of Politics in Safavid Iran, The: Power, Religion and Rhetoric. I.B. Tauris. London. §REF§ it eventually became a ""highly centralized and complex bureaucratic system"" §REF§ (Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii §REF§ based at the Safavid court in the capital city. The highest officials of the Safavid court included the Vazir-e-azam (chief minister), Amir al-omard (commander in chief of the army, later titled Sepdhsdldr-e koll-e lasgar-e Iran), the Sadr (judiciary and religious minister), and vice-regent. §REF§ (Mousavi 2008, 23-24) Mohammad A. Mousavi. January 1, 2008. “The Autonomous State in Iran: Mobility and Prosperity in the Reign of Shah ’Abbas the Great (1587-1629).” Iran & the Caucasus 12, no. 1 doi:10.2307/25597352. §REF§
As a defensive measure against Ottoman attacks Shah Tahmasp (1524-1576) moved the capital from Tabriz to Qazvin, but Shah Abbas I (1587-1629 CE) moved it again, further south, to a new monumental city at Isfahan. Under Shah Abbas Isfahan’s population grew to 200,000. §REF§ David Blow. 2009. Shah Abbas: The Ruthless King Who Became an Iranian Legend. London: I.B. Tauris, 2009, p.193. §REF§ The rule of Shah Abbas I (1587-1629 CE) is widely thought of as representing the peak Safavid achievement. Incredible wealth acquired from the state monopoly over the silk trade, was spent on large-scale building works. Abbas also made key reforms to improve the administration and the army. §REF§ (Matthee 2008) Rudi Matthee. 2008. ‘SAFAVID DYNASTY’. IranicaOnline. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids §REF§ §REF§ (Savory 1967, 75) R M Savory. 1967, “The Sherley Myth.” Iran 5 §REF§ §REF§ (Ward 2009, 49) Steven R. Ward. 2009. Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces (Washington, D.C: Georgetown University Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",9.0,Susiana,Levant-Mesopotamia,48.235564000000,32.382851000000,Susa (Shush),IR,Iran,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
360,IrSaffr,861,1003,Saffarid Caliphate,ir_saffarid_emp,LEGACY,"The Saffarid dynasty was founded by Ya'qub bin Laith as-Saffar, a commoner from Sīstān, who first worked as a coppersmith, then became a warlord, before leading the conquest of (what is now) Iran and Afghanistan and becoming the dynasty’s first Emir.
The empire was at its peak during Ya'qub’s rule and its territory stretched from “borders of Afghanistan and India in the east to Fārs, Ahvāz and the fringes of Iraq in the west, at one point invading Iraq and threatening Baghdad” with the centre of their power in their homelands of Sīstān§REF§”Saffarids.” https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZU3IU97Q.§REF§
After Ya'qub’s death the dynasty lasted only 124 years, during which time it slowly reduced in territory. The last amir of the Saffarid dynasty, Khalaf, was forced to abdicate in 1003 after a coup d’etat by the Sīstān military leaders who invited the Ghaznavids to invade. Khalaf was exiled to Gardīz where he spent two years before he died. In the meantime, Sīstān became a province of the Ghaznavid Empire.§REF§Frye 2007: 134-135. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7XE9P8HB§REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
194,RuYakuE,1400,1632,Sakha - Early,ru_sakha_early,LEGACY,"The Lena River Valley, also known as Sakha, is a territory in eastern Siberia over four times the size of Texas. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 1) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV. §REF§ One of the coldest places on Earth, it has been home to the Sakha people since at least the 13th century CE. §REF§ (Gogolev 1992, 65) Gogolev, A. I. 1992. “Basic Stages of the Formation of the Yakut People.” Anthropology & Archeology of Eurasia 31 (2): 63-69. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F428XZIE. §REF§ Cossacks first arrived in the 1620s, and after a long siege of a Sakha fortified settlement, the entire region was placed under tribute to the Russian czar in 1642. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 2) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV. §REF§ The region remained under czarist control until the Russian Revolution, when it was one of the last Russian territories to be consolidated under the new regime. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 2) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV. §REF§
Population and political organization
Prior to Russian rule, the region was not politically centralized. Early Sakha communities were governed by lineage councils, clans, and elders rather than a bureaucratic state apparatus. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 7) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV. §REF§ After the Russian occupation, the czarist administration imposed taxes and established an administrative infrastructure. §REF§ (Jochelson 1933, 220) Jochelson, Waldemar. 1933. The Yakut. Vol. 33. Anthropological Papers of the AMNH. New York: The American Museum of Natural History. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W. §REF§ For most of the rest of its Russian history, the territory was controlled by governors under the umbrella of the czarist regime. §REF§ (Jochelson 1933, 224) Jochelson, Waldemar. 1933. The Yakut. Vol. 33. Anthropological Papers of the AMNH. New York: The American Museum of Natural History. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W. §REF§
It is difficult to find population estimates for Sakha. It was very sparsely populated, and according to one account of a late 18th-century expedition to the region, the district of Gigansk (in the Lena River Valley) had 4834 'tributary natives' in 1784 but only 1938 by 1789. §REF§ (Sauer 1802, 112) Sauer, Martin. 1802. An Account of a Geographical and Astronomical Expedition to the Northern Parts of Russia. London: T. Cadell, Jun. and W. Davies, in the Strand. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WEZG6MTS. §REF§ The account unfortunately does not provide figures for the entirety of the province.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",25.0,Lena River Valley,Siberia,129.379494854000,63.462822242300,Yakutsk,YAK,Russia,Central Eurasia,11,Siberia,"Urals, West Siberia, Central Siberia, Yakutia","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
195,RuYakuL,1632,1900,Sakha - Late,ru_sakha_late,LEGACY,"The Lena River Valley, also known as Sakha, is a territory in eastern Siberia over four times the size of Texas. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 1) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV. §REF§ One of the coldest places on Earth, it has been home to the Sakha people since at least the 13th century CE. §REF§ (Gogolev 1992, 65) Gogolev, A. I. 1992. “Basic Stages of the Formation of the Yakut People.” Anthropology & Archeology of Eurasia 31 (2): 63-69. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F428XZIE. §REF§ Cossacks first arrived in the 1620s, and after a long siege of a Sakha fortified settlement, the entire region was placed under tribute to the Russian czar in 1642. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 2) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV. §REF§ The region remained under czarist control until the Russian Revolution, when it was one of the last Russian territories to be consolidated under the new regime. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 2) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV. §REF§
Population and political organization
Prior to Russian rule, the region was not politically centralized. Early Sakha communities were governed by lineage councils, clans, and elders rather than a bureaucratic state apparatus. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 7) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV. §REF§ After the Russian occupation, the czarist administration imposed taxes and established an administrative infrastructure. §REF§ (Jochelson 1933, 220) Jochelson, Waldemar. 1933. The Yakut. Vol. 33. Anthropological Papers of the AMNH. New York: The American Museum of Natural History. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W. §REF§ For most of the rest of its Russian history, the territory was controlled by governors under the umbrella of the czarist regime. §REF§ (Jochelson 1933, 224) Jochelson, Waldemar. 1933. The Yakut. Vol. 33. Anthropological Papers of the AMNH. New York: The American Museum of Natural History. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W. §REF§
It is difficult to find population estimates forSakha. It was very sparsely populated, and according to one account of a late 18th-century expedition to the region, the district of Gigansk (in the Lena River Valley) had 4834 'tributary natives' in 1784 but only 1938 by 1789. §REF§ (Sauer 1802, 112) Sauer, Martin. 1802. An Account of a Geographical and Astronomical Expedition to the Northern Parts of Russia. London: T. Cadell, Jun. and W. Davies, in the Strand. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WEZG6MTS. §REF§ The account unfortunately does not provide figures for the entirety of the province.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",25.0,Lena River Valley,Siberia,129.379494854000,63.462822242300,Yakutsk,YAK,Russia,Central Eurasia,11,Siberia,"Urals, West Siberia, Central Siberia, Yakutia","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
287,UzSamnd,819,999,Samanid Empire,uz_samanid_emp,LEGACY,"The Samanids were a Persian-Sassanid family who had converted to Islam after the Umayyad conquests. During the caliphate of the Abbasid ruler al-Ma'mun (813-833 CE) they were perceived to be loyal enough to be named hereditary governors of Samarqand, Farghana, and Herat §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 99) Lapidus, Ira M. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ where they were able to mint bronze coins in their own names, raise armies and campaign against neighbouring powers. §REF§ (Negmatov 1997, 84) Negmatov, N N. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO. §REF§
The structure of the Samanid state ""was in reality a conglomeration of great urban complexes, each with its own local dynasty, traditional elite, and economic and cultural particularities"" §REF§ (Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton. §REF§ but this should not disguise the importance of the strong central government institutions which grew in step with the increasing urbanization of the region. §REF§ (Frye 1975, 153) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ The Population of the largest cities, such as Nishapur, at this time may have exceeded 100,000 people.
The Samanid system of government was modelled on the caliph's court in Baghdad with central and provincial divisions. §REF§ (Frye 1975, 143) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ The head of state, Amir, was assisted by a vizier and many heads of departments who included a vazir (Prime Minister, not to be confused with the vizier), treasurer, chiefs of police and justice, postmaster, among others. §REF§ (Frye 1975, 144) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ The ""central bureaucracy was matched by a similar organization in the provincial capitals, but on a smaller scale"" which reported to the central authorities. §REF§ (Frye 1975, 144) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ The Samanid Amir appointed local governors or maintained relations with local hereditary rulers. §REF§ (Frye 1975, 143) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§
",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",23.0,Sogdiana,Turkestan,66.938170000000,39.631284000000,Samarkand,UZ,Uzbekistan,Central Eurasia,13,Turkestan,"Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
812,cz_samo_emp,623,658,Samo's Empire,cz_samo_emp,OTHER_TAG,,,id to be renamed to cz_samo_emp,2024-03-13T12:51:25.163567Z,2024-04-09T12:12:31.778187Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
621,si_sape,1400,1550,Sape,si_sape,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
462,TjSaraz,-3500,-2000,Sarazm,tj_sarasm,LEGACY,"This polity is named after an ancient settlement site at Sarazm, located in modern Tajikistan. The period runs from its initial settlement around 3500 BCE to the site's abandonment c. 2000 BCE. §REF§ (Anthony 2010, 420) Anthony, David W. 2010. The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MNNVQRA. §REF§ This period at Sarazm represents the first urban phase in Sogdiana and has yielded evidence of ceramic production, agriculture, irrigation and metallurgy. §REF§ (de la Vaissière 2011) Vaissière, É. de la. 2011. “Sogdiana III: History and Archeology.” Encyclopædia Iranica. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9AS4QQVB. §REF§ Ceramic evidence, along with the presence of seashells, suggests that contacts were maintained with different areas of Central Asia. §REF§ (Masson 1992, 232) Masson, V. M. 1992. “The Bronze Age In Khorasan and Transoxania.” In History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume I: The Dawn of Civilizations: Earliest Times to 700 B.C., edited by A. H. Dani and V. M. Masson, 225-46. Paris: UNESCO. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JZ5DSUEB/q/masson. §REF§ §REF§ (Isakov 1994, 4-5) Isakov, A. 1994. “Sarazm: An Agricultural Center of Ancient Sogdiana.” Bulletin of the Asia Institute 8: 1-12. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NWVCFNW7. §REF§
Population and political organization
Due to the nature of the remaining evidence, the political organization of Sarazm is not known. While 100 hectares have been excavated at the site, the settlement area expanded and contracted throughout its existence, making a definite population estimate difficult for this period. §REF§ (de la Vaissière 2011) Vaissière, É. de la. 2011. “Sogdiana III: History and Archeology.” Encyclopædia Iranica. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9AS4QQVB. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",23.0,Sogdiana,Turkestan,66.938170000000,39.631284000000,Samarkand,UZ,Uzbekistan,Central Eurasia,13,Turkestan,"Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
128,IrSasn1,205,487,Sasanid Empire I,ir_sassanid_emp_1,LEGACY,"The Sassanids came from the Parthian province of Persis near the Zagros mountains of western Iran. Ardashir I defeated the last Parthian ruler Ardawan (Artabanus IV) in 224 CE and claimed the title ""King of Kings"" in imitation of the ancient Archaemenids. The early Sassanid rulers claimed a divine descent until powerful Zoroastrian priests ended this by the 4th century. The long reign of Shapur II (309-379 CE) saw the peak of peace and security within the empire §REF§ (Daryaee 2009, 2-20, 200) Touraj Daryaee. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London. §REF§ that had a total population of perhaps 5 million people.
In the early period royal cities were built and administered by shahrabs who ruled as petty kings. §REF§ (Chegini 1996, 45) N N Chegini. Political History, Economy and Society. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.40-58. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf §REF§ Centralization occurred in the later Sassanid period when the empire was split into four parts each ruled by a spahbad who had civil and military powers. §REF§ (Chegini 1996, 45) N N Chegini. Political History, Economy and Society. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.40-58. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf §REF§
The size of Persian court and bureaucracy notability increases between Ardashir I and Shapur I (240-270 CE). §REF§ (Daryaee 2009, 2-20) Touraj Daryaee. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London. §REF§ Institutions of administration continued to evolve from those present in the Parthian era §REF§ (Chegini 1996, 45) N N Chegini. Political History, Economy and Society. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.40-58. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf §REF§ a grand vizier now present at the central government in the capital Ctesiphon whose remit encompassed control of the diwans, diplomatic affairs as well as occasional stints as commander of the army. §REF§ (Wilcox 1986, 24) P Wilcox. 1986. Rome's Enemies (3): Parthians and Sassanid Persians. Osprey Publishing. §REF§ By the fifth century the centralized bureaucracy was sophisticated enough that ""the death of a king would not bring the empire down."" §REF§ (Daryaee 2012, 196) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§
Rise of Zoroastrian Church under Kerdir 274 CE had monumental impact on Persia with the persecution of religious minorities (Christians, Manichaeans, Mandeans, Jews and Buddhists) §REF§ (Daryaee 2012, 191) Touraj Daryaee. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ . The Zoroastrian priests had initially tolerated rival religious such as Manichaeism until Shapur I (240-270 CE) but Mani was eventually executed. §REF§ (Daryaee 2009, 2-20) Touraj Daryaee. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London. §REF§ By the time of Bahram II (274-293 CE) the Sasanian kings themselves had lost their own religious freedom as caretakers of the Anahid fire temple to a priest called Kerdir ""who became the judge of the whole empire. ... from this point on, the priests acted as judges throughout the empire, and court cases were probably based on Zoroastrian law except when members of other religious minorities had disputes with each other."" §REF§ (Daryaee 2012, 191) Touraj Daryaee. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ ",,,,2025-02-13T14:22:39.611260Z,"{'id': 181, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",9.0,Susiana,Levant-Mesopotamia,48.235564000000,32.382851000000,Susa (Shush),IR,Iran,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
130,IrSasn2,488,642,Sasanid Empire II,ir_sassanid_emp_2,LEGACY,"In the final Sassanid period (488-642 CE), best known for the reign of Khusrau I, the Sassanid realm was managed through provincial governors called Shahr §REF§ (Daryaee 2009, 124-135) Touraj Daryaee. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London. §REF§ and vassal kings appointed by the Sassanid King of Kings. Its population peaked at about 22 million at around 600 CE a time when the Empire was disintegrating.
The long reigns of Kavad I (499-531 CE) and Khusrau I (531-579 CE) saw many reforms, such as to the tax system and the military. Khusrau I is credited with wise leadership and is known as ""Plato's philosopher king."" §REF§ (Daryaee 2009, 27-37) Touraj Daryaee. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London. §REF§ Khusrau I (531-579 CE) promoted minor nobility to official positions and reduced the power of aristocrats, placing tax collection in the hands of officials directly under his own control. §REF§ (Chegini 1996, 47) N N Chegini. Political History, Economy and Society. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.40-58. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf §REF§ Khusrau I also made some important structural reforms to the military which removed the Commander-in-Chief (Eran-Spahbad) and divided the empire into four regions, each under the control of a regional field marshal (Spahbads). §REF§ (Farrokh 2005, 3-27) Kevah Farrokh. 2005. Sassanian Elite Cavalry AD 224-642. Osprey Publishing. §REF§ This change enabled the Sassanids to more quickly respond to the external threats of invasion.
After the high point of Khusrau I internal instability became the norm and the ruling dynasty had almost wiped itself out by the time the Arabs conquered the last Sassanid stronghold at Persis in 650 CE. Hamizid IV (579-590 CE), who followed Khosrau I killed many of the nobility and was harsh to the priests. Hormizd IV was deposed 589-590 CE by his generals and the nobility who put on the throne his son, Khusrau II. §REF§ (Daryaee 2012, 199) Touraj Daryaee. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ Kushrau II was himself deposed by nobility and priests in 628 CE. §REF§ (Daryaee 2012, 200) Touraj Daryaee. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ Kavad II (628-630 CE) conducted a fratricide, killing all the male heirs in the Sasanid family, and was assassinated. §REF§ (Daryaee 2009, 31) Touraj Daryaee. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",9.0,Susiana,Levant-Mesopotamia,48.235564000000,32.382851000000,Susa (Shush),IR,Iran,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
89,InSataL,-100,200,Satavahana Empire,in_satavahana_emp,LEGACY,"The Satavahanas were the first Deccan-based dynasty to rule over an empire encompassing both southern and northern India, stretching from the Deccan Plateau in the south to Madhya Pradesh in the north, and touching both the western and eastern coasts. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 25-26) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. A History of Karnataka. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ According to the most widely accepted hypothesis, based on numismatic, archaeological and textual evidence, this polity existed between the beginning of the 1st century BCE and the end of the 2nd century CE, though many scholars are reluctant to assign absolute dates to specific kings. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2001, 166) Carla Sinopoli. 2001. 'On the Edge of Empire: Form and Substance in the Satavahana Dynasty', in Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D'Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla Sinopoli, 155-78. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
Notable rulers include Gautamiputra Satakarani, Vasistiputra, Pulamavi, and Yajnasri. Under their governance, Indian commerce with the Western world intensified and there was a florescence of the arts, particularly in the field of Buddhist iconography. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 25-26) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. A History of Karnataka. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ However, records are scanty when it comes to the empire's middle century, which suggests that the Satavahana polity went through two phases of power and prosperity, with an intervening period of regionalization, and perhaps even collapse. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2001, 166) Carla Sinopoli. 2001. 'On the Edge of Empire: Form and Substance in the Satavahana Dynasty', in Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D'Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla Sinopoli, 155-78. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
The Satavahana polity was ruled by an emperor. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 25) Suryanatha Kamath. 1980. A Concise History of Karnataka. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ He was aided, at court, by a number of officials, including attendants and advisors, the mahasenapati (army commander), the superintendent of stores, the treasurer, officials tasked with drafting and registering his documents, and officials tasked with supervising feudal lords. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 25) Suryanatha Kamath. 1980. A Concise History of Karnataka. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 32-33) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. A History of Karnataka. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ The provinces were governed by feudal lords who were related by blood to the royal family, by lords who struck coins in their own name (perhaps indicating some degree of autonomy from the Satavahanas themselves), and by military commanders in charge of outlying centres. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 25) Suryanatha Kamath. 1980. A Concise History of Karnataka. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ The fact that the empire likely suffered some sort of collapse in its middle period suggests that it may have been overly dependent on the abilities of individual rulers rather than a well-designed administrative structure. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2001, 166) Carla Sinopoli. 2001. 'On the Edge of Empire: Form and Substance in the Satavahana Dynasty', in Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D'Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla Sinopoli, 155-78. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
No population estimates for this period could be found in the specialist literature.",,,,2024-11-21T15:08:54.249088Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",15.0,Deccan,Central India,76.625407000000,15.386856000000,Kampli,DEC,India,South Asia,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
755,at_austrian_rep_2,1945,2020,Second Austrian Republic,at_austrian_rep_2,OTHER_TAG,,,,,2024-03-12T10:04:23.123069Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
480,IqIsin2,-1153,-1027,Second Dynasty of Isin,iq_isin_dynasty2,LEGACY,"The peak date of this polity is considered to be around 1119 BCE-1098 BCE when the king Nebuchadnezzar I ruled, and the Elamite threat had been removed from the territories. §REF§ (Liverani 2014, 462) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani. §REF§
There were four main settlement types during this period: the capital city of Babylon, secondary provincial cities, smaller towns, and villages. §REF§ (Liverani 2014, 364-370) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani. §REF§
Although all settlements were joined under the king, political and economic crisis led to all major cities running their own affairs and so they held some level of autonomy. §REF§ (Liverani 2014, 462-463) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani. §REF§ Temples acted as the centres of resources, policy and activity in each area and the sanga / shangum (chief priest) was an administrative as well as religious role. As a confederated state there were around twenty provinces that were ruled by a governor who had an administrative role in the more urban northern provinces. The smaller provinces along the border were more likely to be run by the military while the governor had a personal relationship with the king and their role was more honorary than administrative. §REF§ (McIntosh 2005: 206) McIntosh, J. 2005. Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD. §REF§
Goods were transported by water and traded through exchange, with the main commodities being silver and grains. §REF§ (McIntosh 2005: 132) McIntosh, J. 2005. Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD. §REF§
Written records, scripts, poems, religious texts and ‘scientific’ literature increased during this period. §REF§ (McIntosh 2005: 291) McIntosh, J. 2005. Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",8.0,Southern Mesopotamia,Levant-Mesopotamia,44.420000000000,32.470000000000,Babylon (Hillah),IQ,Iraq,Southwest Asia,62,Mesopotamia,"Iraq, Kuwait","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
440,MnTurk2,682,744,Second Turk Khaganate,mn_turk_khaganate_2,LEGACY,"The Orkhon Valley lies either side of the Orkhon River, in north-central Mongolia. For just under a century, between about 550 and 630 CE, it had been under the control of a Turkic khaganate, §REF§ (Hosszú 2012, 285) §REF§ which had soon succumbed o a combination of internal rebellions and an invasion from Tang China, around 630 CE. §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 226) §REF§ In the 680s, the Turks managed to establish a new khaganate, and for decades they were able to extract tribute from China; by 744, however, this new khaganate also collapsed, following a decade of in-fighting resulting from the assassination of the khagan Bilgee. §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 226) §REF§ At its height, the khaganate
Like many of their predecessors in the region, the Turks were nomads. Moreover, like the previous Turkic khaganate, this second one was characterised by a four-tiered administrative hierarchy. At the top of this hierarchy there were the khagan and his kinsmen, followed by the khagan's counsellors, who were responsible for military, administrative, diplomatic, and legal operations. Finally, like preceding nomadic empires in the region going as far back as the Xiongnu, this khaganate was divided into a western and an eastern portion, to facilitate both administrative and military organization. §REF§ (Klyashtorny 1996, 332) §REF§
No population estimates specific to this polity could be found in the literature, though, according to McEvedy and Jones, at that time Mongolia and Siberia together likely had a population of no more than 500,000. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978) McEvedy, Colin. Jones, Richard. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd. London. §REF§
",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",24.0,Orkhon Valley,Mongolia,102.845486000000,47.200757000000,Karakorum,MN,Mongolia,Central Eurasia,9,Mongolia,"Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
433,MlSegou,1650,1712,Segou Kingdom,ml_segou_k,LEGACY,"Almost nothing is known about the Segu (or Segou) Kingdom, the name we have chosen to use for the polity occupying the Niger Inland Delta from the mid-17th century CE to the foundation of the more well-known Bamana Kingdom in 1712. Neither oral traditions nor regional histories compiled in Timbuktu suggest the existence of a Bamana 'king' prior to the 17th century. However, in around 1650, a hunter and warrior called Kaladian Kulibali (or Coulibaly) drew on the indigenous male age-grade associations known as tòn to become the ruler of the first Bamana state, §REF§ (Bortolot 2003) Alexander Ives Bortolot. 2003. 'The Bamana Ségou State'. Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/bama_1/hd_bama_1.htm. Accessed 23 February 2017. §REF§ which briefly included Timbuktu. §REF§ (MacDonald 2014, 129) Kevin C. MacDonald. 2014. '""A chacun son Bambara"", encore une fois: History, Archaeology and Bambara Origins'. In Ethnic Ambiguity and the African Past: Materiality, History, and the Shaping of Cultural Identities, edited by Francois G. Richard and Kevin C. MacDonald, 119-44. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press. §REF§
Population and Political Organization
The Bamana before the mid-17th century were probably a 'stateless society' — specifically, they may have been divided into independent villages who only banded together in response to a threat. §REF§ (MacDonald 2014, 129) Kevin C. MacDonald. 2014. '""A Chacoun son Bambara, encore une fois"": History, Archaeology and Bambara Origins' in ""Ethnic Ambiguity and the African Past: Materiality, History, and the Shaping of Cultural Identities"", edited by Francois G. Richard and Kevin C. MacDonald. Walnut Creek, California: Left Coast Press. §REF§ After a brief period of integration under Kaladian Kulibali, centralized power weakened after his death and an oligarchy of regional rulership by his sons and their successors held sway for some time. §REF§ (MacDonald 2014, 129) Kevin C. MacDonald. 2014. '""A Chacoun son Bambara, encore une fois"": History, Archaeology and Bambara Origins' in ""Ethnic Ambiguity and the African Past: Materiality, History, and the Shaping of Cultural Identities"", edited by Francois G. Richard and Kevin C. MacDonald. Walnut Creek, California: Left Coast Press. §REF§ By the time Biton Kulibali rose against the status quo and founded his own Bamana Kingdom in 1712, it seems that the Bamana region was divided into small communities, each ruled by a gerontocracy. §REF§ (Izard and Ki-Zerbo 1992, 332-33) Michel Izard and Joseph Ki-Zerbo. 1992. 'From the Niger to the Volta', in General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries edited by Bethwell Allan Ogot, 327-67. London: Heinemann. §REF§ However, details are hazy, and mostly derived from oral traditions, so the relationship between Kaladian's successors' loose oligarchy and the gerontocracies of the early eighteenth century is not very clear. We are not certain, for example, whether the former gave way to the latter, or whether the latter existed within the context of the former. No population estimates for the Segu Kingdom could be found in the literature.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",6.0,Niger Inland Delta,Sahel,-3.041703000000,16.717549000000,Timbuctu,ML,Mali,Africa,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
108,IrSeleu,-312,-63,Seleucid Empire,ir_seleucid_emp,LEGACY,"The Seleucid Empire arose in the years following the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE and the subsequent division of his empire. Alexander’s generals each ruled part of the empire, including Seleucus I who became leader of the Babylonian territory in 319 BCE as a reward for having helped Alexander eliminate the regent Perdiccas §REF§ (Sherwin-White and Kurht 1993, 10) S Sherwin-White. A Kurht. 1993. From Samarkhand to Sardis; A new approach to the Seleucid empire. London: Duckworth. §REF§ . This date does not however mark the start of the Seleucid Empire as Seleucus was ousted by the rival Antigonus in 315 BCE and did not return to power until 312 BCE, after which the Seleucid Empire truly began as Seleucus began to extent his domain to create an empire large enough to include territories in the Central Asian steppe to European Thrace §REF§ (Kosmin 2013, 678) P J Kosmin. 2013. Alexander the Great and the Seleucids in Iran. In, Potts, D. T (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.671-689. §REF§ . Seleucus’ territorial achievements were matched by only one of his successors, Antiochus III, whose rule began 60 years later. The last rulers of the empire could not match the charisma and drive of these earlier rulers, especially in the face of growing powers to the west and east of the empire (Rome and Parthia respectively). The empire declined in size and influence until it was taken over by Rome in 63 BCE.
The Seleucid Empire continued to exert the Hellenistic influences of Alexander the Great’s empire, but like Alexander, the rulers of the Seleucid Empire generally allowed other religions and languages to continue and flourish (a notable exception being the persecution of the Jews by Antiochus IV) §REF§ (Kosmin 2013, 684-685) P J Kosmin. 2013. Alexander the Great and the Seleucids in Iran. In, Potts, D. T (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.671-689. §REF§ . Most written documents are in Greek and contain valuable information about the empire, the battles fought and the kings who ruled. The documents are however far from complete and many aspects of the empire are either inferred from other sources or remain unknown. Overall it can be surmised that the Seleucid Empire was ruled by one king at a time who held central authority, but who exerted that authority through his commanders, or satraps, in the various territories of the empire §REF§ (Kosmin 2013, 680) P J Kosmin. 2013. Alexander the Great and the Seleucids in Iran. In, Potts, D. T (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.671-689. §REF§ . This both gave the king a great amount of power but also made him vulnerable to the ambitions of his satraps, the most notable example being the betrayal of the general Achaios who in 220 BCE took the territories of Asia Minor for himself after conducting campaigns there on behalf of Antiochus III §REF§ (Ager 2012, 421) S L Ager. 2012. The Alleged Rapprochement between Achaios and Attalos I in 220 BCE. Historia. 61 (4), pp. 421-429. §REF§ .",,,,2025-04-17T14:48:16.585485Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",8.0,Southern Mesopotamia,Levant-Mesopotamia,44.420000000000,32.470000000000,Babylon (Hillah),IQ,Iraq,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
364,IrSeljq,1037,1157,Seljuk Sultanate,ir_seljuk_sultanate,LEGACY,"The Seljuks were a Turkic dynasty from east of the Aral Sea §REF§ (Bosworth 2001) C. E. Bosworth, 'Turks, Seljuk and Ottoman' in The Oxford Companion to Military History eds. Richard Holmes, Charles Singleton, and Dr Spencer Jones (2001) (al-Rahim 2010) Ahmed H. al-Rahim, 'Seljuk Turks' in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages ed. Robert E. Bjork (2010) §REF§ who ruled a relatively decentralized empire across Central Asia, Persia and Mesopotamia - with perhaps the exception of the powerful viziership of Nizam al-Mulk. §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 48) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ .
The Seljuk Empire (1037-1157 CE) did not have a single political center as it was divided into western and eastern halves §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 6) A C S Peacock. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ ; the east had ""connotations of seniority in Turkic culture"" §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 41) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ and Nizam al-Mulk himself started his career in the Seljuk bureaucracy in Balkh. §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 48) A C S Peacock. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ The western territories were known as the Sultanate of Iraq §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 7) A C S Peacock. 2015. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ and altogether there may have been 12 million under Seljuk rule in 1100 CE.
Nizam al-Mulk ""strove to suppress abuses, to introduce reforms, to initiate his still uncultured Saljuk masters into the arts of Perso-Islamic statecraft, and to provide competent and reliable theologians, judges, and secretaries for the state religion and administration."" §REF§ (Bagley 1964, xxviii-xxix) F R C Bagley. trans. Huma'i, Jalal and Isaacs, H. D. eds. 1964. Ghazali's Book of Counsel for Kings (Nasihat Al-Muluk). Oxford University Press. London. §REF§ ""Nizam al-Mulk was particularly concerned with the construction and maintenance of trade routes, caravanserais, and bridges; the appointment of trustworthy market inspectors and tax collectors; and the appointment of spies throughout the realm - policies crucial to rooting out corruption and fostering confidence in local and long-distance trade."" §REF§ (Lindsay 2005, 20) James E Lindsay. 2005. Daily Life in The Medieval Islamic World. Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. Indianapolis. §REF§
Within the Seljuk system of rule the caliph was the ultimate religious authority §REF§ (al-Rahim 2012) Ahmed H. al-Rahim, 'Seljuk Turks' in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages ed. Robert E. Bjork (2010) §REF§ §REF§ (al-Rahim 2012) Ahmed H. al-Rahim, 'Seljuk Turks' in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages ed. Robert E. Bjork (2010) §REF§ and the sultan was the head of secular power §REF§ Findley, Carter V., The Turks in World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), P.69. §REF§ supported by a vizier of the diwan-i a'la. §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 333) A C S Peacock. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ Seljuk maliks (princes) ruled provinces with an atabeg (supervisor) and a small court bureaucracy overseen by a vizier. §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 194-195) A C S Peacock. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§
As an independent state the Seljuk Empire came to an end when it was defeated by the Mongols and the Sultan had to pay them tribute.",,,,2025-03-10T14:53:14.787066Z,"{'id': 197, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",9.0,Susiana,Levant-Mesopotamia,48.235564000000,32.382851000000,Susa (Shush),IR,Iran,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
793,bd_sena_dyn,1095,1245,Sena Dynasty,bd_sena_dyn,OTHER_TAG,,,,2023-12-07T16:16:39.416547Z,2024-06-07T15:08:05.716382Z,"{'id': 62, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,37,Eastern South Asia,"Bangladesh + Indian states of West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and Sikkim","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
412,InSharq,1394,1479,Sharqi,in_sharqi_dyn,LEGACY,,,,,2025-04-08T15:48:51.781250Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,64,North India,"Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
301,UzShayb,1500,1598,Shaybanid Kingdom,uz_shaybanid_k,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,13,Turkestan,"Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
439,MnShiwe,600,1000,Shiwei,mn_shiwei,LEGACY,"According to the earliest known references to the Shiwei in Chinese records dating to the fifth century CE, they occupied the Hulun Buir, Ergüne, Nonni, Middle Amur, and Zeya watersheds, they were divided into between five and twenty tribes, they lived on agriculture and pastoralism, and they traded sable skins. They may have been the ancestors to the Mongols. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 502) §REF§
Population and political organization
Sources do not provide clear descriptions of Shiwei political organization, but it is worth noting that the Wuluohou, one of the Shiwei peoples, was believed by Chinese record-keepers to have no supreme leader, only tribal chiefs. §REF§ (Xu 2005, 127) §REF§ Similarly, sources do not provide clear population estimates for the Shiwei.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",24.0,Orkhon Valley,Mongolia,102.845486000000,47.200757000000,Karakorum,MN,Mongolia,Central Eurasia,9,Mongolia,"Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
643,et_showa_sultanate,1108,1285,Shoa Sultanate,et_showa_sultanate,POL_AFR_EAST,"The Shoa Sultanate is the first and earliest known Muslim political kingdom known in the region of Ethiopia. Within the consulted literature, there is a discrepancy regarding the date of origin for this Sultanate. Some scholars refer to a local Arab historical chronicle that uses the date 897 CE for when the first Muhzumite leader founded the Sultanate. Other scholars such as, Taddesse Tamrat, argue that the sultanate was created later in the ninth or tenth centuries. As mentioned above, the Shoa Sultanate was the kingdom of the Muhzumite Dynasty, therefore its rulers were either Muhzumite sultans or princes. The territory of the sultanate remains unclear, but scholars consulted suggest that its region included the eastern part of the Shoan plateau and extended east along the Awash River. §REF§ (Tamrat 2008, 106- 107) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list §REF§
Other scholars have reasoned that the Gulf of Aden port, Zeila was equally important for the Shoan Sultanate. §REF§ (Levtzion and Pouwels 2000, 228) Levtzion, Nehemia and Randall Pouwels. 2000. History of Islam in Africa. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R3XRWJBX/library §REF§ The Sultanate seems to have been an important commercial kingdom which was well situated along vital trade routes from the sea to the interior of Ethiopia. With regard to population numbers, the consulted sources do not mention any figures on the topic. Tamrat has argued that during the twelfth century the Shoa Sultanate was actively expanding its Muslim territory within the interior of Ethiopia, therefore sparking the first conflicts with the Christian kingdoms of the region. Within the later part of the twelfth century the Shoa Sultanate became a loose confederation of Muslim principalities which were constantly at odds with one another. This continuous infighting also led to conflicts with other Muslim states, particularly the rulers of Ifat. War between the Ifat and the Shoan dynasties led to the complete annexation of Shoa by the newly formed Ifat Sultanate by ‘Umar Walasma in 1285. §REF§ (Tamrat 2008, 106; 140) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list §REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
196,EcJivaE,1534,1830,Shuar - Colonial,ec_shuar_1,LEGACY,"The forested foothills of the Andes, near the border between Ecuador and Peru, have long been inhabited by the Shuar, subsistence horticulturalists living in autonomous residential hamlets. There are many Shuar groups, but here we focus specifically on the Ecuadorian group commonly known simply as 'Shuar'. Europeans - specifically, Spaniards - first encountered the Shuar in the 16th century and soon imposed tributes, which the Shuar paid, in increasing amounts, until they rebelled in 1599, driving the Spanish out of the region. Indeed, the Shuar were able to ward off outside interference up until 1930, just as they were able to avoid being subjugated by the Inca. In 1930, Catholic missionaries persuaded the Ecuadorian government to provide a reservation for the Shuar. §REF§ (Beierle 2006) Beierle, John. 2006. “Culture Summary: Jivaro.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP. §REF§
Population and political organization
Authority among the Shuar was mostly informal and local, and resided in men referred to as unyä ('big' or 'old' men) or kakaram ('powerful ones'). These were usually renowned warriors or shamans, but they in fact acquired their reputation by being old enough to have grandchildren, as well as through their friendliness, honesty and generosity in dealing with others. The unyä or kakaram were believed to be able to curse to death anyone who angered them. §REF§ (Beierle 2006) Beierle, John. 2006. “Culture Summary: Jivaro.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP. §REF§
The scholarly literature does not provide population estimates, even for the more recent period. Indeed, writing in the 1920s, the ethnographer Fritz W. Up de Graff declared that obtaining accurate statistics relating to the Shuar was an 'impossible task' due to their migratory habits and commitment to concealing their true numbers from potential enemies. §REF§ (Up de Graff 1923, 192-93) Up de Graff, Fritz W. 1923. Head Hunters of the Amazon: Seven Years of Exploration and Adventure. London: H. Jenkins. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XD3S3HVP. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",32.0,Lowland Andes,Amazonia,-77.674190401400,-2.895375197160,Logrono,EC,Ecuador,South America,31,Amazonia,"Brazil, Guyanas, plus Amazonian parts of bordering states","{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}"
197,EcJivaL,1831,1931,Shuar - Ecuadorian,ec_shuar_2,LEGACY,"The forested foothills of the Andes, near the border between Ecuador and Peru, have long been inhabited by the Shuar, subsistence horticulturalists living in autonomous residential hamlets. There are many Shuar groups, but here we focus specifically on the Ecuadorian group commonly known simply as 'Shuar'. Europeans - specifically, Spaniards - first encountered the Shuar in the 16th century and soon imposed tributes, which the Shuar paid, in increasing amounts, until they rebelled in 1599, driving the Spanish out of the region. Indeed, the Shuar were able to ward off outside interference up until 1930, just as they were able to avoid being subjugated by the Inca. In 1930, Catholic missionaries persuaded the Ecuadorian government to provide a reservation for the Shuar. §REF§ (Beierle 2006) Beierle, John. 2006. “Culture Summary: Jivaro.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP. §REF§
Population and political organization
Authority among the Shuar was mostly informal and local, and resided in men referred to as unyä ('big' or 'old' men) or kakaram ('powerful ones'). These were usually renowned warriors or shamans, but they in fact acquired their reputation by being old enough to have grandchildren, as well as through their friendliness, honesty and generosity in dealing with others. The unyä or kakaram were believed to be able to curse to death anyone who angered them. §REF§ (Beierle 2006) Beierle, John. 2006. “Culture Summary: Jivaro.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP. §REF§
The scholarly literature does not provide population estimates, even for the more recent period. Indeed, writing in the 1920s, the ethnographer Fritz W. Up de Graff declared that obtaining accurate statistics relating to the Shuar was an 'impossible task' due to their migratory habits and commitment to concealing their true numbers from potential enemies. §REF§ (Up de Graff 1923, 192-93) Up de Graff, Fritz W. 1923. Head Hunters of the Amazon: Seven Years of Exploration and Adventure. London: H. Jenkins. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XD3S3HVP. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",32.0,Lowland Andes,Amazonia,-77.674190401400,-2.895375197160,Logrono,EC,Ecuador,South America,31,Amazonia,"Brazil, Guyanas, plus Amazonian parts of bordering states","{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}"
300,RuSibir,1490,1598,Sibir Khanate,ru_sibir_khanate,LEGACY,,,,,2025-03-10T14:40:49.919249Z,"{'id': 196, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,11,Siberia,"Urals, West Siberia, Central Siberia, Yakutia","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
133,PkSind1,854,1193,Sind - Abbasid-Fatimid Period,pk_sind_abbasid_fatimid,LEGACY,"The Kachi Plain, in modern-day Pakistan, is hemmed in on two of its three sides by the mountains of Baluchistan, while its southeastern side opens up to the Indus Valley. §REF§ (Jarrige & Enault 1976, 29) Jean-Francois Jarrige and Jean-Francois Enault. 1976. Fouilles de Pirak. Arts Asiatiques 32: 29-70. §REF§ The region it is part of, Sindh (also known as Sind), was a vital tribute paying territory of the Arab empire, first under the Ummayad and then the Abbasid Caliphates. However, in 836 CE, the Abbasid Caliphate lost control of its western territories, and Sind plunged into a civil war. §REF§ (Panwhar 1983, 178-179) M.H. Panwhar. 1983. Chronological Dictionary of Sindh. Karachi: Institute of Sindology. §REF§ Here we consider the period going from the middle of the ninth century, when the Habari lineage became rulers of an independent Sind, to the middle of the thirteenth, when the Samma dynasty seized power. Throughout these centuries, Sind experienced a peaceful power transition from the Habari to the Soomra, in 1010, annexation to the Delhi Sultanate, and a long civil war caused by political instability resulting from Mongol invasions. §REF§ (Panwhar 1983, 19-33, 188, 293-294) M.H. Panwhar. 1983. Chronological Dictionary of Sindh. Karachi: Institute of Sindology. §REF§
Population and political organization
Panwhar believes that the population of Sind at this time is unlikely to have exceeded one million. §REF§ (Panwhar 1983, 189) M.H. Panwhar. 1983. Chronological Dictionary of Sindh. Karachi: Institute of Sindology. §REF§ As for political organization, the polity was ruled by an emir, who delegated power over regions and districts to specially appointed governors, who were closely related to the emir himself. §REF§ (Panwhar 2003, 134) M.H. Panwhar. 2003. An illustrated Historical Atlas of Soomra Kingdom of the Sindh. Karachi: Sangam Publications. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",13.0,Kachi Plain,Indo-Gangetic Plain,67.628836000000,29.377664000000,Mehrgarh,PK,Pakistan,South Asia,38,Pakistan,Pakistan,"{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
136,PkSind2,1335,1521,Sind - Samma Dynasty,pk_samma_dyn,LEGACY,"The Kachi Plain, in modern-day Pakistan, is hemmed in on two of its three sides by the mountains of Baluchistan, while its southeastern side opens up to the Indus Valley. §REF§ (Jarrige & Enault 1976, 29) Jean-Francois Jarrige and Jean-Francois Enault. 1976. Fouilles de Pirak. Arts Asiatiques 32: 29-70. §REF§ The region it is part of, Sindh (also known as Sind), was ruled, between the mid-fourteenth century and the 1520s, by the Samma dynasty. In the fourteenth century, the latter faced a precarious geopolitical position, courting friendship with the Mongols as a counterbalance of the more immediate threat presented by the Delhi Sultanate. After that, the Samma were able to rule over Sind somewhat uneventfully, until 1520, when Shah Begh Argun, followed swiftly by Babur, founder of Mughal dynasty, conquered the region. The Arguns continued to govern Sind up until 1591, when it was fully integrated into the Mughal empire. §REF§ (Lakho 2006, 3-5) Ghulam Muhammad Lakho. 2006. The Samma Kingdom of Sindh. Karachi: Institute of Sindhology §REF§ §REF§ (Asimov and Bosworth 1998, 300-302) M.S. Asimov and C.E. Bosworth. 1998. ""History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol. IV, The Age of Achievement, AD 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century, Part One, The Historical, Social and Economic Setting, Multiple History Series."" Paris: UNESCO. §REF§
Population and political organization
Panwhar believes that the population of Sind at this time is unlikely to have exceeded one million §REF§ (Panwhar 1983, 189) M.H. Panwhar. 1983. Chronological Dictionary of Sindh. Karachi: Institute of Sindology. §REF§ , though Lakho provides an estimate of 2,200,000. §REF§ (Lakho 2006, 185-186) Ghulam Muhammad Lakho. 2006. The Samma Kingdom of Sindh. Karachi: Institute of Sindhology §REF§ As for political organization, the polity was ruled by a jam, who delegated power over regions and districts to specially appointed governors, who were closely related to the emir himself. §REF§ (Panwhar 2003, 134) M.H. Panwhar. 2003. An illustrated Historical Atlas of Soomra Kingdom of the Sindh. Karachi: Sangam Publications. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",13.0,Kachi Plain,Indo-Gangetic Plain,67.628836000000,29.377664000000,Mehrgarh,PK,Pakistan,South Asia,38,Pakistan,Pakistan,"{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
766,vt_vietnam_socialist_rep,1975,2020,Socialist Republic of Vietnam,vt_vietnam_socialist_rep,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,41,Mainland Southeast Asia,"Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
468,UzSogdi,604,711,Sogdiana - City-States Period,uz_sogdiana_city_states,LEGACY,"General description:
The Sogdian City States Period, also referred to by the names of the principal cities of the age, Bukhara and Samarkand dates to between 604 and 711CE. The period ends with the conquest of the region by the Umayyad Dynasty.§REF§(Marshak 1996, 242) Marshak, B. I. 1996. ‘Sughd and Adjacent Regions’. In B. A. Litvinsky (ed.), Co-editors: Zhang Guang-da and R. Shabani Samghabadi. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. The Crossroads of Civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. Volume III. Paris: UNESCO. p.242https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/5AW7RCHD §REF§
A number of City States rose to prominence in the Zarafshan and surrounding valleys, they formed alliances and competed amongst each other for control of the region .§REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 167) De la Vaissière, E. 2005. Sogdian Traders: a History. Translated by James Ward. Leiden; Boston: Brill. p.167 https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D §REF§ Chef amongst these City States was Samarkand, which in the seventh century extended across the plateau of Afrasiab.§REF§(Marshak 1996, 244) Marshak, B. I. 1996. ‘Sughd and Adjacent Regions’. In B. A. Litvinsky (ed.), Co-editors: Zhang Guang-da and R. Shabani Samghabadi. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. The Crossroads of Civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. Volume III. Paris: UNESCO. p.244https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/5AW7RCHD §REF§
The height of this period can be considered to have occurred in mid the 7th century CE when the city of Samarkand was at the peak of its economic and culture production, symbolized by the creation of the Afrasiab paintings. §REF§(Frumkin 1970, 124) Frumkin, G. 1970. Archaeology in Soviet Central Asia. Leiden;Koln. Brill. p.124 https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/48WCJTCC §REF§
Although the City States had achieved de facto independence after the fall of the Western Kaghanate, they were nominally allied to the Chinese T’ang dynasty, however the dynasty did not meaningfully hinder the Arab incursions.§REF§(Marshak 1996, 242) Marshak, B. I. 1996. ‘Sughd and Adjacent Regions’. In B. A. Litvinsky (ed.), Co-editors: Zhang Guang-da and R. Shabani Samghabadi. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. The Crossroads of Civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. Volume III. Paris: UNESCO. p.242https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/5AW7RCHD §REF§
Population and political organization:
Each city state was ruled by a king, conceived of as ‘first among equals’ who headed the administrative system which ran the state.§REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 167) De la Vaissière, E. 2005. Sogdian Traders: a History. Translated by James Ward. Leiden; Boston: Brill.p.167 https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D §REF§ While there is clear evidence of a strong merchant class their relationship to the ruling elite remains unclear. §REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 168-169) De la Vaissière, E. 2005. Sogdian Traders: a History. Translated by James Ward. Leiden; Boston: Brill. pp.168-169 https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D §REF§
Although there are no precise population figures the archaeological evidence indicates that the number of settlements, and thus population, in the region reached its height during this period.§REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 103-4) De La Vaissiere, Etienne. 2005. Sogdian Traders: A History. [trans James Ward] Leiden: Brill.p.103-4 https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D §REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",23.0,Sogdiana,Turkestan,66.938170000000,39.631284000000,Samarkand,UZ,Uzbekistan,Central Eurasia,13,Turkestan,"Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
666,ni_sokoto_cal,1804,1904,Sokoto Caliphate,ni_sokoto_cal,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
237,MlSong1,1376,1493,Songhai Empire,ml_songhai_1,LEGACY,,,,,2023-11-14T16:29:26.947854Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,5,Sahel,"Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Chad (Arid)","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
242,MlSong2,1493,1591,Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty,ml_songhai_2,LEGACY,"Third of the great West African empires, the Songhay Empire emerged from a small kingdom based in the Gao region, which was a tributary to the Mali Empire until it started to gain autonomy in the late 14th century CE. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 12) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ A Songhay leader named Sonyi Ali Beeri was responsible for transforming this polity into an expansionary empire from the late 15th century onwards. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 13) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ The heyday of the Songhay Empire was under the Askiya (or Askia) dynasty, 1493‒1591. These kings consolidated Songhay power by building on the legacy of their Malinke predecessors and took control of more territories, extending their reach over the Niger Inland Delta, westward to the Atlantic ocean, northward to the salt pans of Taghaza, and eastward to the Tuareg kingdom of Agadez. §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 68) Roland Anthony Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. Medieval Africa, 1250-1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 66) David C. Conrad. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§ §REF§ (Diop 1987, 95) Cheikh Anta Diop. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa, translated by Harold Salemson. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books. §REF§ However, the empire was brought to an abrupt end in the late 16th century: after a succession crisis which sparked a civil war, the Sultan of Morocco invaded in 1591. §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 17) David C. Conrad. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§ §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 196) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§
Population and political organization
Unlike the preceding Ghana and Mali Empires, Songhay operated as a centralized unitary state. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 196) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The king was a revered figure but his authority was tempered by the precepts of Islam from the 11th century, and this religion became increasingly prevalent under the Askiya dynasty. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 196) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The imperial council coordinated the activities of the central government, which was divided into ministries including those of agriculture, finance, the army and the naval fleet. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 197) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The two major provinces, Kurmina in the west and Dendi in the southeast, were ruled by princes who were responsible for their own armies. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 199) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ Thriving trading towns like Jenné, Timbuktu, Teghazza and Walata enjoyed a certain degree of autonomy due to the power of guilds and local chiefs, but had to report to a superintendent, tax inspectors, customs officials and other state appointees. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 199) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ Vassal and tributary countries also bowed before the power of the Askiya when disputes arose. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 199) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§
The Songhay empire is associated with the establishment of high centres of learning in Jenné, Dia, Gao and Timbuktu. The latter in particular was famed for its university, holy men, doctors and teachers, who contributed to the spread of Islamic humanism among the urban elite in the region from the 15th century. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 208) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The rural Songhay continued to venerate a pantheon of divinities and local spirits until Islam penetrated the countryside via the peaceful incursions of traders and government-sponsored marabouts. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 207-08) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§
It is difficult to find substantiated population estimates for the Songhay Empire, but one scholar believes there could have been 70,000 people living in the city of Timbuktu by 1580 under Askiya Daoud. §REF§ (Niane 1975, 57) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle. Paris: Présence africaine. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",6.0,Niger Inland Delta,Sahel,-3.041703000000,16.717549000000,Timbuctu,ML,Mali,Africa,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
472,IqSoNeo,-9000,-5501,Southern Mesopotamia Neolithic,iq_so_mesopotamia_nl,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",8.0,Southern Mesopotamia,Levant-Mesopotamia,44.420000000000,32.470000000000,Babylon (Hillah),IQ,Iraq,Southwest Asia,62,Mesopotamia,"Iraq, Kuwait","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
259,CnSouQi,479,502,Southern Qi State,cn_southern_qi_dyn,LEGACY,,,,,2024-05-01T06:35:27.585503Z,"{'id': 36, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,59,South China,Yangtze Basin and South China,"{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
426,CnSSong,1127,1279,Southern Song,cn_southern_song_dyn,LEGACY,,,,,2024-01-04T15:59:53.066388Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,59,South China,Yangtze Basin and South China,"{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
601,ru_soviet_union,1918,1991,Soviet Union,ru_soviet_union,LEGACY,,,,,2023-12-12T15:11:33.853424Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,16,Eastern Europe,"Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
84,EsHabsb,1516,1715,Spanish Empire I,es_spanish_emp_1,LEGACY,"The Habsburg Dynasty came together as Ferdinand II united the Kingdoms of Aragon and Castile under his rule. When he died in 1516 CE, his grandson Charles I—son of the Aragon Queen Joanna and the Habsburg Philip, a Prince in the Holy Roman Empire—became the first crowned King of All Spain.
The Spanish Habsburg empire held territory in northern Europe, Italy, the Mediterranean, the Americas, Africa, India, and the Orient. “Yet Spain itself was rather unpromising material for greatness; the land was barren, the economy backward and the peninsula was politically fragmented.” §REF§ (Darby 2014, preview). Darby, Graham. 2014. Spain in the seventeenth century. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3XIHTNCH §REF§
The Austrian Habsburg family inherited the Valois duchy of Burgundy (present day Holland, Belgium, Luxemburg, and part of Burgundy) and the crowns of Aragon (including Balearics, Sardinia, Naples, and Sicily) and Castile (including Navarre, and the Americas- Mexico and Peru). This territory was inherited by Charles Habsburg (Charles V, 1519-56). When Charles V abdicated in 1555-56 he spilt the territory between his brother and his son (Austrian and Spanish branches of the Habsburgs), thus expanding the Spanish Habsburg Empire even further by 1556. §REF§ (Darby 2014, preview). Darby, Graham. 2014. Spain in the seventeenth century. New York: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3XIHTNCH §REF§
Spain's territorial conquests brought in a wealth of gold and other resources from around the world. This boom led to a rapid growth in urbanization and marketization, as several Spanish cities became major hubs of production for manufactured goods (metal products and textiles especially). §REF§ Pocket World History in Figures §REF§
By 1550 the Habsburg Empire had a population of 29 million across the world, including 9 million native people in the lands they had colonised.",,,,2024-03-14T12:32:06.256900Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",30.0,Cuzco,Andes,-72.067772000000,-13.477380000000,Cuzco,PE,Peru,South America,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
570,es_spanish_emp_2,1716,1814,Spanish Empire II,es_spanish_emp_2,LEGACY,,,,,2025-03-10T13:37:06.801778Z,"{'id': 95, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
718,es_spanish_emp_3,1815,1931,Spanish Empire III,es_spanish_emp_3,OTHER_TAG,,,,,2023-10-30T17:31:47.109391Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
768,sl_sri_lanka,1948,2020,Sri Lanka,sl_sri_lanka,OTHER_TAG,,,,,2025-04-15T09:41:31.412053Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,63,Sri Lanka,Sri Lanka,"{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
377,IdSrivi,852,1200,Srivijaya Empire,id_srivijaya_emp,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,42,Maritime Southeast Asia,"Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
330,PlTeuton,1300,1400,State of the Teutonic Order,pl_teutonic_order,LEGACY,"The State of the Teutonic Order was a theocratic state which originated from the Teutonic Knights' efforts to Christianize the Baltic tribes, a mission that began in the early 13th century and continued aggressively throughout the 14th century. This period saw the Knights consolidating their control over Prussia and extending their influence into areas that are now part of modern-day Poland, Lithuania, and Latvia.
The administrative center of the State of the Teutonic Order was Marienburg Castle, which served as the key political and military hub. The state was characterized by a highly militarized society, with the Knights forming the ruling class. They established a network of castles and fortified towns throughout their territories to secure their control and facilitate further expansion. §REF§Jürgen Sarnowsky, Der Deutsche Orden, 3., durchgesehene Auflage., C.H. Beck Wissen 2428 (München: C.H.Beck, 2022). Zotero link: QW4M9YTP§REF§
Conflicts with neighboring powers, particularly Poland and Lithuania, were frequent as the state expanded. The most significant of these conflicts was the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, where the Teutonic Order faced a major defeat against a Polish-Lithuanian coalition.§REF§Gerald Iselt and Rolf Fuhrmann, eds., Tannenberg 1410: die Niederlage des Deutschen Ritterordens ; die Belagerung der Marienburg 1410, Heere & Waffen 7 (Berlin: Zeughaus-Verl, 2008). Zotero link: HARPZFSE§REF§
The state's eventual secularization in 1525 by Grand Master Albert of Brandenburg-Ansbach, transforming it into the Duchy of Prussia, marked the end of the Teutonic Knights' territorial rule and laid the groundwork for the emergence of the Prussian state.§REF§Jürgen Sarnowsky, Der Deutsche Orden, 3., durchgesehene Auflage., C.H. Beck Wissen 2428 (München: C.H.Beck, 2022). Zotero link: QW4M9YTP§REF§",,,,2024-02-08T14:04:02.288518Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
260,CnSui**,581,618,Sui Dynasty,cn_sui_dyn,LEGACY,"China was reunified after the Northern and Southern dynasties period by the short-lived Sui dynasty (581-618 CE). The first Sui emperor Yang Jian dethroned the Northern Zhou emperor and conquered the southern Chen dynasty.§REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Sui Dynasty (581-618). Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Tang/sui.html Accessed June 15, 2017. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR73VWI9 §REF§ The Sui were able to unify China but did not create a stable, lasting imperial house.§REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Sui Dynasty (581-618). Chinaknowledge.de.http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Tang/sui.html Accessed June 15, 2017. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR73VWI9 §REF§ The second Sui emperor Yangdi is villainized for his extravagant spending and endless military campaigns. Yangdi undertook massive infrastructure projects including the fortification of the Great Wall, and the construction of a third capital at Jiangdu, and the Grand Canal. He also conducted many military campaigns including multiple attempts to conquer the Korean Peninsula. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Sui Dynasty (581-618). Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Tang/sui.html Accessed June 15, 2017. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR73VWI9 §REF§ His overuse of conscripted corvee labor coupled with natural disasters led to famine, and the dynasty was overthrown by massive peasant rebellions and revolts by nobles after only 37 years of rule.§REF§ (Editorial Committee of Chinese Civilization 2007, 62) Editorial Committee of Chinese Civilization (eds.) 2007. China: Five Thousand Years of History and Civilization. Hong Kong: City University of Hong Kong Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V6V8BAE4 §REF§ Sui construction of infrastructure and government reforms paved the way for the lasting rule of the Tang.§REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Sui Dynasty (581-618). Chinaknowledge.de.http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Tang/sui.html Accessed June 15, 2017. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR73VWI9 §REF§
The Sui territory encompassed 3 million square kilometers in 581.§REF§ (Chase-Dunn spreadsheet) §REF§ The 2,500 km (5,000 li) Grand Canal supplied the Sui capitals of Luoyang, Chang’an and Jiangdu with grain from the lower Yangtze area, running from the eastern capital of Luoyang to present-day Beijing and Hangzhou.§REF§ (Editorial Committee of Chinese Civilization 2007, 62) Editorial Committee of Chinese Civilization (eds.) 2007. China: Five Thousand Years of History and Civilization. Hong Kong: City University of Hong Kong Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V6V8BAE4 §REF§ The Sui sphere of influence reached Chinese Turkestan, Champa, and Formosa.§REF§ (Tuan 2008, 94) Tuan, Yi-Fu. 2008. A Historical Geography of China. London: Aldine Transactions. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GTTWMMF5 §REF§
Population and political organization
The Sui’s administrative reforms abolished all fiefdoms and set up a prefecture system. The examination and military system were reformed. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Sui Dynasty (581-618). Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Tang/sui.html Accessed June 15, 2017. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR73VWI9 §REF§ Yang Jian reestablished Han Confucian government rituals, and reformed Chinas’ penal code and administrative laws.§REF§ “Sui dynasty.” Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sui-dynasty Accessed June 16, 2017. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RPPSPKUR §REF§
The Sui population was recorded as 46 million in a 609 CE census. However, some modern scholars believe that this number is too low.§REF§ (Tuan 2008, 94) Tuan, Yi-Fu. 2008. A Historical Geography of China. London: Aldine Transactions. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GTTWMMF5 §REF§",,,,2024-01-04T15:56:44.774181Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",20.0,Middle Yellow River Valley,North China,112.517587000000,34.701825000000,Luoyang,CN,China,East Asia,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
380,ThSukho,1238,1419,Sukhotai,th_sukhotai,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,41,Mainland Southeast Asia,"Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
642,so_geledi_sultanate,1750,1911,Sultanate of Geledi,so_geledi_sultanate,POL_AFR_EAST,"The Geledi Sultanate was part of the Gobroon Dynasty that was either established in the seventeenth or the first half of the eighteenth centuries. The capital of the Geledi Sultanate was the town of Afgoy, located on the lower Shebelle River, twenty km from Mogadishu. §REF§ (Luling 1971, 202) Luling, Virginia. 1971. The Social Structure of Southern Somali Tribes. (Thesis). University of London (University College London). Seshat URL:https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/5BTAQ3DM/collection §REF§ According to Njoku, the apex of the Sultanate was from 1789 to 1848 under the rule of Sultan Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim. The Geledi Sultanate had a robust army which helped to quell regional dissent from various groups. In 1843, the Sultanate defeated the fundamentalist Baardheere Jamaaca jihadists who wanted to bring ultra-religious ideals into the region. The Geledi Sultanate also controlled valuable trade networks particularly at the port of Mogadishu. By the end of the nineteenth century, the Sultanate’s influence waned due to regional fighting and interference from European colonists. §REF§ (Njoku 2013, 41) Njoku, Raphael C. 2013. The History of Somalia. Santa Barbara: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U9FHBPZF/library §REF§
In 1911, the territory of the Sultanate was annexed by Italy in their creation of Italian Somaliland. §REF§ (Luling 1971, 202) Luling, Virginia. 1971. The Social Structure of Southern Somali Tribes. (Thesis). University of London (University College London). Seshat URL:https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/5BTAQ3DM/collection §REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
589,in_sur_emp,1540,1556,Sur Empire,in_sur_emp,LEGACY,,,,,2023-10-30T11:58:32.392416Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,64,North India,"Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
492,IrSusa1,-4300,-3800,Susa I,ir_susa_1,LEGACY,"The 4300-3800 BCE period in the region of Susiana was the tale of two settlements, the fall of Chogha Mish and the rise of Susa. However, the basic mode of living at this time was in agricultural villages and herding camps so the urban aspect should not be exaggerated. The ""Urban Revolution"" was to come c3800-3000 BCE. §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 79) Mario Liverani. Soraia Tabatabai, trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§ This was a time when centers developed to a larger scale than before §REF§ (Peasnall 2002, 173) B N Peasnall. Iranian Chalcolithic. P Peregrine. M Ember. eds. 2002. Encyclopedia of Prehistory. Volume 8: South and Southwest Asia, pp. 160-195. New York: Springer. §REF§ , and increased - if still incipient - centralization with the emergence of elite houses, whilst the societies as a whole maintained a ""strong egalitarian appearance"". §REF§ (Peasnall 2002, 173) B N Peasnall. Iranian Chalcolithic. P Peregrine. M Ember. eds. 2002. Encyclopedia of Prehistory. Volume 8: South and Southwest Asia, pp. 160-195. New York: Springer. §REF§
Prior to the foundation of Susa part of the existing site of Choga Mish was burned and villages surrounding Susa were abandoned, but archaeologists have not yet settled on an explanation why this occurred. §REF§ (Potts 1999, 46) D T Potts. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ Susa, which replaced Choga Mish as the biggest settlement in the region, is noted for its comparatively great size compared to surrounding settlements with about 1000 people in the 15-18 hectare urban area, which consisted of non-contiguous groups of houses. §REF§ (Potts 2016, 48) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ Hole (1987) estimates there were 10,000 people in the region of Susiana. §REF§ (Hole 1987, 94) F Hole. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Settlement and Society from Prehistory to the Islamic Conquest. Washington DC. The Smithsonian Institution Press. §REF§
Despite the low population density Susa soon after its foundation became ""distinguished by a number of architectural developments which would seem to exceed the scope of activities normally associated with village life"". §REF§ (Potts 1999, 46) D T Potts. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ most notably a stepped platform. §REF§ (Potts 1999, 49-50) D T Potts. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ Many archaeologists are, however, reluctant to infer from the impressive temple constructions that Susa was a 'ceremonial centre' or to suggest it was politically organized as a chiefdom. §REF§ (Potts 1999, 49-50) D T Potts. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ Administrative conventions and writing are known to have developed in the later Uruk period. §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 79) Mario Liverani. Soraia Tabatabai, trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§
There is nevertheless obvious evidence of a central authority in terms of the organization and hoarding of goods. Excavations at Susa discovered may stamp seals and sealings from the Susa I period, some of which may have been used on locked doors. This implies an authority existed ""to control the flow of goods in and out of one or more offices or centres of redistribution."" §REF§ (Potts 1999, 49-50) D T Potts. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§
Earliest and latest radiocarbon 14 dates for Susa are about 4400-3900 BCE and 3700-3500 BCE. §REF§ (Potts 1999, 46) D T Potts. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ Tepe Jaffarabad, which is analogue in terms of ceramics, has been radiocarbon dated 4100-3900 BCE and 3900-3700 BCE and ""thus generally consistent with the Susa dates"" §REF§ (Potts 1999, 46) D T Potts. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ - at least for the period from 4100-3700 BCE.
",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",9.0,Susiana,Levant-Mesopotamia,48.235564000000,32.382851000000,Susa (Shush),IR,Iran,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
493,IrSusa2,-3800,-3100,Susa II,ir_susa_2,LEGACY," §REF§ (Johnson 1987, 131) Johnson, Gregory A. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C. §REF§
Uruk (IrSusa1)""Sometime during the fourth millennium, in the urban center of Uruk (for which the archaeological period is named), southern Mesopotamia acquired a specifically Sumerian historical identity. With the introduction of a system of writing, a gradual development from an earlier accounting system, a radical change occurred in the social organization and in the very foundations of thought. ... Susa, in its earliest period (Susa I) attached to the world of the Iranian plateau, was now (in Susa II) integrated into the early Sumerian civilization of Mesopotamia, which it interpreted with originality. Precise stratigraphic excavations conducted in recent decades have allowed us to trace developments at Susa in the Uruk phase, notably of an accounting system that preceded the slightly later appearance of writing."" §REF§ (Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 4) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art. §REF§
Chronology for Iran §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 513) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§
Uruk colonies
Proto-Elamite period 3100-2700 BCE
Awan 2350-2200 BCE (contemporaneous with Akkad in Lower Mesopotamia)
Simash 2050-1950 BCE
Sukkalmah 1900-1750 BCE
Middle Elamite kingdom c1300-1100 BCE
Neo-Elamite kingdom 750-650 BCE
Media 650-550 BCE
Susa - Tal-i Malyan (Anshan, Anzan) [450-550] KM2.
Liverani 2014 chronology for Isin-Larsa period 2000-1750 BCE §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 192-193) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§ Elam §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 193) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§
2000 BCE Shimashki dynasty, Kindattu c2000 BCE ... Indattu II c1925 BCE (last or last known)
1900 BCE Sukkalmah dynasty, Ebarat c1900 BCE ... Kuduzulush c1765 BCE (last or last known)
""Susa ... began its political life around 6000 BC, first as a city-state, then as an empire rivaling Sumer in Mesopotamia, and subsequently as the capital of one of the oldest empires of antiquity, Elam, around 3000 BC."" §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 21) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§
""Thus the earliest experience of state tradition and administrative functions on a massive scale in Iran began around 6000 BC."" §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 21) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§
""The main instrument of public administration and governance under the long history of the federal state of Elam was the bureaucracy, which also played a powerful role under the Median and the Persian empires."" §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 21) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§
""Unlike the small city-state of Sumer, the Elamite empire was formed and administered on a massive scale and governed a large territory comprising present Iran and a major part of the Near East, at times including Babylonia and Assyria, for over 2500 years."" §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 21) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§
""Their bureaucratic contacts with the Assyrians and Babylonians gave them useful insights. However, being a rival to Sumer, Babylon, and Assyria, the Elamite federal government developed the first Iranian tradition of public administration on a massive scale, though that tradition originated much earlier in the great city-state of Susa."" §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 21) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§
""development of an active intergovernmental management and federalism, perhaps the earliest in history."" §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§
""In the cities, thriving activities reigned, where along with the villages, professions of all kinds flourished, showing clear evidence of variety and stratification of professional and, hence, social classes in ancient Elam."" §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§
""The development of centers on the Susiana plane, beginning with Middle Cha1colithic Chogha Mish and culminating in the rise of Susa during the Late Chalcolithic. suggests a trend towards regional control in some economic and administrative activities (Delougaz and Kantor 1996, Hole 1987b: 89-90). This trend towards centralization may also be suggested by the presence of possible elite or ""Khan's"" houses during this time at several sites (Hole 1987a: 41). In spite of these trends, Chalcolithic society throughout Khuzistan presents a strong egalitarian appearance. During the Middle and Late Chalcolithic, differential access to resources may have involved less archaeological1y visible items such as staples. access to water, and control over labor, as it appears to have done at this time in Mesopotamia (Stein 1994)."" §REF§ (Peasnall in Peregrine and Ember 2002, 173) §REF§ The Middle Chalcolithic corresponds to 4800-3900 BCE and the Late Chalcolithic corresponds to 3900-3500 BCE in this book.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",9.0,Susiana,Levant-Mesopotamia,48.235564000000,32.382851000000,Susa (Shush),IR,Iran,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
494,IrSusa3,-3100,-2675,Susa III,ir_susa_3,LEGACY,"While no information could be found in the sources consulted regarding the polity's overall population, it is estimated that the largest settlement - Tall-i Malyan at Fars, Anshan region – may have had up to ten thousand inhabitants. §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 91) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§ However it is also believed that during this period there was a decrease in population following a rapid urbanisation of the mountain heartland, followed by a collapse and possible reversion to nomadism. §REF§ (Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 5) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art. §REF§
There were three tiers of settlement in the area: Susa, the centre and capital of the polity, the villages that surrounded Susa, and other small sites such as farmsteads or seasonal sheparding areas. §REF§ (Sumner 1988) Sumner, William. 1988. Frank Hole, (ed.) - 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran, Settlement and Society From Prehistory to the Islamic Conquest. Paleorient. Volume 14. Number 1. pp.177-179. §REF§ During the Susa III phase, Susa has been considered to have been the ""centre of greatest economic activity in literate Iran"", which led to it being annexed by Anshan. §REF§ (Potts 2016, 71) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§
During this time writing developed in response to the administrative requirements of urban societies during this period. §REF§ (Sumner 1988) Sumner, William. 1988. Frank Hole, (ed.) - 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran, Settlement and Society From Prehistory to the Islamic Conquest. Paleorient. Volume 14. Number 1. pp.177-179. §REF§ Administration was usually run through the temples in the urban centres, which would deal with anything from dealing with trade to accounting to government duties. §REF§ (Joseph 2011, 135) Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition). Princeton University Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",9.0,Susiana,Levant-Mesopotamia,48.235564000000,32.382851000000,Susa (Shush),IR,Iran,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
490,IrKhzM*,-5100,-4700,Susiana - Early Ubaid,ir_susiana_ubaid_1,LEGACY,"""Chogha Mish became the largest site on the Susiana plan during the Middle Chalcolithic (Middle Susiana or Susiana b-d), during which time it extended over the whole site, an area of about 15 ha (Delougaz and Kantor 1996: 284). The settlement consisted primarily of domestic houses, most of which appear to have contained courtyards with associated pottery kilns (Delougaz and Kantor 1975: 95). As with the earlier settlement, a large monumental structure existed among the domestic houses during the end of the Middle Susiana phase (Kantor 1976: 27-28). This building had burned and, as a result, was particularly well~preserved. It contained buttressed exterior walls, whose thickness measured 2 m. The building covered an area of more than 12 x 15 m. The walls had been faced with plaster. The excavated portion of the building reveals an 'L' shaped hall and a number of small rooms (Kantor 1976: figure II). One room had been stacked full of painted pots. Ceramic was also found throughout the other rooms of the building. Another room contained a large number of flint nodules and blades, indicating its use as a lithic workshop. The remains of a large brick platform or terrace extended more than 15 m from the east side of the building."" §REF§ (Peasnall in Peregrine and Ember 2002, 180) §REF§
Jaffarabad early settlement covered 2000 sq m. 16 sites have Jaffarabad type pottery in Susiana.Large dwelling rooms or halls associated with smaller storage facilities in a highly nucleated settlement. §REF§ (Hole 1987, 40) §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",9.0,Susiana,Levant-Mesopotamia,48.235564000000,32.382851000000,Susa (Shush),IR,Iran,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
491,IrKhzL*,-4700,-4300,Susiana - Late Ubaid,ir_susiana_ubaid_2,LEGACY,"This Late Ubaid phase of Susiana ran from 4700-4300 BCE.
Eighty six sites have been recorded during the Choga Mish period §REF§ (Hole 1987, 42) §REF§ , showing that settlement hierarchies consisted of two levels: Choga Mish (the administrative or religious centre) and small villages. There was a degree of centralisation during this period through economic and administrative activities. §REF§ (Hole 1987, 40-41) §REF§
While no information could be found in the sources consulted regarding the polity's population, the population of Choga Mish is estimated to have had up to 3,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Hole 2006, 229) Hole, Frank in Carter, Robert A. Philip, Graham. eds. 2006. Beyond The Ubaid. Transformation and integration in the late prehistoric societies of the Middle East. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Illinois. §REF§
The beginning of this period saw an increase in agricultural processes which were made possible by the cattle-drawn plough and irrigation. §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 54) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",9.0,Susiana,Levant-Mesopotamia,48.235564000000,32.382851000000,Susa (Shush),IR,Iran,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
487,IrArcha,-7000,-6000,Susiana - Muhammad Jaffar,ir_susiana_archaic,LEGACY,"""The Archaic Susiana 0 Phase. The appearance of the Painted-Burnished variant of ware, a new class of painted pottery that provides antecedent for the entire Archaic Susiana ceramics, marks the transition to the Archaic period. Another site, Tappe Tuleʾi (named after an edible tuber), southwest of Andimesk in northwestern Ḵuzestān, is the only other site in ancient Kuzestan that was occupied during this phase (Hole, 1974; Idem, 1975). The fact that neither Tappe Tule'i nor Coga Bonut was located close to any detectable canal or source of water may be an indication of sufficient precipitation for dry farming. Faunal, floral, and phytolith (fossilized pollen) evidence from Coga Bonut indicated the presence of marshes in upper Susiana during this phase (Redding and Rosen in Alizadeh, pp. 129-49).
Evidence of gazelle, onager, and domesticated sheep, goats, and dogs, as well as that of wheat and barley points to a mixed economy of farming, herding, and hunting in this phase. In addition to these species, the presence of bones of the giant Indian gerbil and bears at Čoḡā Bonut also indicates the wetter climate in this region during the initial phases of the Archaic period.
The Painted-Burnished variant ware is fully represented at Tappe Tuleʾ'i, but is rare in the nearby Dehlorān (Deh Luran) plain to the north (FIGURE 5). Apart from this distinct class of early Neolithic Susiana pottery, the stone tools, chipped stone industry, and small objects such as T-shaped human figurines and animal figurines are almost indistinguishable among the two Susiana sites and Coga Safid and Alikos in Dehloran. The great similarity in the objects other than pottery suggests that while the stone industry and the manufacture of small clay and stone objects found at these sites may have had a shared origin, the Painted-Burnished variant ware was developed in Susiana proper.
The architecture of the Archaic Susiana 0 phase at Coga Bonut consists of two separate buildings, but their complete plans cannot be restored (Alizadeh, fig. 10). A rather large rectangular structure is all that was left of one building that, based on its comparatively large size, must have been a hall or courtyard of a much larger structure. The three surviving walls are neatly made of long, cigar-shaped mud bricks laid as stretchers. Two platforms or buttresses, made of the same construction material, were built against the outer face of its southern wall. The western portion of this building, where the living quarters had been presumably located, was entirely destroyed, but the presence of two rows of headers, one slightly higher than the other, could have provided access to the rooms on this side. The other, smaller building was better preserved. The building material was the same as for the larger structure, but the neat division of space and the straightness of its walls indicate a certain degree of architectural sophistication, if not specialization, even in this early phase of architecture in Susiana.
For reasons not known, sometime during the Archaic Susiana 0 phase, Coga Bonut was deserted and did not become reoccupied for at least a thousand years."" §REF§ (Alizadeh 2009, Encyclopedia Iranica Online, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coga-bonut-archaeological-site) §REF§
Four sites excavated: Choga Mish, Boneh Fazili, Chogha Bonut and Tula’i. §REF§ (Hole 1987, 39-40) §REF§
Tula’I is a herders’ camp, at the least a seasonal camp.
25 sites on the Susiana Plain that have ceramics of one or the other of the periods.
No good information on agricultural settlement
Choga Mish, Choga Bonut and Boneh Fazili have a large settlement.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",9.0,Susiana,Levant-Mesopotamia,48.235564000000,32.382851000000,Susa (Shush),IR,Iran,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
488,IrKhzE*,-6000,-5700,Susiana A,ir_susiana_a,LEGACY,"""Chogha Mish was already a sizable settlement by the Early Chalcolithic period (Early Susiana or Susiana a), covering an area of more than 3.5 ha (Delougaz and Kantor 1996: 280). Most other villages rarely exceeded I ha. Architecture consisted of large multiroom houses containing large living spaces and halls, and smaller storage rooms (Delougaz 1976). Houses appear to have been set close together, with some separated by narrow alleyways. A large brick platfonn measuring at least 6 x 8 m and containing at least six courses of brick was located among the domestic architecture (Delougaz and Kantor 1975: 94). Associated with this platform was a building of substantial size. Another large building was represented by the remains of a thick buttressed wall (Delougaz and Kantor 1975: 95)."" §REF§ (Peasnall in Peregrine and Ember 2002, 180) §REF§",,,,2024-11-29T22:47:33.607911Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",9.0,Susiana,Levant-Mesopotamia,48.235564000000,32.382851000000,Susa (Shush),IR,Iran,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
489,IrKhzEM,-5700,-5100,Susiana B,ir_susiana_b,LEGACY,"Susiana in sixth-fifth millennium: ""In all respects, Susiana was large and rich enough to sustain a vigorous indigenous culture in parallel with, and separate from, that of Mesopotamia."" §REF§ (Hole 2006, 228) Hole, Frank in Carter, Robert A. Philip, Graham. eds. 2006. Beyond The Ubaid. Transformation and integration in the late prehistoric societies of the Middle East. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Illinois. §REF§
Hajji Muhammad culture ca. 5800-5100 BCE - lower Mesopotamia and at least part of Susiana. Region ""facilitated the irrigated cultivation of grains and cattle farming ... This was the initial phase of Ubaid culture, through which lower Mesopotamia would eventually take the lead in terms of technological and organisational development in the Near East. ... In terms of periodisation, the rise of Ubaid culture marks the end of the Neolithic and the beginning of the Chalcolithic period."" §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 49) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§
""Architecture and organization of space within a typical village is difficult to reconstruct. Most sites have been explored through limited exposures, and have not yielded coherent architectural plans (see Hole 1987a: 40). The only exception to this is the site of Jaffarabad located on the Susiana plane approximately 7 km north of Susa. During the Early Chalcolithic, this site consisted of an agglomeration of domestic mud brick structures made up of large long halls flanked by smaller rooms (Dollfus 1975: 18 and figures 6-7). One hall had an area of 11.5 x 3.15 m. Some of the domestic complexes had buttressed walls. Almost no open space existed between these structures. The artifacts recovered from the domestic complexes reflect normal domestic activities. The presence of kilns and wasters are the only evidence for craft production at the site (Dollfus 1975)."" §REF§ (Peasnall in Peregrine and Ember 2002, 172) §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",9.0,Susiana,Levant-Mesopotamia,48.235564000000,32.382851000000,Susa (Shush),IR,Iran,Southwest Asia,45,Iran,Iran,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
869,sv_swedish_emp,1611,1814,Swedish Empire,sv_swedish_emp,OTHER_TAG,,Swedish Empire,,2024-04-26T12:13:52.458442Z,2024-04-26T12:13:52.458457Z,,,,,,,,,,,17,Northern Europe,"Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
855,ch_swiss_conf_3,1799,1848,Swiss Confederation - Napoleonic period,ch_swiss_conf_3,OTHER_TAG,,Swiss Confederation,,2024-04-10T10:16:56.765804Z,2024-04-10T10:16:56.765816Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
854,ch_swiss_conf_2,1516,1798,Swiss Confederation - early modern period,ch_swiss_conf_2,OTHER_TAG,,Swiss Confederation,,2024-04-10T10:16:24.499810Z,2024-04-10T10:16:24.499822Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
856,ch_swiss_conf_4,1849,2014,Swiss Confederation - modern period,ch_swiss_conf_4,OTHER_TAG,,Swiss Confederation,,2024-04-10T10:17:35.105963Z,2024-04-10T10:17:35.105978Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
167,TrTabal,-900,-730,Tabal Kingdoms,tr_tabal_k,LEGACY,"During the 900-730 BCE period the region of the Konya Plain was occupied by small independent states, that likely first evolved during the Neo-Hittite period. After the Assyrian invasion they became tribute-sending states to the Mesopotamian Empire but were otherwise ""free to rule their states in whatever manner they wished, without interference from the Assyrian king"". §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 243) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§
Known as the kingdoms of 'Tabal', the term an Assyrian administrative designation rather than a political one §REF§ Competition, and Conflict in a Contested Periphery."" in Richardson, Seth. ed. 2010. Rebellions and Peripheries in the Mesopotamian World. American Oriental Series 91. Eisenbrauns. Winona Lake. §REF§ §REF§ Competition, and Conflict in a Contested Periphery."" in Richardson, Seth. ed. 2010. Rebellions and Peripheries in the Mesopotamian World. American Oriental Series 91. Eisenbrauns. Winona Lake. §REF§ , there were, according to Assyrian records, 24 of them in the mid-9th century BCE. This number had reduced by the middle of the 8th century, which suggests that the states conquered each other or had otherwise joined together to become larger kingdoms. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 43) T Bryce. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III in the mid-late 8th century listed five tributaries he possessed in Tabal: Tabal, Atuna, Tuhana, Ishtu(a)nda, and Hupishna. §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 141) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ Bryce (2012) adds a sixth kingdom to Tabal, Shinuhtu, which is ""attested both in Luwian and Assyrian inscriptions dating to the reign of Sargon II. Shinuhtu's ruler at that time was a man called Kiyakiya (Assyrian Kiakki)."" §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 141) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§
The best-known Tabalean principality was Tuhana. Its capital was at the city later known as Tyana whose ruins lie in the modern Turkish village of Kemerhisar; here a stela of king Warpalawas was found in 1860. §REF§ (Radner 2013) Karen Radner. 2013. Tabal and Phrygia: problem neighbours in the West. Assyrian empire builders. University College London http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sargon/essentials/countries/tabalandphrygia/ §REF§
",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",11.0,Konya Plain,Anatolia-Caucasus,32.521164000000,37.877845000000,Konya,TR,Turkey,Southwest Asia,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
217,DzTahrt,761,909,Tahert,dz_tahert,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,3,Maghreb,From Morocco to Libya,"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
843,es_taifas,1010,1241,Taifas of Iberia,es_taifas,OTHER_TAG,,"Taifa of Albarracín, Taifa of Santa Maria do Algarve, Taifa of Algeciras, Taifa of Almería, Taifa of Alpuente, Taifa of Arcos, Taifa of Badajoz, Taifa of Carmona, Taifa of Ceuta, Taifa of Córdoba, Taifa of Dénia, Taifa of Granada, Taifa of Saltés and Huelva, Taifa of Murcia, Taifa of Morón, Taifa of",,2024-04-10T08:31:37.688775Z,2024-04-10T08:31:37.688789Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
436,CoTairo,1050,1524,Tairona,co_tairona,LEGACY,"The name Tairona is generally used in reference to the indigenous groups of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (a mountain range that stretches along Colombia's Caribbean coast) that came in contact with the Spanish in the sixteenth century, but it is also applied to the prehistoric societies that inhabited that same area, and which are mostly known through the artefacts they left behind. §REF§ (Bray 2003, 301) §REF§ Santiago Giraldo and Juana Saenz have recently estimated that the prehistoric Tairona phase started around 1050 and ended early in the sixteenth century, based on radiocarbon-dated goldwork and complete dated contexts. §REF§ (Giraldo 2015, personal communication) §REF§
Population and political organization
At the time of the Spanish Conquest, the Tairona were organized into independent polities governed by a priestly class and a hierarchy of chiefs. §REF§ (Oyuela-Caycedo 2008, 423) §REF§ Most likely, this system began to emerge between the eleventh and the twelfth centuries, as suggested by the appearance of several new ceremonial buildings, new spaces dedicated to feasting activities, a general overhaul of the layout of settlements, and evidence for the expansion and intensification of agricultural activities. §REF§ (Giraldo 2010, 283) §REF§
The population of a typical Tairona polity likely numbered in the hundreds of thousands, with conservative estimates of as much as 500,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Langebaek 2005, 25-7) §REF§ §REF§ (Giraldo 2010, 57-58) §REF§ The largest settlements likely reached a population of a few hundred at the beginning of the Tairona phase, between a few hundred and 4,000 between the twelfth and the fourteenth centuries, and between 3,000 and 5,000 in the century immediately preceding the Spanish Conquest. §REF§ (Langebaek 2005, 25-7) §REF§ §REF§ (Giraldo 2010, 22-23, 110-111) §REF§ §REF§ (Giraldo 2014) §REF§ §REF§ (Oyuela-Caycedo 2008, 419-423) §REF§ §REF§ (Moore 2014, 395) §REF§ §REF§ (Giraldo 2009, 25) §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",31.0,North Colombia,Caribbean,-73.640388097900,10.780287182100,Santa Marta,CO,Colombia,South America,21,Caribbean,"Caribbean islands, Panama, coastal Columbia-Venezuela","{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}"
261,CnTangE,617,763,Tang Dynasty I,cn_tang_dyn_1,LEGACY,"The Tang Dynasty is widely considered a cultural and political high point of imperial China. The dynasty was founded by Li Yuan, the Duke of Tang, when the threat of insurrection forced the previous Sui dynasty court to flee from Luoyang, the capital, to Yangzhou. Li Yuan marched to Luoyang and seized the abandoned capital in 618 CE. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 1) Charles Benn. 2002. China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ He became the first emperor of the Tang dynasty (r. 618-626 CE) and is posthumously known as Gaozu. Under the Early Tang Dynasty, the capital was moved from Chang'an to Luoyang. §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 37) Mark Edward Lewis. 2009. China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ We divide the Dynasty into an Early period (618-763 CE) and Late period (763-907 CE), separated by the decline in imperial authority and instability of experienced by the Tang in the 750s, culminating in the An Lushan rebellion to close out the Early period (755‒763 CE).
Under Early Tang leadership, China's territory expanded considerably. Conquered territories included large areas of Central Asia and northern Korea (Koguryō). §REF§ (Benn 2002, 2) Charles Benn. 2002. China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ In later years, however, China pursued a defensive, non-expansionist policy towards groups on the steppe and frontier. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 8) Charles Benn. 2002. China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
The dynasty, also known as the Tang (T'ang) Empire or Li Dynasty, is famous for its poetry, literature, increased trade and general cosmopolitanism. §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 1) Mark Edward Lewis. 2009. China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ In 660 CE, Empress Wu became the first woman to rule China, first governing as a regent to her young son and later ruling as empress dowager and regent until her death in 705 CE. §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 4-7) Mark Edward Lewis. 2009. China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Emperor Xuanzong's 44-year reign (712‒756 CE) ushered in a cultural and economic golden age, which declined as he aged and ended in rebellion and an overthrow of the dynasty. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 8-10) Charles Benn. 2002. China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
Emperor Gaozu worked to restore control of the imperial government that had been established by the Sui Dynasty, and founded frontier garrisons controlled directly by the capital. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 3) Charles Benn. 2002. China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The Tang instituted the much discussed 'equal fields' system, in which land owned by the state was parcelled out in equal allotments to citizens in return for taxation. The Tang also minted many new coins in an attempt to stabilize the economy. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 3) Charles Benn. 2002. China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
The Early Tang imperial government was characterized by an emperor who theoretically had absolute power, but was often in practice overruled by ministers or regents. §REF§ (Rodzinski 1979, 118) Witold Rodzinski. 1979. A History of China, Volume 1. Oxford: Pergamon Press. §REF§ The central government was headed by three chief ministers who ran the Imperial Chancellery, Imperial Secretariat, and the Department for State Affairs. §REF§ (Rodzinski 1979, 118) Witold Rodzinski. 1979. A History of China, Volume 1. Oxford: Pergamon Press. §REF§ The government also included a large central and state bureaucracy, marked by the expanding use of merit examinations. §REF§ (Roberts 1996, 94) J. A. G. Roberts. 1996. A History of China, Volume 1: Prehistory to c. 1800. Phoenix Mill: Alan Sutton Publishing. §REF§
The population of the Early Tang Dynasty is estimated at 37 million in 700 CE and increased to almost 53 million by 754 CE. §REF§ (Rodzinski 1979, 129) Witold Rodzinski. 1979. A History of China, Volume 1. Oxford: Pergamon Press. §REF§ In the 8th century, there were an estimated 1 million people living in Chang'an. §REF§ (Roberts 1996, 106) J. A. G. Roberts. 1996. A History of China, Volume 1: Prehistory to c. 1800. Phoenix Mill: Alan Sutton Publishing. §REF§",,"JR: This was previously named ""Early Tang"". However, Ruth Mostern noted that our use of ""Early Tang"" for 617-763 CE and ""Later Tang"" for 763-907 was confusing because ""Later Tang"" is used by historians to refer to a short-lived regime 923-37.",,2024-04-15T14:36:42.507728Z,"{'id': 15, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",20.0,Middle Yellow River Valley,North China,112.517587000000,34.701825000000,Luoyang,CN,China,East Asia,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
264,CnTangL,763,907,Tang Dynasty II,cn_tang_dyn_2,LEGACY,"The Tang Dynasty is widely considered a cultural and political high point of imperial China. The dynasty was founded by Li Yuan, the Duke of Tang, when the threat of insurrection forced the previous Sui dynasty court to flee from Luoyang, the capital, to Yangzhou. Li Yuan marched to Luoyang and seized the abandoned capital in 618 CE. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 1) Charles Benn. 2002. China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ He became the first emperor of the Tang dynasty (r. 618-626 CE) and is posthumously known as Gaozu. Under the Early Tang Dynasty, the capital was moved from Chang'an to Luoyang. §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 37) Mark Edward Lewis. 2009. China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ We divide the Dynasty into an Early period (618-763 CE) and Late period (763-907 CE), separated by the decline in imperial authority and instability of experienced by the Tang in the 750s, culminating in the An Lushan rebellion to close out the Early period (755‒763 CE).
The Tang Dynasty continued to rule China after the defeat of the An Lushan rebellion (755‒763 CE). §REF§ (Perkins 1999, 11) Dorothy Perkins. 1999. Encyclopedia of China. New York: Routledge. §REF§ However, the government never fully recovered from its impact. §REF§ (Perkins 1999, 11) Dorothy Perkins. 1999. Encyclopedia of China. New York: Routledge. §REF§ Tang border defences were devastated, leading to attacks from outsiders and pirates. The Tang government maintained an often-uneasy alliance with the Uighurs against the Tibetans. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 12) Charles Benn. 2002. Daily Life in Traditional China: The Tang Dynasty. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. §REF§ In 790, Tibetan forces occupied Chinese land in eastern Turkestan and ended Chinese rule in the region for almost a thousand years. §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 64) Mark Edward Lewis. 2009. China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Benn 2002, 11) Charles Benn. 2002. Daily Life in Traditional China: The Tang Dynasty. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. §REF§
Late Tang China was marked by conflict, with the occasional brief period of peace. Emperor Xianzong's campaigns against rebel governors in the early 9th century restored almost all of China back to direct rule under the Tang government. §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 64) Mark Edward Lewis. 2009. China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Xianzong was successful in restoring stability to the Tang Empire and his death was followed by 40 years of peace. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 16) Charles Benn. 2002. Daily Life in Traditional China: The Tang Dynasty. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. §REF§ Later, Emperor Wuzong persecuted Buddhists and adherents of other non-indigenous religions. His movement reached its height in 845 CE and most monasteries were destroyed, but his successors reversed his anti-Buddhist policies. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 16-17) Charles Benn. 2002. Daily Life in Traditional China: The Tang Dynasty. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. §REF§
The dynasty fell in 881 CE after a series of internal rebellions, leading to about a century characterized by the rise of powerful warlords in the south and political turmoil in the north §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 136) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ before another period of Chinese efflorescence under the Northern Song Dynasty. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 18) Charles Benn. 2002. Daily Life in Traditional China: The Tang Dynasty. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
The Late Tang Dynasty was marked by tensions between the central government and military garrisons. §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 60) Mark Edward Lewis. 2009. China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ In 763 CE, two-thirds of the provincial governors were military commanders. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 12) Charles Benn. 2002. Daily Life in Traditional China: The Tang Dynasty. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. §REF§ Tang emperors attempted to weaken the central bureaucracy by having military governors pay direct tribute instead of taxes. §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 63) Mark Edward Lewis. 2009. China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The Tang government implemented the two-tax system in 780 CE, which replaced the 'equal land' distribution system of the Early Tang. §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 65) Mark Edward Lewis. 2009. China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ This system of taxation represented an attempt to weaken military garrison governments and to divert taxation income to the central government. §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 65) Mark Edward Lewis. 2009. China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§
The Late Tang central government was marked by the rise of eunuchs. Eunuchs did not hold powerful positions in the Early Tang government, but in the later period the Department of the Inner Palace, staffed by eunuchs, became a powerful governmental authority ‒ more powerful than the emperor's chief ministers. §REF§ (Dalby 1979, 571-72) Michael T. Dalby. 1979. 'Court Politics in Late T'ang Times', in The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589-906 AD, Part One, edited by D. C. Twitchett, 561-681. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
Because the dynasty was marked by almost constant conflict, the population of Late Tang China is difficult to estimate. In 766 CE there were between 40 million and 55 million citizens, §REF§ (Rodzinski 1979, 130) Witold Rodzinski. 1979. A History of China, Volume 1. Oxford: Pergamon Press. §REF§ and in 900 CE there were between 60 million and 80 million. §REF§ (Lorge 2005, 182) Peter A. Lorge. 2005. War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China, 900‒1795. Abingdon: Routledge. §REF§",,"JR: This was previously named ""Later Tang"". However, Ruth Mostern noted that our use of ""Early Tang"" for 617-763 CE and ""Later Tang"" for 763-907 was confusing because ""Later Tang"" is used by historians to refer to a short-lived regime 923-37.",,2024-04-15T14:33:24.590598Z,"{'id': 12, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",20.0,Middle Yellow River Valley,North China,112.517587000000,34.701825000000,Luoyang,CN,China,East Asia,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
581,gt_tikal_terminal_classic,870,950,Terminal Classic Tikal,gt_tikal_terminal_classic,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
11,MxFormT,-100,99,Terminal Formative Basin of Mexico,mx_basin_of_mexico_6,LEGACY,"The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Terminal Formative period (c. 100 BCE-99 CE). The most notable aspect of this period is the emergence of Teotihuacan as the largest and most populous city in the New World: by 150 CE, it had a population ranging between 60,000 to 80,000 inhabitants distributed across an area of about 20 kilometers. §REF§ (Sugiyama 2005: 1) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P56I2R2H §REF§
Political power was inherently theocratic; §REF§ Barba de Piña Chán, Beatriz. (1980). Tlapacoya: Los Principios de la Teocracia en la Cuenca de Mexico. Biblioteca Enciclopedica del Estado de Mexico, p.13-42, 95-142. §REF§ §REF§ Plunket, Patricia and Gabriela Uruñuela. (2012). ""Where East Meets West: The Formative in Mexico's Central Highlands."" Journal of Archaeological 20(1): 1-51 §REF§ §REF§ Carballo, David M. (2016). Urbanization and Religion in Ancient Central Mexico. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p.73-215. §REF§ beyond that, the exact administrative mechanisms prevalent at the time remain unclear.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",27.0,Basin of Mexico,Mexico,-99.130000000000,19.430000000000,Ciudad de Mexico,MX,Mexico,North America,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
761,th_reform_period_thailand,1887,1932,Thailand Reform Period,th_reform_period_thailand,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,41,Mainland Southeast Asia,"Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
699,in_thanjavur_maratha_k,1675,1799,Thanjavur Maratha Kingdom,in_thanjavur_maratha_k,POL_SA_SI,"The Thanjavur Maratha Kingdom was established in 1675 CE when the Maratha general Ekoji Bhonsle took control of Thanjavur and crowned himself Raja of the Thanjavur Maratha Kingdom. The capital of the Thanjavur Maratha Kingdom was the city of Thanjavur. The Thanjavur Maratha kings were devout Shaivist Hindus and contributed greatly to literature and philosophic thought. §REF§ (Srinivasan 1984, 44) Srinivasan, C.R. 1984. ‘Some Interesting Aspects of the Maratha Rule as Gleaned from the Tamil Copper-Plates of the Thanjavur Marathas’. Journal of the Epigraphical Society of India. Vol. 11. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PXQ87WQH/collection §REF§ §REF§ (Appasamy 1980, 11) Appasamy, Jaya. 1980. Thanjavur Painting of the Maratha Period. Vol. 1. New Delhi. Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/35BU75NG/collection §REF§ The Thanjavur Maratha kings also patronized temple projects. §REF§ (Appasamy 1980, 9) Appasamy, Jaya. 1980. Thanjavur Painting of the Maratha Period. Vol. 1. New Delhi. Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/35BU75NG/collection §REF§ During certain periods of the Thanjavur Maratha rule there was political turmoil and regional fighting. By the end of the 18th century the Thanjavur Maratha kings were financially indebted to the British trading companies in the region. §REF§ (Cerulli 2020, 227) Cerulli, Anthony. ‘Allegory and History, Life and Embodiment’ In Body and Cosmos: Studies in Early Indian Medical and Astral Sciences in Honor of Kenneth G. Zysk. Edited by Jacob Schmidt-Madsen et al. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FTSCD638/collection §REF§ In 1799 CE the Thanjavur Maratha Kingdom came under the Madras Presidency under the British East India Company. §REF§ (Appasamy 1980, 21) Appasamy, Jaya. 1980. Thanjavur Painting of the Maratha Period. Vol. 1. New Delhi. Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/35BU75NG/collection §REF§",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
74,GrCrEmr,824,961,The Emirate of Crete,gr_crete_emirate,LEGACY,"Between 824 and 962, Crete was ruled by Andalusian Arabs. The latter had taken the island from the Byzantines (who subsequently lost the control of the maritime trade routes in the Aegean specifically and the eastern Mediterranean generally), and made it into an emirate, with Khandax, i.e. modern-day Heraklion, as its capital. The surviving evidence for the organization of the emirate and the Cretan society of the period is, unfortunately, scanty, with almost no archaeology and few, contradictory written sources. The original Byzantine sources are biased against the Arabs, and quite a few modern scholars have taken these sources at face value, presenting the Arabs as uncivilized barbarians, overly concerned with piracy. In fact, based on what is known about Arabic civilization in the rest of the Mediterranean at this time, it is likely that the Emirate of Crete was similarly sophisticated in its culture and social organization, though to its prolonged animosity with the Byzantines, it almost certainly retained a strong militaristic character as well. In 962, the Byzantines regained control of the island. §REF§ (Christides 2011, 17) Vassilios Christides. 2011. 'The cycle of the Arab-Byzantine struggle in Crete (ca. 824/6-961 AD) in the illuminate manuscript of Skylitzes (Codex Martinensis Graecus Vitr. 26-2)'. Craeco-Arabica 9: 17. §REF§ §REF§ (Christides 1984) Vassilios Christides. 1984. The Conquest of Crete by Arabs (ca. 824). A Turning Point in the Struggle Between Byzantium and Islam. Athens: Akademia Athenon. §REF§
Population and political organization
A rough estimate of the island's population at this time is of 250,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Papadopoulos 1948, 37) Ioannes B. Papadopoulos. 1948. Η Κρήτη υπό τους Σαρακηνούς (824-961). Athens: Byzantinisch-Neugriechischen Jahrbücher. §REF§ In terms of its political organization, Crete was divided into forty districts and was ruled by an emir who only nominally recognized the Caliph of Baghdad. §REF§ (Christides 1984) Vassilios Christides. 1984. The Conquest of Crete by Arabs (ca. 824). A Turning Point in the Struggle Between Byzantium and Islam. Athens: Akademia Athenon. §REF§
",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",4.0,Crete,Southeastern Europe,25.144200000000,35.338700000000,Heraklion,GR,Greece,Europe,19,Southeastern Europe,"Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
271,UaSky3K,-429,-225,Third Scythian Kingdom,ua_skythian_k_3,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,16,Eastern Europe,"Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
394,CnTibet,620,846,Tibet Kingdom,cn_tibet_k,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,12,Tibet,Tibet,"{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
370,UzTimur,1370,1526,Timurid Empire,uz_timurid_emp,LEGACY,"The Timurid Emirate was a polity begun by Timur who was initially an amir within the Chagatai Khanate. §REF§ (Wise Bauer 2013, 558) Wise Bauer, S. 2013. The History of the Renaissance World: From the Rediscovery of Aristotle to the Conquest of Constantinople. W. W. Norton & Company. §REF§ After taking power at Balkh in 1370 Timur maintained a nominal allegiance to the Chagatai khan while effectively ruling as an independent state. §REF§ (Khan 2003, 33) A Khan. 2003. A Historical Atlas of Uzbekistan. The Rosen Publishing Group. §REF§
Timur's brutal conquests over Persia and the sub-continent created a large empire covering about 5,500,000 square kilometers with a population of perhaps 49 million in 1400 CE. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978) Collin McEverdy. Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd. §REF§ In his desire to create a great empire, during his conquests Timur ""rounded up craftspeople in all fields and sent them off to his capital at Samarkand. ... He assembled the most highly skilled manpower from many countries and traditions, an astonishingly rich assemblage of masters in virtually every field of the arts and crafts."" §REF§ (Starr 2013) Frederick S. Starr. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton. §REF§
Timurid government was a complex Persian-model professional bureaucracy which functionally distinguished between civilian and military branches of government. §REF§ (Subtelny 2007, 68) Maria Subtelny. 2007. Timurids in Transition: Turko-Persian Politics and Acculturation in Medieval Iran. BRILL. §REF§ The ruler was assisted by a vizier §REF§ (Starr 2013) Frederick S. Starr. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton. §REF§ who often stayed in his post after the previous Timurid amir had died. §REF§ (Subtelny 2007, 69) Maria Subtelny. 2007. Timurids in Transition: Turko-Persian Politics and Acculturation in Medieval Iran. BRILL. §REF§ The non-sedentary origin and culture of the rulers might be reflected in the departments of the Timurid diwan which were ""concerned primarily with financial and bureaucratic matters, including chancery correspondence."" §REF§ (Subtelny 2007, 68) Maria Subtelny. 2007. Timurids in Transition: Turko-Persian Politics and Acculturation in Medieval Iran. BRILL. §REF§
In the regions ""Timur was notably lax at establishing effective and loyal governments ... conquered lands had their own governing bodies ... he was content to leave them be."" §REF§ (Starr 2013) Frederick S. Starr. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton. §REF§ However, (presumably closer to the center of the polity in Central Asia) there was governor or mayor called darugha §REF§ (Marozzi 2004, 141) J Marozzi. 2004. Tamerlane. HarperCollinsPublishers. London. §REF§ who owed his authority directly to the Timurid amir. §REF§ (Marozzi 2004, 205) J Marozzi. 2004. Tamerlane. HarperCollinsPublishers. London. §REF§ Timur's descendants divided some of the Timurid territories into provinces, including Samarkand and Bukhara. §REF§ (Khan 2003, 35) A Khan. 2003. A Historical Atlas of Uzbekistan. The Rosen Publishing Group. §REF§
Uzbek nomads eventually conquered the feuding provinces of the Timurid Empire. §REF§ (Khan 2003, 35) A Khan. 2003. A Historical Atlas of Uzbekistan. The Rosen Publishing Group. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",23.0,Sogdiana,Turkestan,66.938170000000,39.631284000000,Samarkand,UZ,Uzbekistan,Central Eurasia,13,Turkestan,"Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
580,bo_titicaca_early_pacajes,1150,1450,Titicaca Basin - Early Pacajes phase,bo_titicaca_early_pacajes,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,32,Andes,From Ecuador to Chile,"{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}"
230,DzTlmcn,1235,1554,Tlemcen,dz_tlemcen,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,3,Maghreb,From Morocco to Libya,"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
467,AfTochr,-129,29,Tocharians,af_tocharian,LEGACY,"The period of Sogdian and Bactrian history between the disintegration of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom in the late 2nd century BCE and the rise of the Kushan Empire in the 1st century CE is poorly understood. The region was politically fragmented and the local settled populations were subjected to nomadic invasions, notably by a group of pastoralists and traders known to us by their Chinese name, Yuezhi. §REF§ (Benjamin 2006) Benjamin, Craig. 2006. ""The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia."" In Ēran Ud Anērān: Studies Presented to Boris Ilich Marshak on the Occasion of His 70th Birthday, edited by Matteo Compareti, Paola Raffeta, and Gianroberto Scarcia, Electronic version. Transoxiana Webfestschrift Series I. http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/benjamin.html. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KEWTMPWX. §REF§ §REF§ (Liu 2001, 264-65) Liu, Xinru. 2001. ""Migration and Settlement of the Yuezhi-Kushan: Interaction and Interdependence of Nomadic and Sedentary Societies."" Journal of World History 12 (2): 261-92. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QZA3GBJ7. §REF§ The Yuezhi are also sometimes referred to as 'Tochari' by scholars who believe they spoke a Tocharian language, part of an extinct Indo-European language group. §REF§ (Benjamin 2006) Benjamin, Craig. 2006. ""The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia."" In Ēran Ud Anērān: Studies Presented to Boris Ilich Marshak on the Occasion of His 70th Birthday, edited by Matteo Compareti, Paola Raffeta, and Gianroberto Scarcia, Electronic version. Transoxiana Webfestschrift Series I. http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/benjamin.html. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KEWTMPWX. §REF§ (Others argue that their original language was eastern Iranic or proto-Turkic.) §REF§ (Hill 2009, 312) Hill, John E. 2009. Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. An Annotated Translation of the Chronicle on the ""Western Regions"" from the Hou Hanshu. Charleston, SC: BookSurge Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/67NGJHIK. §REF§
In the mid-1st millennium BCE and perhaps even earlier, the Yuezhi were living on the steppes to the north of China. §REF§ (Liu 2001, 264-65) Liu, Xinru. 2001. ""Migration and Settlement of the Yuezhi-Kushan: Interaction and Interdependence of Nomadic and Sedentary Societies."" Journal of World History 12 (2): 261-92. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QZA3GBJ7. §REF§ However, after coming into conflict with other nomadic groups, the Xiongnu and Wusun, they migrated towards Sogdiana. §REF§ (Benjamin 2006) Benjamin, Craig. 2006. ""The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia."" In Ēran Ud Anērān: Studies Presented to Boris Ilich Marshak on the Occasion of His 70th Birthday, edited by Matteo Compareti, Paola Raffeta, and Gianroberto Scarcia, Electronic version. Transoxiana Webfestschrift Series I. http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/benjamin.html. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KEWTMPWX. §REF§ By 129 BCE, when the Han Chinese diplomat Zhang Qian visited the Yuezhi court on the Oxus river, they were ruling over a region that included parts of the old Hellenistic Greco-Bactrian kingdom. §REF§ (Liu 2001, 264-65) Liu, Xinru. 2001. ""Migration and Settlement of the Yuezhi-Kushan: Interaction and Interdependence of Nomadic and Sedentary Societies."" Journal of World History 12 (2): 261-92. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QZA3GBJ7. §REF§
In the early 1st century CE, the first Kushan king, Kujula Kadphises, seized power and began ruling over south-eastern Sogdiana, marking the end of our Yuezhi period. §REF§ (Hill 2009, 345) Hill, John E. 2009. Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. An Annotated Translation of the Chronicle on the ""Western Regions"" from the Hou Hanshu. Charleston, SC: BookSurge Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/67NGJHIK. §REF§ Kujula Kadphises was probably a member of one of five Yuezhi factions or subtribes, which he succeeded in unifying through military conquest, §REF§ (Hill 2009, 345) Hill, John E. 2009. Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. An Annotated Translation of the Chronicle on the ""Western Regions"" from the Hou Hanshu. Charleston, SC: BookSurge Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/67NGJHIK. §REF§ but even this is disputed.
Population and political organization
The Yuezhi in Bactria and Sogdiana seem to have been organized into a federation of five tribes that competed for political supremacy in the new territory. §REF§ (Liu 2001, 272) Liu, Xinru. 2001. ""Migration and Settlement of the Yuezhi-Kushan: Interaction and Interdependence of Nomadic and Sedentary Societies."" Journal of World History 12 (2): 261-92. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QZA3GBJ7. §REF§ There is no written or numismatic evidence of a centralized Yuezhi state with a single paramount ruler before the rise of Kujula Kadphises. §REF§ (Hill 2009, 345) Hill, John E. 2009. Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. An Annotated Translation of the Chronicle on the ""Western Regions"" from the Hou Hanshu. Charleston, SC: BookSurge Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/67NGJHIK. §REF§ Historian Craig Benjamin has characterized Yuezhi control over the sedentary population of northern Bactria and Sogdia as that of a militarily superior ruling dynasty of nomads, 'pastoralist conquerors' whose 'nominal sovereignty' was acknowledged by the locals because they feared violence if they refused to submit. §REF§ (Benjamin 2006) Benjamin, Craig. 2006. ""The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia."" In Ēran Ud Anērān: Studies Presented to Boris Ilich Marshak on the Occasion of His 70th Birthday, edited by Matteo Compareti, Paola Raffeta, and Gianroberto Scarcia, Electronic version. Transoxiana Webfestschrift Series I. http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/benjamin.html. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KEWTMPWX. §REF§
Secure estimates for the combined population of the ruling Yuezhi and the settled population under their control in this period are lacking.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",23.0,Sogdiana,Turkestan,66.938170000000,39.631284000000,Samarkand,UZ,Uzbekistan,Central Eurasia,8,Afghanistan,Afghanistan,"{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
152,JpTokgw,1603,1868,Tokugawa Shogunate,jp_tokugawa_shogunate,LEGACY,"The Tokugawa period, also known as the Edo period, ran from 1603 to 1868 CE. Sometimes the slightly earlier start date of 1600 is chosen in recognition of Tokugawa Ieyasu's decisive victory at the Battle of Sekigahara; however, we have selected the 1603 date, which marks his official appointment as shogun. Although the emperor remained the official head of state, the Tokugawa shoguns ruled Japan. The rise to power of the Tokugawa Shogunate marked an end to the internal strife and warfare that had characterized the preceding century. Tokugawa Ieyasu and his immediate successors set about limiting the power of their rivals and instituting new policies aimed at maintaining stability and centralizing Japan's government. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 54) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§
The 'peak' of the Tokugawa period corresponds to the years between 1688 and 1704 CE, known as the Genroku period, which saw the development of a distinct urban culture and the proliferation of art, theatre and fiction. §REF§ (Totman 1993, 280) Conrad Totman. 1993. Early Modern Japan. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ During the early modern period the Japanese polity consisted of three major islands: Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku. §REF§ (Totman 1993, 3-4) Conrad Totman. 1993. Early Modern Japan. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§
Eventually, economic difficulties and the threat of Western encroachment helped to bring about the end of the Tokugawa Shogunate. The period came to an end with the resignation of the last Tokugawa shogun in 1867 and the imperial restoration in 1868. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 12) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
The Tokugawa shogunate built on the work of the generals Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582 CE) and Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598 CE), who between 1568 and 1590 succeeded in uniting all the daimyō (local military lords) under the command of a military leader into a 'national confederation'. §REF§ (Hall 2008, 1) John Whitney Hall. 2008. 'Introduction', in The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 4: Early Modern Japan, edited by Kozo Yamamura, 1-39. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Theoretically, the daimyō maintained administrative authority in their own territories, but in practice they were expected to follow the guidance of the shogunate. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Tokugawa Ieyasu and his successors pursued a policy of 'orthodoxy and stability', §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ aimed at consolidating their own power and limiting the ability of their rivals to amass enough power or wealth to enable them to challenge the shogunate. The success of these policies enabled the Tokugawa family to preside over a period of peace and prosperity and rule Japan for the next 268 years. §REF§ (Hall 2008, 6) John Whitney Hall. 2008. 'Introduction', in The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 4: Early Modern Japan, edited by Kozo Yamamura, 1-39. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ As well as peace, political stability and the centralization of power by the shoguns, the Tokugawa period was characterized by economic prosperity, rising urbanization and the closings of Japan's borders to the wider world in the 1630s. §REF§ (Hall 2008, 1, 6) John Whitney Hall. 2008. 'Introduction', in The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 4: Early Modern Japan, edited by Kozo Yamamura, 1-39. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
Theoretically, class was determined by birth and social mobility was prohibited. Influenced by Chinese models, the social order was formalized and essentially frozen in a hierarchy known as shi-nō-kō-shō, 'warrior-peasant-artisan-merchant'. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Despite the shogunate's concerted attempts to maintain a strict social orthodoxy, however, the stable and economically prosperous conditions led to a range of social changes, including increasing urbanization and the rise of the merchant class, who (although they were theoretically socially inferior) now held much of the country's wealth. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Now that there was no need for the majority of those of samurai rank to be actively engaged in military activities, the warrior class became bureaucratized, a development that went hand-in-hand with a romanticization of the warrior ideal and the codification of proper rules of behaviour. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§
During the Tokugawa period, population censuses were carried out. However, they did not take all members of the population into account and various scholars have therefore used supplementary data to produce what they hope are more accurate estimates. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 63) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Estimates for the beginning of the period (1600 CE) range from around 15 §REF§ (Farris 2006, 212) William Wayne Farris. 2006. Japan's Medieval Population: Famine, Fertility, and Warfare in a Transformative Age. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. §REF§ to 22 §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 181) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. London: Penguin Books. §REF§ million. The population rose to around 30 million by the end of the period. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 181) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. London: Penguin Books. §REF§ §REF§ (Totman 1993, 251) Conrad Totman. 1993. Early Modern Japan. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",21.0,Kansai,Northeast Asia,135.762200000000,35.025280000000,Kyoto,JP,Japan,East Asia,14,Northeast Asia,"Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
14,MxToltc,900,1199,Toltecs,mx_toltec,LEGACY,"The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the period when the Basin was under the control of a city known as Tula (c. 900-1199 CE). Some scholars have argued that Tula corresponded to Tollan, the capital of the Toltecs; according to the Aztecs as well as other Mesoamerican sources, the Toltecs were the Aztec's hegemonic predecessors in the region. §REF§ (Healan and Cobean 2012: 372) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FZJZ92TE. §REF§ Tula itself had up to 60,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to E. Cioni and G. Nazzaro) §REF§ The Basin of Mexico experienced an increase in the number of settlements, and archaeological data suggest that the rural population had access to the same material goods and trading networks as Tula. §REF§ (Healan and Cobean 2012: 377) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FZJZ92TE. §REF§
There is no evidence that Tula was the capital of an empire, but it is clear that its influence extended beyond the confines of the Basin of Mexico, and that it extracted food and other revenue from its surrounding region. The city's many buildings with large halls and evidence for feasts and other types of large gatherings, as well as depictions of processions, suggest that, perhaps like Teotihuacan, it may have relied on an administrative system wherein power was distributed among different sectors of society. §REF§ (Healan and Cobean 2012: 380) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FZJZ92TE. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",27.0,Basin of Mexico,Mexico,-99.130000000000,19.430000000000,Ciudad de Mexico,MX,Mexico,North America,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
684,Toro,1830,1896,Toro,ug_toro_k,POL_AFR_EAST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
625,zi_torwa_rozvi,1494,1850,Torwa-Rozvi,zi_torwa_rozvi,POL_AFR_SA,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,6,Southern Africa,"Namibia, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique and south","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
623,zi_toutswe,700,1250,Toutswe,zi_toutswe,POL_AFR_SA,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,6,Southern Africa,"Namibia, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique and south","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
638,so_tunni_sultanate,800,1200,Tunni Sultanate,so_tunni_sultanate,POL_AFR_EAST,"The Tunni Sultanate was a Somalian Sultanate that originated sometime in the nineth century CE on the Benadir Coast. The Tunni Sultanate had established its capital at Qoryooley. §REF§ (Mukhtar 2003, 50) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2003. Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/J8WZB6VI/collection §REF§ The Tunni Sultanate was one of the first groups in Somalia to embrace Islam. The language spoken within the Sultanate was a local language called Af-Maay, while inscriptions from the twelfth century CE suggest that some within the Sultante knew the Arabic language. §REF§ (Mukhtar 2003, 50) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2003. Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/J8WZB6VI/collection §REF§; §REF§ (Tamrat 2008, 137) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/search/tam/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list §REF§ The Sultanate ended sometime within the thirteenth century CE.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
276,CnTuyhn,300,663,Tuyuhun,cn_tuyuhun,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,9,Mongolia,"Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
782,BdBhuyans,1538,1612,Twelve Bhuyans,bd_twelve_bhuyans,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,37,Eastern South Asia,"Bangladesh + Indian states of West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and Sikkim","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
473,IqUbaid,-5500,-4201,Ubaid,iq_ubaid,LEGACY,"The name of 'Ubaid polity' derives from the archaeological site - Tell al-Ubaid located about six km west of Ur along the Euphrates River in Southern Iraq. This socio-cultural entity is characterized by homogeneous material culture, mainly pottery ('black-on-buff pottery'). However the Ubaid is defined and perceived in various ways, e.gas archaeological culture, chronological period, cultural phenomenon, pottery style, 'oikumene' or interaction sphere. Among other elements of material culture typical for the Ubaid, the researchers mention usually the usage of flanged disc ('labrets'), clay nails and bent clay mullers, 'ophidian' figurines, stone mace-heads, tripartite architecture, niches-and-butressed public building as well as communal cemeteries with standardized grave goods. This period is often perceived as a first stage of development through complex urban society and the processes such as gradually urbanization of the settlement, social stratification as well as appearance of simple specialized manufacturing (especially agricultural, pottery making, weaving and wool production). §REF§ Yamazaki 2010, 326 §REF§ . Nowadays most of the researchers accepted the hypothesis regarding existence of elite class from at least the Late Ubaid period. It is embedded on five main arguments: usage of seals (called sometimes 'administrative tools'), erection of public buildings such as temples, two-tiered settlement pattern, mass production of some type of vessels (e. g. crude bowls), and production of high class of painted pottery used as a luxury goods. They believed that the system of increasing power of some group was intentionally masked by elite, therefore the presence of prestige objects or luxury goods is rather infrequent. There is presumed that the Ubaid depended rather on staple finance instead of wealth finance. Hence, there are very little traces of use of prestige goods or luxury items. §REF§ Kennedy 2012, 130 §REF§ , §REF§ Özbal 2010b, 43-44 §REF§ , §REF§ Stein 1994 §REF§ , §REF§ Frangipane 2007, 151-176 §REF§ , §REF§ Stein 1994, 41 §REF§ However there are also some rare voices opting for egalitarian system of the Ubaid society, e. g. Akkermans, Forest, Hole. §REF§ Akkermans 1989, 339-367 §REF§ , §REF§ Hole 1983, 315-334 §REF§ , §REF§ Oates et al. 2007, 585-600. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",8.0,Southern Mesopotamia,Levant-Mesopotamia,44.420000000000,32.470000000000,Babylon (Hillah),IQ,Iraq,Southwest Asia,62,Mesopotamia,"Iraq, Kuwait","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
286,MnUigur,745,840,Uigur Khaganate,mn_uygur_khaganate,LEGACY,"The Orkhon Valley lies either side of the Orkhon River, in north-central Mongolia. Between the 740s and the 840s, this region was controlled by the Uighur khaganate, notably one of only two polities ever to adopt Manichaeism as the official state cult. §REF§ Werner Sundermann, ""MANICHEISM i. GENERAL SURVEY,"" Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, 2009, available at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/manicheism-1-general-survey (accessed on 25 August 2016). §REF§ The Uighur khaganate was relatively centralized, and included a tax collection system, but leaders often served both civil and military functions, and local rulers often enjoyed considerable autonomy. §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 226) §REF§
No population estimates specific to this polity could be found in the literature, though, according to McEvedy and Jones, at that time Mongolia and Siberia together likely had a population of no more than 500,000. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978) McEvedy, Colin. Jones, Richard. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd. London. §REF§
",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",24.0,Orkhon Valley,Mongolia,102.845486000000,47.200757000000,Karakorum,MN,Mongolia,Central Eurasia,9,Mongolia,"Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
131,SyCalUm,661,750,Umayyad Caliphate,sy_umayyad_cal,LEGACY,"The Umayyad Caliphate was formed in 661 CE by Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan following the assassination of Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib, the cousin of the Prophet Muhammad. §REF§ (Madelung 1997, 108, 297) Wilferd Madelung. 1997. The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ It ended with the defeat of the Umayyads by the Abbasids in the Third Fitna (a series of Muslim civil wars) in 750 CE. §REF§ (Esposito, ed. 2003, 691) John L. Esposito, ed. 2003. The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The Ummayad Caliphs, based in Damascus in Syria, ruled a large territory stretching from the Near East all the way through North Africa and into southern Spain.
Population and political organization
The caliph was a tribal patriarch and head of the ummah, the entire Islamic community. The central government of the Umayyad Caliphate was almost non-existent at the start of the period but entered a more developed stage in the mid-8th century. One of the reasons for this lack of central administration was the exceptionally successful Arab-Muslim army combined with the existence of functioning bureaucracies in the former Sassanid and Byzantine domains, which were left largely intact. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 55) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Thus, under Muawiya - the first Ummayad Caliph - the ruler was 'surrounded by Arab chiefs' with no other central administration. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 80-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ At Damascus, an administrative system staffed by permanent officials §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 36-38) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ dates from the reigns of al-Malik (685-705 CE) and al-Walid (705-715 CE). §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 80-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
The caliphs, from their residence in Damascus (661-744 CE) and then Harran (744-750 CE), employed a chamberlain to manage visitors and regulate daily affairs, §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 80-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and maintained an office of the chancery §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 50-51) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ with officials called diwans to manage the collection of taxes and payment of salaries. §REF§ (Kennedy 2001, 88) Hugh N. Kennedy. 2001. The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State. London: Routledge. §REF§ In order to impose their authority over the provinces, which had a combined population of up to 33 million, §REF§ (Blankinship 1994, 37-38) Khalid Y. Blankinship. 1994. The End of the Jihad State: The Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd Al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. §REF§ the Umayyads typically sent civil and military governors (amel and amir). §REF§ (Lambton 2011) Ann K. S. Lambton. 2011. 'Cities iii: Administration and Social Organization', in Encyclopedia Iranica V/6, 607-23; an updated version is available online at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii (accessed 2 April 2017). §REF§ In the regions they conquered, the Ummayads had no choice but to use the resident staff because institutions to train and educate bureaucrats had not yet developed in the Arab Muslim context. In Egypt, for the first century of Umayyad rule, 'all the provincial officials were Christians'. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 17) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The Umayyad Caliphate was thus an exceptionally multicultural empire with a diverse governmental and cultural heritage.
This diversity was reflected in the number of languages spoken across the territory conquered by Muslims: from Basque in the far west to Berber and African Romance languages along the southern shores of the Mediterranean, and Aramaic, Turkic, Hebrew, Armenian and Kurdish in the east. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 126) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. A History of Islamic Societies. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The use of Arabic as an administrative language began in Iraq in 697 CE, but spread outwards to Syria, Egypt and, by 700 CE, Khurasan in modern-day northeastern Iran. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 36-38) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In Egypt, the adoption of Arabic as the language of local government took over 100 years; initially, almost all papyruses were written in Greek. The first known bilingual Greek-Arabic document dates to 643 CE, and the last to 719. The earliest known Egyptian document written exclusively in Arabic is dated to 709 CE, and Greek was still being used up until 780 CE. §REF§ (Raymond 2000, 23) André Raymond. 2000. Cairo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§",,JR: edited long name from Ummayad to Umayyad,,2024-03-27T09:30:27.298805Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",8.0,Southern Mesopotamia,Levant-Mesopotamia,44.420000000000,32.470000000000,Babylon (Hillah),IQ,Iraq,Southwest Asia,61,Levant,"Israel/Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
745,sv_united_k_sweden_and_norway,1816,1905,United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway,sv_united_k_sweden_and_norway,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,17,Northern Europe,"Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
729,mx_united_mexican_states_1,1821,1917,United Mexican States I,mx_united_mexican_states_1,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,23,Mexico,Mexico,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
592,us_united_states_of_america_contemporary,1934,2020,United States of America - Contemporary,us_united_states_of_america_contemporary,LEGACY,,,,,2023-10-18T14:26:56.546744Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,22,East Coast,East Coast of US,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
477,IqUrIII,-2112,-2004,Ur - Dynasty III,iq_ur_dyn_3,LEGACY,"The founder of the Third Dynasty of Ur was Ur-Nammu who probably came from Uruk, however he was a military commander (šagina) of Ur, and later its independent ruler who conducted victorious fights with the Gutians and took by force other lands of Sumer and consolidated the whole Akkad and Sumer. Moreover, he also conquered Elam and even reached Susa. His political power was related not only to his conquest, but mainly to his cultural and legislative activities. He was a builder of few great temples and was a lawgiver of one of the oldest 'code' called Code of Ur-Nammu. §REF§ Stępień 2009, 11-12 §REF§ His son - Shulgi continued father's politics and he ""reorganized system and territorial administrative structure, but also much enlarged its lands and increased international prestige, turning it into a dominant power of the region."" §REF§ Stępień 2009, 16 §REF§ He seized among other Simurrum, Lullubum, Kimaš, Hurti, Karahar, Šašrum, Harši. He used the political marriages and various alliances as well to cement his state (e. g. his daughters married the ruler of Marhaši and the ensi of Anshan). Two sons of Shulgi reigned 9 years each - Amar-Sin(Amar-Suen)and Shu-Sin(Su-Suen). Amar-Suen led few victorious campaigns against Urbilum, Šašrum and Hurrians. Su-Suen fight against Amorites, however his strategy was more defensive than offensive. The last king from this dynasty -Ibbi-Sin was less successful in fights with Amorites, Gutians and Elamites. After he was betrayed by the governor of Isin named Ishbi- Irra, the Ur became much weaker. Eventually the city of Ur was captured and looted in 2010 and Ibbi-Sin lost his throne and was transported to Susa. Generally speaking, the Ur III period is perceived as a flowering time when many significant changes took place, especially on the field of literature, culture and architecture. However, many important transformation concerning administration, army as well as the position of the ruler were happened. Ur is described often in the literature as ""the centralized bureaucratic state"" §REF§ Ur 2014, 256 §REF§ with many civil servants and elaborated administration structures. According to Jason Ur: ""The kings of Ur created centralized temple and above all royal administrative systems, and attempted to resuscitate a Sumerian identity. §REF§ Ur 2013, 143 §REF§ The state of Ur consisted of three main zones: core, periphery and vassal territories. The core encompasses lands of Sumer and Akkad and it includes 18 provinces. The peripheral areas are defined as the land which were attached by Shulgi (in a consequence of his military activity) such as eastern Iraq, the western provinces of Kurdistan, Luristan, Khuzestan. The third zone, so called ""sphere of influence"" included vassal states. §REF§ Stępień 2009, 55-60 §REF§ Besides its military achievements, the marital alliances were often used tool to establish or broaden the power of Ur's kings.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",8.0,Southern Mesopotamia,Levant-Mesopotamia,44.420000000000,32.470000000000,Babylon (Hillah),IQ,Iraq,Southwest Asia,62,Mesopotamia,"Iraq, Kuwait","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
344,TrUrart,-1200,-710,Urartu Kingdom,tr_urartu_k,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,43,Anatolia-Caucasus,"Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
474,IqUruk*,-4000,-2900,Uruk,iq_uruk,LEGACY,"The name of this polity derives from the site of Uruk (modern Warka) located c. 35 km east from the Euphrates River, in south Iraq. This period is perceived as a time of deep transformations and significant inventions (such as wheel, fast wheel, plough, using alloys - bronze, writing system, etc.). There is very little known about the people living in Mesopotamia during that time (so-called Sumerian problem). There are some voices suggesting that Uruk population might have been identified as Sumerians, however there is no direct evidence to support this hypothesis. On the contrary, there is a lack of traces of invasion or appearance of completely new group of people. There is rather highlighted undisturbed continuation between previous polities, such as Ubaid and Uruk, and endurance of some cultural patterns, which are especially visible in architecture (construction of temples at Eridu or Uruk). §REF§ Roux 1998, 75-78 §REF§ , §REF§ Crawford 2004, 16-18 §REF§ , §REF§ Kuhr 1997, 22-23 §REF§ The nature of relations between Mesopotamia and Susiana land in this period deserves the special attention. There are few main ideas regarding the relationships between these two geographical areas. According to Algaze, the Susiana was colonized by group of people from southern Mesopotamia in the Uruk period and he indicates cultural homogeneity these two lands in Uruk period. §REF§ Algaze 1993, 15-17 §REF§ The opposite opinion is presented by Amiet, who suggested that Susiana was inhabited by two different 'ethnic' group (so called - 'Elamite' and 'Mesopotamian' type). The culture of this land, hence, was seen as some kind of hybrid and the alternately appearance of 'Elamite' or 'Mesopotamian' cultural elements is related to some sort of 'fashion' or 'trends'. §REF§ Amiet 1979 §REF§ , §REF§ Amiet 1992: 80 §REF§ The Uruk polity is perceived by Algaze as some kind of proto-state organism and he describes it as “an early instance of an ""informal empire"" or ""world system"" based on asymmetrical exchange and a hierarchically organized international division of labour that differs from modern examples only in degree.” §REF§ Algaze 1989, 571 §REF§ He emphasizes very rapid and intense cultural growth of Uruk polity and he considers few types of Uruk expansions: “(1)new form of spatial distribution: the growth of cities and their dependencies; (2)new form of socio-political organization: the explosive growth of social differentiation, the emergence of encumbered labour, and the crystallization of the state; (3) new forms of economic arrangements and of record keeping: state control of a substantial portion of the means of production and of its surplus, craft and occupational specialization on an industrial scale; and, finally, (4)the new forms of symbolic representation needed to validate the changes taking place in the realm of social and political relationship-leading to the creation of an artistic tradition and iconographical repertoire that were to set the framework for pictorial representation in Mesopotamia for millennium to come.” §REF§ Algaze 1989, 590-91 §REF§ There are many hypotheses regarding the political system of Uruk polity. Most of the researchers (e. g. Frangipane, Rothman, Pollock, Wright) perceived the Uruk polity as some kind of united (in cultural sense) community which shares number of features (particularly in material culture) and they represent some early stage of city-state organization with dominant position of some cities and the group of elite. §REF§ Nissen 2001, 161 §REF§ , §REF§ Pollock 2001, 181-233 §REF§ However, other archaeologists believed (e. g. Algaze) that some cities have been already ruled by one person - ruler which collected all political, religious and military power. There are many images of this person on seals, sealing, vase, furniture inlays where he is showed as a warrior, bearded man in cap, hunter and master of animals. Algaze even writes: “comparison with inscribed statues of later Sumerian rulers in strikingly similar poses leaves no doubt that the analogous Uruk-period images are stylized and standardized representations of kings.” §REF§ Algaze 2001, 34 §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",8.0,Southern Mesopotamia,Levant-Mesopotamia,44.420000000000,32.470000000000,Babylon (Hillah),IQ,Iraq,Southwest Asia,62,Mesopotamia,"Iraq, Kuwait","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
575,us_united_states_of_america_reconstruction,1866,1933,Us Reconstruction-Progressive,us_united_states_of_america_reconstruction,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,22,East Coast,East Coast of US,"{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}"
398,InUtpal,855,1003,Utpala Dynasty,in_utpala_dyn,LEGACY,,,,,2023-11-14T13:38:17.611550Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,64,North India,"Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
90,InVakat,255,550,Vakataka Kingdom,in_vakataka_k,LEGACY,"The Vakataka dynasty ruled over the central Indian region of Vidarbha and surrounding areas between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE. This polity was founded by King Vindhyasakti in around 255 CE, reached its zenith around 510, and had been replaced by the Chalukya polity by the mid-6th century. §REF§ (Majumbar and Altekar 1946, 44, 123) Ramesh Chandra Majumdar and Anant Sadashiv Altekar. 1986. Vakataka - Gupta Age circa 200-550 A.D. Benares: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. §REF§ The Vakataka period was characterized by the establishment of a centrally ruling authority, agrarian expansion, and the revival of Hinduism, aided by an increase in royal land grants assigned for religious purposes and the construction of new temples. §REF§ (Sawant 2009) Reshma Sawant. 2008. 'State Formation Process in the Vidarbha during the Vakataka Period'. Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute 68-69: 137-62. §REF§
Population and political organization
The Vakataka polity was ruled by a king. §REF§ (Sawant 2009, 145) Reshma Sawant. 2008. 'State Formation Process in the Vidarbha during the Vakataka Period'. Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute 68-69: 137-62. §REF§ Inscriptions suggest that he was aided at court by ministers and administrative personnel, including revenue officers, and in the provinces by a hierarchy of provincial and local authorities. §REF§ (Sawant 2009) Reshma Sawant. 2008. 'State Formation Process in the Vidarbha during the Vakataka Period'. Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute 68-69: 137-62. §REF§
No population estimates for this period could be found in the specialist literature.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",15.0,Deccan,Central India,76.625407000000,15.386856000000,Kampli,DEC,India,South Asia,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
211,DzVandal,429,534,Vandal Kingdom,dz_vandal_k,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,3,Maghreb,From Morocco to Libya,"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
794,in_vanga_k,550,600,Vanga Dynasty,in_vanga_k,OTHER_TAG,,,,2023-12-07T16:17:14.908726Z,2025-04-15T09:35:23.122079Z,"{'id': 53, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,37,Eastern South Asia,"Bangladesh + Indian states of West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and Sikkim","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
375,CnBaiyu,-332,-109,Viet Baiyu Kingdom,cn_viet_baiyu_k,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,41,Mainland Southeast Asia,"Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam","{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}"
97,InVijay,1336,1646,Vijayanagara Empire,in_vijayanagara_emp,LEGACY,"The Vijayanagara Empire ruled over southern India: specifically, it comprised an area roughly equivalent to the modern-day Indian states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 329) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ This polity could be said to have been founded with the establishment of the fortified city of Vijayanagara itself in 1340, and it fragmented into many smaller polities roughly three hundred years later, due to both civil wars and incursions from Islamic polities to the North. §REF§ (Stein 1990, 2, 13) Burton Stein. 1990. The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Under Vijayanagara rule, architecture flourished (many temples were built or rebuilt, and the first permanent non-religious buildings, including royal palaces, were constructed), trade and agriculture boomed, new towns were founded, and new notions of legal rights emerged. §REF§ (Stein 1990, xii, 2) Burton Stein. 1990. The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
As with most preceding South Indian polities, the Vijayanagara ruler sat at the top of both administrative and military hierarchies. §REF§ (Majumdar, Raychaudhuri and Datta 1974, 373) R. C. Majumdar, H. C. Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta. 1974. An Advanced History of India. Delhi: Macmillan India. §REF§ He was assisted at court by several ministers, and in the provinces by governors. §REF§ (Majumdar, Raychaudhuri and Datta 1974, 373-74) R. C. Majumdar, H. C. Raychaudhuri, Kalikinkar Datta. 1974. An Advanced History of India. Delhi: Macmillan India. §REF§
Assuming that the entire population of the Indian subcontinent at this time equalled 150 million, it seems reasonable to estimate that the population of the Vijayanagara empire was about 25 million. §REF§ (Stein 1990, 44) Burton Stein. 1990. The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Burton Stein estimates that the city of Vijayanagara at its height in the 16th century had over 100,000 inhabitants, §REF§ (Stein 1990, 75) Burton Stein. 1990. The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ while Carla Sinopoli believes the population could have been over 250,000. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2000, 370) Carla Sinopoli. 2000. 'From the Lion Throne: Political and Social Dynamics of the Vijayanagara Empire'. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 43 (3): 364-98. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",15.0,Deccan,Central India,76.625407000000,15.386856000000,Kampli,DEC,India,South Asia,40,Southern India,"Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
878,dk_viking_settlements,793,1000,Viking settlements,dk_viking_settlements,OTHER_TAG,"This polity refers to the Norse settlements in Scandinavia up to the formation of the kingdoms of Sweden, Norway and Denmark, as well as Norse settlements in Iceland (before 930 CE, the foundation of the Icelandic Commonwealth), Greenland, Newfoundland, the Baltic, Russia, Scotland and Ireland, and northern France. It excludes the Danelaw in England, which is coded in a different polity.",Viking City-States,,2024-05-06T09:41:16.009762Z,2024-05-06T09:41:16.009778Z,,,,,,,,,,,17,Northern Europe,"Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
303,EsVisigoth,418,711,Visigothic Kingdom,es_visigothic_k,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
325,RuVldSz,1157,1331,Vladimir-Suzdal,ru_vladimir_suzdal,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,16,Eastern Europe,"Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
318,BgVolga,965,1236,Volga Kingdom,bg_volga_k,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,19,Southeastern Europe,"Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
80,PeWari*,650,999,Wari Empire,pe_wari_emp,LEGACY,"Following a period of regionalization known as the Early Intermediate Period, two polities came to dominate the Andes. Tiwanaku (Tihuanaco, Tihuanacu) extended from its core on the southern shore of Lake Titicaca to the highlands of western Bolivia, northern Chile and southern Peru. §REF§ (Stanish 2003, 290) Charles Stanish. 2003. Ancient Titicaca: The Evolution of Complex Society in Southern Peru and Northern Bolivia. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Meanwhile, the Wari (Huari) polity may have controlled an area incorporating much of the Peruvian coast and highlands. §REF§ (Bergh 2012, xiv-xv) Susan Bergh. 2012. Wari: Lords of the Ancient Andes. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§
These two spheres of influence appear to have been united by a religious belief focusing on the cult of a 'staff deity'. §REF§ (Cook 2012, 65) Anita G. Cook. 2012. 'The Coming of the Staff Deity', in Wari: Lords of the Ancient Andes, edited by Susan Bergh, 103-21. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ §REF§ (Cook 2001, 158) Anita G. Cook. 2001. 'Huari D-Shaped Structures, Sacrificial Offerings, and Divine Rulership', in Ritual Sacrifice in Ancient Peru, edited by E. P. Benson and A. G. Cook, 137-63. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. §REF§ This is manifest in the iconography of both polities, together forming the 'Middle Horizon', a period characterized by the substantial spread of uniform material culture across this large territory between the 7th and the 11th centuries CE. §REF§ (Isbell 2008, 731-73) William H. Isbell. 2008. 'Wari and Tiwanaku: International Identities in the Central Andean Middle Horizon', in Handbook of South American Archaeology, edited by H. Silverman and W. Isbell, 731-60. New York: Springer. §REF§
The exact nature of the Wari phenomenon is debated. While some scholars are of the view that it was a centralized empire, others think it was a smaller state based in Ayacucho with small enclaves of power dispersed across the Andes. §REF§ (Covey et al. 2013, 538-52) Alan R. Covey, Brian S. Bauer, Véronique Bélisle and Lia Tsesmeli. 2013. 'Regional Perspectives on Wari State Influence in Cusco, Peru (c. AD 600-1000)'. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 32 (4): 538-52. §REF§ The empire hypothesis describes Wari as a 'mosaic of control': §REF§ (Schreiber 1992, 29) Katharina J. Schreiber. 1992. Wari Imperialism in Middle Horizon Peru. Ann Arbor, MI: Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan. §REF§ regions with Wari architecture may have been under direct Wari domination while large cities that only exhibit Wari pottery and textiles may have been autonomous polities whose ruling class closely cooperated with the Ayacucho polity.
Pikillacta in the Cuzco Valley is one of the most prominent Wari-controlled sites outside of its core in Ayacucho. §REF§ (McEwan 2005, 157-58) Gordon F. McEwan. 2005. 'Conclusion: The Functions of Pikillacta' in Pikillacta: The Wari Empire in Cuzco, edited by Gordon F. McEwan 147-64. Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa Press. §REF§ This planned settlement spreading over 47 ha follows a strictly enforced grid pattern regardless of the topography. §REF§ (Covey et al. 2013, 540) Alan R. Covey, Brian S. Bauer, Véronique Bélisle and Lia Tsesmeli. 2013. 'Regional Perspectives on Wari State Influence in Cusco, Peru (c. AD 600-1000)'. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 32 (4): 538-52. §REF§ The rectangular cells were interpreted variously as granaries, barracks or houses. §REF§ (McEwan and Couture 2005, 21-23) Gordon F. McEwan and Nicole Couture. 2005. 'Pikillacta and Its Architectural Typology', in Pikillacta: The Wari Empire in Cuzco, edited by Gordon F. McEwan, 11-28. Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa Press. §REF§ However, later excavations revealed that the city was composed of several interconnected sites performing different functions: there were administrative, ceremonial, residential, and defensive components. §REF§ (McEwan 1991, 99) Gordon F. McEwan. 1991. 'Investigations at the Pikillacta site: A Provincial Huari Centre in the Valley of Cuzco', in Huari Administrative Structure: Prehistoric Monumental Architecture and State Government, edited by W. H. Isbell and G. F. McEwan, 93-120. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. §REF§ This settlement appears to have been left unfinished and abandoned sometime before 1000 CE. §REF§ (Glowacki 2005, 123) Mary Glowacki. 2005. 'Dating Pikillacta', in Huari Administrative Structure: Prehistoric Monumental Architecture and State Government, edited by W. H. Isbell and G. F. McEwan, 115-24. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. §REF§ Beyond Pikillacta, the spread of Wari in the Cuzco Valley is limited, and local polities still controlled the western half of the valley. §REF§ Alan Covey 2017, personal communication §REF§
The capital of the Wari polity, also named 'Wari' or 'Huari', was more organically built: patios and galleries filled the empty spaces between compounds, and have been interpreted as elite residences and administrative buildings. §REF§ (Schreiber 2012, 36) Katharina Schreiber. 2012. 'The Rise of an Andean Empire', in Wari: Lords of the Ancient Andes, edited by Susan Bergh, 31-46. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ D-shaped ceremonial spaces were common in the capital but rare in the provinces, §REF§ (McEwan and Williams 2012, 67) Gordon F. McEwan and Patrick Ryan Williams. 2012. 'The Wari Built Environment: Landscape and Architecture of Empire', in Wari: Lords of the Ancient Andes, edited by Susan Bergh, 67-81. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ and may have hosted rituals and sacrifices, as suggested by the trophy heads found at Conchopata. §REF§ (Tung 2014, 246) Tiffiny A. Tung. 2014. 'Making Warriors, Making War: Violence and Militarism in the Wari Empire', in Embattled Bodies, Embattled Places: War in Pre-Columbian America, edited by A. K. Scherer and J. W. Verano, 229-58. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Library. §REF§
Population and political organization
Estimating the population under Wari control is problematic. The capital Huari, situated in the Ayacucho valley, stretched over 200-300 ha and may have housed between 30,000 §REF§ (McEwan and Williams 2012, 67) Gordon F. McEwan and Patrick Ryan Williams. 2012. 'The Wari Built Environment: Landscape and Architecture of Empire', in Wari: Lords of the Ancient Andes, edited by Susan Bergh, 67-81. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ and 70,000 people. §REF§ (Isbell et al. 1991, 99) William H. Isbell, Christine Brewster-Wray and Lynda E. Spickard. 1991. 'Architecture and Spatial Organization at Huari', in Huari Administrative Structure: Prehistoric Monumental Architecture and State Government, edited by W. H. Isbell and G. F. McEwan, 19-53. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. §REF§ Beyond Ayacucho, Wari architectural compounds only cover an area of a few hundred hectares; §REF§ (Covey et al. 2013, 538-52) Alan R. Covey, Brian S. Bauer, Véronique Bélisle and Lia Tsesmeli. 2013. 'Regional Perspectives on Wari State Influence in Cusco, Peru (c. AD 600-1000)'. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 32 (4): 538-52. §REF§ the total population under Wari control may have been limited to 100,000-500,000. §REF§ Alan Covey 2017, personal communication §REF§
Proponents of the empire hypothesis hold the view that Wari controlled a territory of 320,000 square kilometres, extending from the core near Ayacucho to its provinces in the north (Moche) and to the south near Cerro Baul (Moquegua). §REF§ (Schreiber 2012, 39) Katharina Schreiber. 2012. 'The Rise of an Andean Empire', in Wari: Lords of the Ancient Andes, edited by Susan Bergh, 31-46. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ Other interpretations are more cautious; as Wari remains have only been found in the Ayacucho valley and small pockets of control beyond the core, its total territory was in no way comparable to that of the later Inca Empire and may have covered 10,000-50,000 hectares at most. §REF§ Alan Covey 2017, personal communication §REF§
What is known from archaeological surveys, however, is that four or five tiers of settlement existed: the capital may have controlled colonies situated around the major administrative centres of Pikillacta, Viracochapampa and Conchopata (40-50 ha). §REF§ (McEwan 2005, 1) Gordon F. McEwan. 2005. 'Introduction: Pikillacta and the Wari Empire', in Pikillacta: The Wari Empire in Cuzco, edited by Gordon F. McEwan, 1-7. Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa Press. §REF§ On the third tier, towns such as Huaro, §REF§ (Glowacki 2012, 190) Mary Glowacki. 2012. 'Imperialismo en el Horizonte Medio: Una reevaluación del paradigma clásico, Cuzco, Perú'. Boletín de Arqueología PUCP 16: 189-207. §REF§ Batan Orqo, Cerro Baul, §REF§ (Moseley et al. 1991, 132) Michael E. Moseley, Robert A. Feldman, Paul S. Goldstein and Luis Watanabe. 1991. 'Colonies and Conquest: Tihuanaco and Huari in Moquegua', in Huari Administrative Structure: Prehistoric Monumental Architecture and State Government, edited by W. H. Isbell and G. F. McEwan, 121-40. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. §REF§ Jincamocco or Wari Willka may have been secondary centres (c. 10 hectares). Finally, villages and hamlets would have produced resources for these larger cities. §REF§ (Covey et al. 2013, 543) Alan R. Covey, Brian S. Bauer, Véronique Bélisle and Lia Tsesmeli. 2013. 'Regional Perspectives on Wari State Influence in Cusco, Peru (c. AD 600-1000)'. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 32 (4): 538-52. §REF§
In terms of political organisation, the Wari king may have held influence over client rulers or Wari nobles: royal tombs with Wari paraphernalia have been found at Huarmey in coastal Peru. §REF§ Alan Covey 2017, personal communication §REF§ The Wari may have also had a military hierarchy, as suggested by the ceramic depictions of warriors with distinctive face paint, arms, dress, and shield motifs. §REF§ (Arkush 2006, 502) Elizabeth Arkush. 2006. 'Collapse, Conflict, Conquest: The Transformation of Warfare in the Late Prehispanic Andean Highlands', in The Archaeology of Warfare: Prehistories of Raiding and Conquest, edited by E. Arkush and M. Allen, 286-335. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press. §REF§
The Wari left their stamp on technology and infrastructure in the Andes. Some archaeologists see them as the predecessors of the Incas, laying the foundations for the Inca road system; §REF§ (D'Altroy and Schreiber 2004, 269) Terence N. D'Altroy and Katherine Schreiber. 2004. 'Andean Empires', in Andean Archaeology, edited by H. Silverman, 255‒79. Oxford: Blackwell. §REF§ however, this hypothesis is disputed. §REF§ Alan Covey 2017, personal communication §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",30.0,Cuzco,Andes,-72.067772000000,-13.477380000000,Cuzco,PE,Peru,South America,32,Andes,From Ecuador to Chile,"{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}"
150,JpSengk,1467,1568,Warring States Japan,jp_sengoku_jidai,LEGACY,"During the Sengoku Period Japan was fought over by armies of samurau their nobles called the daimyo ('the great names'). The shogun became a prize to control and the capital at Kyoto was devastated by war. The period is also known as the Onin War and the Age of the Warring States (which translated into Japanese becomes the Sengoku jidai or Sengoku Period). §REF§ (Turnbull 2002) S Turnbull. 2002. War in Japan: 1467-1615. Osprey Publishing. §REF§
There was no central government. The daimyo, supported by their close kinsmen and vassals, often had an inner council to decide on matters of administration and military policy. Military administrators known as bugyo are known to have been employed in a non-fighting capacity.
The dominant territory (kokka) was not defined by the borders of the traditional kuni (province) and was split into fiefs which the daiymo either directly maintained or controlled through a vassal. At times the daimyo made alliances with each other in the quest for more power. §REF§ (Turnbull 2008) S Turnbull. 2008. Samurai Armies 1467-1649. Osprey Publishing. §REF§
Despite the turmoil the population during this period probably increased by five million over 100 years to about 20 million in 1568 CE.
",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",21.0,Kansai,Northeast Asia,135.762200000000,35.025280000000,Kyoto,JP,Japan,East Asia,14,Northeast Asia,"Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
787,ic_wattara_emp,1710,1895,Wattara Empire,ic_wattara_emp,OTHER_TAG,,,,2023-12-07T16:08:49.391117Z,2023-12-07T16:08:49.391130Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
240,MaWaFez,1465,1554,Wattasid,ma_wattasid_dyn,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,3,Maghreb,From Morocco to Libya,"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
547,CnWei3*,220,265,Wei Kingdom,cn_wei_k,LEGACY,,,,,2024-01-04T15:42:48.841702Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
752,de_weimar_rep,1918,1932,Weimar Republic,de_weimar_rep,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,15,Central Europe,"Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
619,bf_west_burkina_faso_red_1,701,1100,West Burkina Faso Red I,bf_west_burkina_faso_red_1,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
617,bf_west_burkina_faso_red_2,1100,1400,West Burkina Faso Red II and III,bf_west_burkina_faso_red_2,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
618,bf_west_burkina_faso_red_4,1401,1500,West Burkina Faso Red IV,bf_west_burkina_faso_red_4,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
613,bf_west_burkina_faso_yellow_5,100,500,West Burkina Faso Yellow I,bf_west_burkina_faso_yellow_5,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
622,bf_west_burkina_faso_yellow_6,501,700,West Burkina Faso Yellow II,bf_west_burkina_faso_yellow_6,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
251,CnWHan*,-202,9,Western Han Empire,cn_western_han_dyn,LEGACY,"The Western Han dynasty (also known as the Former Han) was the first lasting imperial dynasty in China.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH §REF§ In 206 BCE, the first imperial Han emperor Liu Bang defeated the Qin and capture the capital of Xianyang, but was forced to yield to the rival Western Chu state.§REF§ (San 2014, 69) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F) §REF§ A period of conflict between Chu and Han lasted until 202 BCE, when Liu Bang defeated the Western Chu and declared himself emperor of the Han dynasty. (San 68) He was the first commoner to become the emperor of China.§REF§ (San 2014, 69) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F) §REF§
The seventh emperor of Han, Emperor Wu (r. 141-87 BCE), expanded the Western Han territory to modern Xinjiang and south China.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH §REF§ During Wu Di’s rule Western Han dynasty encompassed modern China, northern Vietnam, Inner Mongolia, southern Manchuria, and parts of modern Korea.§REF§ -- “Han Dynasty.” Ancient History Encyclopedia.http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/ Accessed June 12, 2017. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW §REF§
The Western Han dynasty is known for its economic, technological, and artistic innovations. The opening of the Silk Road in 130 BCE linked China to Central Asia, Africa, Europe, and the Middle East.§REF§ -- “Han Dynasty.” Ancient History Encyclopedia.http://www.ancient.eu/Han_Dynasty/ Accessed June 12, 2017. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KVCUTKIW §REF§ The state controlled the production of salt, iron, and coins, and developed waterways and irrigation.§REF§(Theobald, 2010b) Theobald, Ulrich, 2010. “Han Period Science, Technology, and Inventions.” Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/ §REF§ The use of the iron plough and other iron agricultural tools became widespread.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010b) Theobald, Ulrich, 2010. “Han Period Science, Technology, and Inventions.” Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/ §REF§ Han artisans developed new techniques for metalwork, spinning, weaving, wood carving and pottery.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010b) Theobald, Ulrich, 2010. “Han Period Science, Technology, and Inventions.” Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han-tech.html Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RU33Q6WJ/ §REF§
The Western Han were overthrown by Wang Mang, who ruled as the emperor of the Xin dynasty from 9-23 CE.§REF§ (Roberts 1999, 34) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9 §REF§
Population and political organization
The Western Han dynasty was marked by a strong imperial government and a combination of centrally-controlled commandaries and semi-autonomous kingdoms.§REF§ (San 2014, 73) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F) §REF§ The central government promoted Confucianism as a state doctrine.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH §REF§ The Western Han gradually reduced the size of the semi-autonomous kingdoms within the empire. Many kings and marquises were eventually replaced by members of the imperial clan.§REF§ (San 2014, 73) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F) §REF§ Commanderies were ruled a civil governor and military governor and were divided into counties or districts.§REF§ (Theobald, 2010a) Theobald, Ulrich. 2010. “Han Dynasty 206 BCE-220 CE.” Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/han.html Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GJNWHHCH §REF§
An imperial academy was established in 124 BCE. Qualification through Confucian examinations slowly replaced hereditary assignment of government positions.§REF§ (Roberts 1999, 34) Roberts, John A.G. 1999. A History of China. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/H9D8H5E9 §REF§ Although exams were used only sporadically due to the significantly aristocratic society of this period. §REF§(Mostern, Ruth. Personal Communication to Jill Levine, Dan Hoyer, and Peter Turchin. April 2020. Email)§REF§
The population of the Western Han empire was 57.6 million in 2 CE§REF§ (Keay 2009, 144) Keay, J. 2009. China, A History, HarperPress, London. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ACHZRD §REF§, and 60 million at its peak.§REF§ (Zhao 2015, 56) Zhao, Dingxin in Scheidel, Walter. ed. 2015. State Power in Ancient China and Rome. Oxford University Press. Seshat URL:https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QBD9EVZQ §REF§ The Western Han capital of Chang’an was home to between 250,000 and 400,000 people. §REF§ (Chase-Dunn spreadsheet)§REF§§REF§(Loewe 1986 a ) Loewe, M. 1986a. ""The Former Han,"" in Twitchett and Loewe (eds.) The Cambridge History of China. Vol. I: The Qi'in and Han Empires, 221 BC - 220 AD. Cambridge. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7NCDWJJ2 §REF§",,,,2024-01-04T15:41:13.542749Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",20.0,Middle Yellow River Valley,North China,112.517587000000,34.701825000000,Luoyang,CN,China,East Asia,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
254,CnErJin,265,317,Western Jin,cn_western_jin_dyn,LEGACY,"The Western Jin dynasty (House of Sima, Jin dynasty) briefly reunified China after the Three Kingdoms period, but was marked by political turmoil and internal rebellion. Sima Yan overthrew Cao Wei emperor Cao Huan in 265 CE and declared himself the Western Jin emperor.§REF§ (San 2014, 145) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F) §REF§ In its 280 CE conquest of Eastern Wu, Western Jin dynasty ended the Three Kingdoms period and reunified China.§REF§ (San 2014, 145) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F) §REF§ However, the central government was in almost constant turmoil because of internal conflict and corruption.§REF§ (San 2014, 145) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F) §REF§ A series of rebellions of princes against imperial authority known as the Revolts of the Imperial Princes (291-306 CE) weakened the central government and led to the Disorder of the Five Tribes (304-316 CE), a large uprising of northern nomadic tribes.§REF§ (San 2014, 146) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F) §REF§ In 316 CE, an imperial Jin prince fled south when a Xiongnu chief attacked the Western Jin capital of Luoyang. The prince went on to found the Eastern Jin dynasty in present day Nanjing.§REF§ (Theobald, 2000a) Theobald, U. 2000a. “Jin Dynasty (265-420).” Chinaknowledge.de http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin.html Accessed June 17, 2017. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTQ5UTD5 §REF§ §REF§ (San 2014, 146) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F) §REF§
The territory of the Western Jin empire was close to the size of the Han empire.§REF§ (Theobald 2011a) Theobald, U. 2011a. “Chinese History- Jin Period Geography.” Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-map.html Accessed June 17, 2017. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VJ4ZVERD §REF§ We have estimated that Western Jin polity territory covered 4.5 million square kilometers in 300 CE.
Despite the political turmoil of the period, advancements made in agriculture, craftsmanship, architecture, medicine, astronomy, and mathematics.§REF§ (Theobald 2011b) Theobald, U. 2011b. “Chinese History- Science, Technology, and Inventions of the Three Kingdoms, Jin, and Southern and Northern Dynasties.” Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-tech.html Accessed June 17, 2017. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/T5FAI5I6 §REF§ Buddhism continued to spread throughout China, and Daoism was revived and seen as a more well-defined religion.§REF§ (Theobald, 2000a) Theobald, U. 2000a. “Jin Dynasty (265-420).” Chinaknowledge.dehttp://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin.html Accessed June 17, 2017. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTQ5UTD5 §REF§ There were many writers, poets and artists from the time of the Jin and the period is often seen as the first period for traditional Chinese art.§REF§ (Theobald, 2000a) Theobald, U. 2000a. “Jin Dynasty (265-420).” Chinaknowledge.de http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin.html Accessed June 17, 2017. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTQ5UTD5 §REF§
Population and political organization
The Western Jin maintained many administrative structures of the Han. The empire was divided into provinces and semi-autonomous kingdoms.§REF§ (Theobald 2011a) Theobald, U. 2011a. “Chinese History- Jin Period Geography.” Chinaknowledge.de. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin-map.html Accessed June 17, 2017. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/VJ4ZVERD §REF§ However the Western Jin operated as a neo-feudal society.§REF§ (Theobald, 2000a) Theobald, U. 2000a. “Jin Dynasty (265-420).” Chinaknowledge.dehttp://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin.html Accessed June 17, 2017. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTQ5UTD5 §REF§ Military rulers governed with the support of relatives, and Confucian values gradually disappeared from the central government and the education system.§REF§ (Theobald, 2000a) Theobald, U. 2000a. “Jin Dynasty (265-420).” Chinaknowledge.de http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin.html Accessed June 17, 2017. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTQ5UTD5 §REF§ The weak central government struggled to control the non-Chinese tribes living in the empire.§REF§ (Theobald, 2000a) Theobald, U. 2000a. “Jin Dynasty (265-420).” Chinaknowledge.dehttp://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/jin.html Accessed June 17, 2017. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DTQ5UTD5 §REF§
The population of the Western Jin empire was recorded as 16.16 million in a 280 CE census.§REF§ (Graff 2002, 35)Graff, D A. 2002. Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900. Routledge. London. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA §REF§The population of Luoyang was 600,000 people in 300 CE.§REF§ (Graff 2002, 50 )Graff, D A. 2002. Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900. Routledge. London. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NUJQCRPA §REF§",,,,2024-01-04T15:43:48.030844Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",20.0,Middle Yellow River Valley,North China,112.517587000000,34.701825000000,Luoyang,CN,China,East Asia,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
185,ItRomWe,395,476,Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity,it_western_roman_emp,LEGACY,"The period of the Western Roman Empire begins in 395 CE, when it was divided from what became the Eastern Roman Empire. §REF§ (Morgan 2012) James F. Morgan. 2012. The Roman Empire: Fall of the West, Survival of the East. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse. §REF§ After the Empire recovered from the crises of the 3rd century CE, a series of administrative and economic reforms inaugurated a second phase of imperial rule, known as the Dominate. The Dominate was split into two distinct administrative halves: a Western half with its capital at Rome and an Eastern one, ruled first from Nicomedia in Anatolia and then from Byzantium (re-founded as Constantinople, modern-day Istanbul, by the Emperor Constantine I the Great in 330 CE). Each half was ruled by a different emperor along with a junior colleague, titled 'Caesar'. This arrangement is known as the Tetrarchy ('rule of four'), which lasted until Constantine I managed to once again rule both halves together. The Empire was divided a few more times, until Theodosius (r. 379-392 CE) united it for the final time. In 393, Theodosius once more divided the Empire, naming Arcadius emperor in the east and Honorius emperor in the west. This marks the end of the Dominate period, leading to a period of instability and, ultimately, the collapse of the Roman state in the west, yet recovery and the continuation of Roman rule in the east (which became known as the Byzantine Empire, after Constantinople's original name).
Beginning with Honorius, the Western Empire experienced a continuous decline and a series of invasions at the hands of Germanic, Vandal, Alan, and Hun forces throughout the 5th century. In 476 CE, a Roman military officer of likely Germanic decent (though his exact ancestry is not certain) named Odoacer led a revolt against the western emperor Romulus Augustus (r. 475-476 CE), a child whose rule was overseen by his father, a high-ranking general named Orestes. Odoacer and his fellow soldiers killed Orestes and effectively deposed Romulus Augustus, and Odoacer's authority was recognized by the Eastern Roman emperor at the time, Zeno, although he was not proclaimed Emperor in the West. In 480 CE, after the death of Julius Nepos, whom Zeno recognized as the legitimate Western Emperor, Zeno abolished the co-emperorship, claiming to rule over both halves of the Empire, although much of the Western Empire had already been lost and Italy itself remained under the control of Odoacer, who ruled as king. §REF§ (Cameron 1993, 187) Averil Cameron. 1993. The Later Roman Empire, A.D. 284-430. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Burns 1991, 73-86) Thomas S. Burns. 1991. A History of the Ostrogoths. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. §REF§
Population and political organization
The Western Roman Emperor in principle maintained a formal alliance with the Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, which meant that all legislation generated in one half of the Empire was to be communicated to the other half and promulgated across the entire Empire. §REF§ (Millar 2006, 1) Fergus Millar. 2006. A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief under Theodosius II (408-450). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ In practice, the Western Roman Emperor was the slightly weaker party whose position depended on the acquiescence of the Eastern Empire; for instance, the term of the Western Emperor Valentinian III (r. 423-455 CE) required the agreement of the Eastern Emperor Theodosius II. §REF§ (Maenchen-Helfen 1973, 477-78) Otto Maenchen-Helfen. 1973. The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Further, significant differences between the 'twin Empires' - the language of Latin in Rome, Greek in Constantinople - always strained the commitment to unity. §REF§ (Millar 2006, 2) Fergus Millar. 2006. A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief under Theodosius II (408-450). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§
The Western Emperor did not control the army. Instead, it was held by the magister equitum ('master of the cavalry') and the magister peditum ('master of the infantry'), a new military office that gradually gained seniority over the magister equitum. Legislation in both halves of the Empire was enacted by decree, in practice meaning letters addressed to officials or to the Senate. §REF§ (Millar 2006, 7) Fergus Millar. 2006. A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief under Theodosius II (408-450). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Directly beneath the emperor were praetorian prefects who acted on the emperor's behalf, 'governing in his name with legal, administrative and financial powers'. §REF§ (Hughes 2012) Ian Hughes. 2012. Aetius: Attila's Nemesis. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Books. §REF§ Overall, the Roman bureaucracy was comparable in size to that of Constantinople; by the end of the 4th century CE, the state provided civil positions for an estimated 40,000 people across the Empire. §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 49) Shane M. Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration', in A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 47-72. Leiden: Brill. §REF§
The Western Empire covered roughly two million square kilometres in 400 CE. The region was divided into large prefectures, which in turn were split into dioceses containing provinces, which were then further subdivided into cities and towns managed by civic councils. §REF§ (Black 2008, 181) Jeremy Black. 2008. World History Atlas. London: Dorling Kindersley. §REF§ The Roman aristocracy remained a powerful influence, at least until 439 CE, when invading Vandal tribes took Carthage and much of North Africa, depriving Rome of valuable North African revenue streams. §REF§ (Hughes 2015) Ian Hughes. 2015. Patricians and Emperors: The Last Rulers of the Western Roman Empire. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Books. §REF§
Rome maintained a sizeable population, roughly 500,000 in 400 CE. However, a feature of the late Western Roman bureaucracy was that it 'shifted ... between four or five different imperial centres, dislocating with each change the networks of patronage and kinship, often regionally based, that supplied civil personnel'. §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 50) Shane M. Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration', in A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 47-72. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",1.0,Latium,Southern Europe,12.486948000000,41.890407000000,Rome,IT,Italy,Europe,18,Southern Europe,"Iberia, Italy","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
386,PkWSatrp,35,405,Western Satraps,pk_western_satraps,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,38,Pakistan,Pakistan,"{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
282,KgWTurk,582,630,Western Turk Khaganate,kg_western_turk_khaganate,LEGACY,,,,,2023-10-23T16:41:21.062942Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",23.0,Sogdiana,Turkestan,66.938170000000,39.631284000000,Samarkand,UZ,Uzbekistan,Central Eurasia,13,Turkestan,"Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
244,CnWZhou,-1122,-771,Western Zhou,cn_western_zhou_dyn,LEGACY,"The Western Zhou Dynasty was the first Chinese state to claim the Mandate of Heaven, the divinely bestowed right to rule. Zhou was a tributary state to Shang until the Zhou king Zhou Wu Wang defeated the last king of Shang in the 1046 BCE Battle of Muye. §REF§ (San 2014, 30) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F. §REF§ Zhou power was consolidated after the Duke of Zhou's defeat of the Rebellion of the Three Guards, led by Shang loyalists and separatist eastern nobles. §REF§ (San 2014, 31) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F. §REF§ In defeating the rebellion, the Zhou state was able to add a large area of land in eastern China to its territory. §REF§ (San 2014, 30) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F. §REF§
The Western Zhou established their capital at Haojing, and the Duke of Zhou later established Chengzhou as a second capital. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, Ulrich. 2000. “Zhou History.” http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/zhou.html Accessed May 31, 2017. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V8ABGJAF. §REF§ In 957 BCE, the Zhou controlled territory covering an estimated 850,000 square kilometres based in the central plains of China.
The period was peaceful for the first 75 years of Zhou rule. §REF§ (Shaughnessy 1999, 310-11) Shaughnessy, Edward L. 1999. “Western Zhou History.” In The Cambridge History of Ancient China edited by Michael Loewe and Edward L. Shaughnessy. Cambridge: CUP. 292-351. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945. §REF§ However, the decentralization of Zhou power into fiefdoms encouraged turmoil between states, popular unrest, and vassal rebellions. §REF§ (Shaughnessy 1999, 310-11) Shaughnessy, Edward L. 1999. “Western Zhou History.” In The Cambridge History of Ancient China edited by Michael Loewe and Edward L. Shaughnessy. Cambridge: CUP. 292-351. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945. §REF§ The Marquess of Shen sacked Haojing and killed the 12th Zhou king over a succession dispute in 771 BCE. §REF§ (San 2014, 34) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F. §REF§ The crown prince subsequently moved the capital to Luoyang and founded the Eastern Zhou dynasty.
The Western Zhou are noted for their introduction of the Mandate of Heaven, their kinship-based feudal system and their use of lineage law. §REF§ (Zhao 2015, 79) Zhao, Dingxin. 2015. The Confucian-Legalist State: A New Theory of Chinese History. Oxford: OUP. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ASKKD5. §REF§ The state's kinship-based feudal system encouraged the spread of Zhou writing, culture and identity. §REF§ (Zhao 2015, 80) Zhao, Dingxin. 2015. The Confucian-Legalist State: A New Theory of Chinese History. Oxford: OUP. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ASKKD5. §REF§ Some scholars have seen Zhou lineage law, with its emphasis on 'lineage rituals, familial ethics, and beneficent rule', as an intellectual precursor of Confucianism. §REF§ (Zhao 2015, 80) Zhao, Dingxin. 2015. The Confucian-Legalist State: A New Theory of Chinese History. Oxford: OUP. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ASKKD5. §REF§ The hierarchies, division of labour and meritocratic practices that emerged under the Western Zhou also helped lay the foundations for the introduction of bureaucracy. §REF§ (Zhao 2015, 80) Zhao, Dingxin. 2015. The Confucian-Legalist State: A New Theory of Chinese History. Oxford: OUP. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z4ASKKD5. §REF§
Population and political organization
The Western Zhou state was a proto-feudal monarchy in which feudal lords were supported by an extended family network. §REF§ (San 2014, 29) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F. §REF§ The first king of Zhou introduced the fengjian system, which made military leaders and members of the royal family into regional lords ruling over parcels of land. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 9-12) Roberts. John A.G. 1999. A Concise History of China. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945. §REF§ These fiefdoms were then divided into smaller units and distributed to members of the local rulers' families. §REF§ (San 2014, 29) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F. §REF§
Individual fiefdoms had their own taxes, legal systems, and currencies but paid dues to the king and provided soldiers in times of need. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 9-12) Roberts. John A.G. 1999. A Concise History of China. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945. §REF§ This system eventually led to decentralization and the weakening of Zhou rule. §REF§ (Roberts 1999, 9-12) Roberts. John A.G. 1999. A Concise History of China. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GEZH7945. §REF§
It is difficult to obtain population figures for the Western Zhou period. C. K. Maisels has given an estimate of 13.5 million people in 800 BCE. §REF§ (Maisels 2001, 260) Maisels, C. K. 2001. Early Civilizations of the Old World: The Formative Histories of Egypt, the Levant, Mesopotamia, India, and China. Routledge: London. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P9IXAB56. §REF§",,,,2024-01-04T15:30:09.450839Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",20.0,Middle Yellow River Valley,North China,112.517587000000,34.701825000000,Luoyang,CN,China,East Asia,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
662,ni_whydah_k,1671,1727,Whydah,ni_whydah_k,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
247,CnWuCfd,-585,-477,Wu Confederacy,cn_wu_confederacy,LEGACY,,,"This polity has nothing coded and I'm not sure what it's referring to... there was the State of Wu in South China around this time, but this was a monarchy according to Donald B. Wagner (http://donwagner.dk/Wulang/Wulang.pdf). I have assigned to South China, but if it has no data maybe we can just delete",,2024-04-15T15:48:48.375101Z,"{'id': 10, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,59,South China,Yangtze Basin and South China,"{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
673,ni_wukari_fed,1820,1899,Wukari Federation,ni_wukari_fed,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
438,MnXianb,100,250,Xianbei Confederation,mn_xianbei,LEGACY,"The Orkhon Valley lies either side of the Orkhon River, in north-central Mongolia. Between about 100 and 250 CE, it was under the control of the Xianbei, pastoralists who also relied on hunting and, to a lesser extent, the cultivation of wheat, barley, and millet. §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 223) §REF§ By 170 CE, the Xianbei empire extended 3,000 km along its east-west axis and 1,500 km along its north-south one, for a total of approximately 4,500,000 squared kilometers. §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 223) §REF§ The most powerful Xianbei ruler, Tanshihuai (r. 136-181), divided his multiethnic empire into three parts (middle, eastern, and western); the nomadic peoples that occupied each part were ruled by the elders of the largest sites, though all elders were in turn subordinate to Tanshihuai himself. §REF§ (Kradin 2011, 200-201) §REF§ Not many population estimates could be found in the literature, though Kradin provides an estimate of about 500,000 people, based on the fact that, under Tanshihuai's rule, the Xianbei army included 100,000 horsemen: Kradin argues that a total population of 500,000 is possible because all adult men were likely potential warriors, and they likely made up one-fifth of the population. §REF§ (Kradin 2011, 201) §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",24.0,Orkhon Valley,Mongolia,102.845486000000,47.200757000000,Karakorum,MN,Mongolia,Central Eurasia,9,Mongolia,"Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
272,MnXngnM,-209,-60,Xiongnu Imperial Confederation,mn_hunnu_emp,LEGACY,"The Orkhon Valley lies either side of the Orkhon River, in north-central Mongolia. Between about 200 BCE and 100 CE, it was under the control of the Xiongnu Imperial Confederation.
This polity comprised several nomadic peoples from the Mongolian Steppe. By the 4th century BCE, the Xiongnu began raiding northern China, §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 222) §REF§ where their mounted archery overwhelmed the heavily armed but relatively immobile Chinese infantry. §REF§ (Marsh 2012, 500-501) Kevin Marsh. Xiongnu. Xiaobing Li ed. 2012. China at War: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. Santa Barbara. §REF§ The nomads were held at bay by a combination of tribute in the form of metals, finished products, and agricultural products, and China's numerical superiority. §REF§ (Barfield 1993, 157) §REF§ §REF§ (Ying-Shih 1986) §REF§ §REF§ (Dupuy and Dupuy 2007, 133) §REF§ Several Chinese victories against the Xiongnu in the 1st century BCE and factional conflict within the confederacy led to the confederacy’s breakup, and a new group of semi-nomadic peoples from the Northeast, the Xianbei, took control of the region. §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 222) §REF§
At their height, the Xiongnu ruled over an area that included all of Mongolia, extending to the Ordos region in the south, and the boreal forests of Siberia in the north, for a total of about 4,000,000 squared kilometres. §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 220-221) §REF§
Precise estimates could not be found for the empire's population, but estimates suggest that nomads living to the north of China did not number more than 1,500,000, §REF§ (Kradin 2011, 77) §REF§ and the best studied (but not the largest) settlement, Ivolga, likely had a population of between 2,500 and 3,000. §REF§ (Kradin 2011, 85) §REF§ The empire was divided into three kingships: a central one, directly ruled by the paramount leader, and a ""left"" one and a ""right"" one, to the east and west, respectively, distributed among twenty-four regional leaders known as the ""ten thousand horsemen"". §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 220) §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",24.0,Orkhon Valley,Mongolia,102.845486000000,47.200757000000,Karakorum,MN,Mongolia,Central Eurasia,9,Mongolia,"Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
291,CnXixia,1032,1227,Xixia,cn_xixia,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,9,Mongolia,"Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
408,InYadav,1190,1318,Yadava Dynasty,in_yadava_dyn,LEGACY,,,"JR: changing the start date from 1187 to 1190 to avoid overlap with the preceding polity, the Chalukyas of Kalyani.",,2025-04-15T09:31:10.790339Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,64,North India,"Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
795,bd_yadava_varman_dyn,1080,1150,Yadava-Varman Dynasty,bd_yadava_varman_dyn,OTHER_TAG,,,,2023-12-07T16:18:00.875798Z,2024-06-07T14:36:41.438836Z,"{'id': 60, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,37,Eastern South Asia,"Bangladesh + Indian states of West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and Sikkim","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
419,CnYngsh,-5000,-3000,Yangshao,cn_yangshao,LEGACY,"Yangshao culture (Miaodigou, Xiyincun) first developed in the Loess plateau in the Holocene period. §REF§ (Lee 2001, 335) Lee, Yun Kuen. 2001. “Yangshao.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 333-339. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T §REF§ The culture was present from 5000 to 3000 BCE, extending from the Middle Yellow River Valley to modern Qinghai and Gansu. §REF§ (Tanner 2009, 20) Tanner, Harold Miles. 2009. China: A History. Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing Company. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/46QCS68G §REF§ Yangshao sites are mainly found in the Guanzhong region in Shaanxi, eastern Gansu, western Shanxi, southern Hebei and Henan. §REF§ (Lee 2001, 333) Lee, Yun Kuen. 2001. “Yangshao.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 333-339. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T §REF§ Yangshao subsisted on wild foods and domesticated millet. Men most likely hunted, and men and women farmed and produced goods. §REF§ (Lee 2001, 336) Lee, Yun Kuen. 2001. “Yangshao.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 333-339. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T §REF§
Yangshao villages were often surrounded by a ditch, and contained groups of semi-subterranean round or square houses constructed using the wattle and daub method, a graveyard and a public courtyard. §REF§ (Lee 2001, 334) Lee, Yun Kuen. 2001. “Yangshao.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 333-339. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T §REF§ Homes contained hearths for cooking and wide benches. §REF§ (Von Falkenhausen 1994, 55) Von Falkenhausen. Lothar. 1994. “Rediscovering the Past.” In China: Ancient Culture, Modern Land, edited by Robert E. Murowchick. Norman Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KKWA9MT3 §REF§ Yangshao culture is characterized by the presence of painted black and red pottery featuring animals and geometric designs. §REF§ (Lee 2001, 333) Lee, Yun Kuen. 2001. “Yangshao.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 333-339. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T §REF§ Pottery, jewelry and stone, bone and ceramic tools have been excavated from Yangshao period graves. §REF§ (Von Falkenhausen 1994, 55) Von Falkenhausen. Lothar. 1994. “Rediscovering the Past.” In China: Ancient Culture, Modern Land, edited by Robert E. Murowchick. Norman Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KKWA9MT3 §REF§
Population and political organization
In the early Yangshao phase, settlements did not have any detectable hierarchies. In the later phase, structures in the settlements began to vary in size, suggesting the existence of settlement hierarchies. §REF§ (Lee 2001, 334) Lee, Yun Kuen. 2001. “Yangshao.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 333-339. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T §REF§ In many villages, a large structure is surrounded by smaller dwellings. §REF§ (Von Falkenhausen 1994, 55) Von Falkenhausen. Lothar. 1994. “Rediscovering the Past.” In China: Ancient Culture, Modern Land, edited by Robert E. Murowchick. Norman Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KKWA9MT3 §REF§ However, grave goods in Yangshao burials suggest a more egalitarian society. §REF§ (Von Falkenhausen 1994, 55) Von Falkenhausen. Lothar. 1994. “Rediscovering the Past.” In China: Ancient Culture, Modern Land, edited by Robert E. Murowchick. Norman Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KKWA9MT3 §REF§ More information is needed on settlement hierarchy and community organization in the Yangshao period. The population of Yangshao settlements varied- smaller settlements had 70 to 80 members while larger settlements housed a few hundred. §REF§ (Lee 2001, 335) Lee, Yun Kuen. 2001. “Yangshao.” In East Asia and Oceania (Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 3), edited by Peter Peregrine and Melvin Ember. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 333-339. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/BUI9EC3T §REF§",,,,2024-01-04T15:28:14.795493Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",20.0,Middle Yellow River Valley,North China,112.517587000000,34.701825000000,Luoyang,CN,China,East Asia,58,North China,"North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang","{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
387,InYaudh,300,375,Yaudheya Republic,in_yaudheya_rep,LEGACY,,,,,2023-11-14T13:19:12.974261Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,64,North India,"Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal","{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}"
110,IlJudea,-141,-63,Yehuda,il_judea,LEGACY,"The Judea (originally Yehuda) polity of 141 - 63 BCE was formed when Simon Thassi, brother of the executed Jonathan Apphus who had waged war against the Seleucids, was elected as High King and Prince in a popular assembly in 141 BCE. Simon achieved a measure of quasi-independence from the Seleucids—though he remained a vassal and the population retained strong elements of Hellenism.
According to archaeologists, it seems that Galilee was only sparsely settled before this period, and that the conquering of territories and increase in Jewish communities coming into the area contributed to the rise in permanent settlements and population during this time. However, agreements over the population differs widely, with estimates on the largest settlement, Jerusalem, ranging from 10,000 to 100,000 people. §REF§ Leibner (2009:319). §REF§ §REF§ Broshi (1978). §REF§ §REF§ Geva (2013). §REF§
Judea was a sophisticated, well-organised and equipped society, with markets, established trade routes, water transportation infrastructure, aqueducts and cisterns, temples and palaces, sporting arenas, libraries, and many other modern features. §REF§ Chanson (2002:56). §REF§ §REF§ Netzer (2001:13-39). §REF§ §REF§ See the Specialized Buildings section for more information from our expert §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",10.0,Galilee,Levant-Mesopotamia,35.303500000000,32.699600000000,Nazareth,IL,Israel,Southwest Asia,61,Levant,"Israel/Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
365,YeWarLd,1038,1174,Yemen - Era of Warlords,ye_warlords,LEGACY,"The Era of the Warlords was a quasi-polity that existed in Tihama coastal plains between 1067 and 1091 CE, primarily characterized by a two-power tension between the Najahid dynasty and the Sulayhid dynasty. The Najahid dynasty was founded by two former slaves of the predated Ziyadid dynasty, while the Sulyahids occupied the highlands until their ruler ‘Ali bin Mahdi brought a denouement to the Najahid power in the mid-12th century. §REF§ (McLaughlin 2007, 159) Daniel McLaughlin. 2007. Yemen. Bradt Travel Guides Ltd. Chalfont St Peter §REF§ In 1086 CE, Mukarram of the Sulyahids instituted a new coinage called “Maliki Dinars.” §REF§ (van Donzel 1994, 427) E J van Donzel. 1994. Islamic Desk Reference. BRILL. Leiden. §REF§ When the Najahid rulers were driven out into refuge, many plotted their return to take back their territory in Tihama, but were defeated at the end. §REF§ (Margariti 2013, 216) Roxani Margariti. An Ocean of Islamds: Islands, Insularity, and Historiography of the Indian Ocean. Peter N Miller ed. 2013. The Sea: Thalassography and Historiography. University of Michigan Press. Ann Arbor. §REF§
No population estimates could be found in the consulted literature; however, the polity territory was estimated to be between 250,000 and 350,000 square kilometers. §REF§ (Stookey 1978, 99) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder. §REF§
The settlement hierarchy was between three- and five-tiered with a capital followed by towns and villages. The administrative levels were between four and five, with the political organization headed by a king and queen and followed by court and provincial governments. §REF§ (Stookey 1978, 65-74) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",12.0,Yemeni Coastal Plain,Arabia,43.315739000000,14.850891000000,Sanaa,YE,Yemen,Southwest Asia,44,Arabia,Arabian Peninsula,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
537,YeLBA**,-1200,-801,Yemen - Late Bronze Age,ye_yemen_lba,LEGACY,"The Yemeni Coastal Plain or Plateau is the northwestern region of modern Yemen that lies between the Red Sea and the Yemeni Mountains. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Late Bronze Age (c. 1200-801 BCE). Yemeni Bronze Age communities relied on farming and animal husbandry, though bronze itsems, shells, semi-precious stones, and obsidian all suggest that trade networks were well established at this time. §REF§ (De Maigret 2002: 152-153) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/X3MRZCH5. §REF§
No serious works on the estimates for the area and population in the Neolithic and Bronze Age Yemen. §REF§ (A. Sedov: pers. comm. to E. Cioni: September 2019) §REF§ Similarly, no speculation could be found in the literature regarding possible forms of political organisation prevalent at the time; from an archaeological perspective. However, it is worth noting that some sites were larger than others, and that the larger sites differed from smaller ones in their layout as well as their size, §REF§ (De Maigret 2002: 144) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/X3MRZCH5. §REF§ suggesting perhaps a hierarchical relationship between the two types. Moreover, some sites included buildings that were significantly larger than others, and that stood apart from the other buildings as well; though their precise function remains difficult to ascertain, certain features, such as benches along the walls, suggest public use. §REF§ (De Maigret 2002: 145) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/X3MRZCH5. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",12.0,Yemeni Coastal Plain,Arabia,43.315739000000,14.850891000000,Sanaa,YE,Yemen,Southwest Asia,44,Arabia,Arabian Peninsula,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
541,YeQasmi,1637,1805,Yemen - Qasimid Dynasty,ye_qasimid_dyn,LEGACY,"The land now contained within the nation-state of Yemen, in the southwest of the Arabian Peninsula, has a long history of human occupation. §REF§ (Walters 2003, 2) Walters, Delores M. 2003. “Culture Summary: Yemenis.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ml01-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6KEQJQHU. §REF§ Here, however, we focus on its more recent history. The Ottoman Empire gained control of the region in the first half of the 16th century CE before being overthrown by the Qasimi dynasty. §REF§ (Dresch 1989, 198) Dresch, Paul. 1989. Tribes, Government, and History in Yemen. Oxford: Clarendon. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4W92UNAD. §REF§ The Qasimi dynasty ruled until the 19th century, when Yemen was divided up between the Ottomans in the north and the British in the south. §REF§ (Safa 2005, 119) Safa, Mohammad Samaun. 2005. “Socio-Economic Factors Affecting the Income of Small-Scale Agroforestry Farms in Hill Country Areas in Yemen: A Comparison of OLS and WLS Determinants.” Small-Scale Forest Economics, Management and Policy, no. 4: 117-34. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UJZUBQH3. §REF§ North Yemen became independent in 1918, while South Yemen did not gain its independence until decades later in 1967. The two countries were united in 1990. §REF§ (Safa 2005, 119) Safa, Mohammad Samaun. 2005. “Socio-Economic Factors Affecting the Income of Small-Scale Agroforestry Farms in Hill Country Areas in Yemen: A Comparison of OLS and WLS Determinants.” Small-Scale Forest Economics, Management and Policy, no. 4: 117-34. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/UJZUBQH3. §REF§
Population and political organization
During the Qasimi period, Qasimid imams and their retainers and courtiers co-existed and occasionally competed with tribal shaykhs and their followers. §REF§ (Dresch 1989, 200) Dresch, Paul. 1989. Tribes, Government, and History in Yemen. Oxford: Clarendon. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4W92UNAD. §REF§ Tribal leaders retained significant power, although the imams still collected taxes. §REF§ (Dresch 1989, 206) Dresch, Paul. 1989. Tribes, Government, and History in Yemen. Oxford: Clarendon. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4W92UNAD. §REF§ Tribal authority remained important even under British and Ottoman rule. Some Yemeni leaders sided with the colonial powers, while others continued to resist. §REF§ (Dresch 1989, 216) Dresch, Paul. 1989. Tribes, Government, and History in Yemen. Oxford: Clarendon. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4W92UNAD. §REF§ Nor did the new government supplant autonomous tribal power after independence: the tribes were stronger than the new imamate, although they remained fragmented. §REF§ (Dresch 1989, 228) Dresch, Paul. 1989. Tribes, Government, and History in Yemen. Oxford: Clarendon. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4W92UNAD. §REF§ After 1962, when the imamate was overthrown, the new government created a more structured bureaucracy. §REF§ (Mundy 1995, 2) Mundy, Martha. 1995. Domestic Government: Kinship, Community and Polity in North Yemen. London: Tauris. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DD3SKZCS. §REF§
Secure population estimates for the Qasimi or colonial period in Yemen are lacking. In 1990, the population of Yemen was estimated at between 10 and 11 million. §REF§ (Walters 2003, 1) Walters, Delores M. 2003. “Culture Summary: Yemenis.” eHRAF World Cultures. http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ml01-000. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6KEQJQHU. §REF§",,MB: has a different capital.,,2024-04-15T14:37:25.651335Z,"{'id': 16, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",12.0,Yemeni Coastal Plain,Arabia,43.315739000000,14.850891000000,Sanaa,YE,Yemen,Southwest Asia,44,Arabia,Arabian Peninsula,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
372,YeTahir,1454,1517,Yemen - Tahirid Dynasty,ye_tahirid_dyn,LEGACY,"The Tahirid dynasty occupied and ruled modern-day Yemen between 1454 and 1517 CE, establishing a capital in al-Miqrãnah and maintaining the winter capital in Zabid as had the previous Rasulid sultans who were overthrown by the Tahirids. §REF§ (Bosworth 2014) Clifford Edmund Bosworth. 2014. The New Islamic Dynasties. Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh. §REF§ Prominent builders, the Tahirids created schools, mosques, massive irrigation systems, roads, and bridges. §REF§ Porter, Venetia Ann (1992) The history and monuments of the Tahirid dynasty of the Yemen 858-923/1454-1517, Durham theses, Durham University, p. 183, Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/5867/ §REF§ The polity was characterized by several battles, skirmishes, and seizures between the Zaydis and Tahirids, beginning in 1460 in Radm. Tensions culminated in 1501 when Tahirid sultan Amir commenced his four-year-long campaign to conquer the northern territories held by the Zaydi dynasty. §REF§ Porter, Venetia Ann (1992) The history and monuments of the Tahirid dynasty of the Yemen 858-923/1454-1517, Durham theses, Durham University, pp. 111-115, Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/5867/ §REF§
No population estimates were found in the consulted literature; however, the water supply in al-Miqrãnah could support 100,000 people, though it is unclear how many people lived there or in the polity. §REF§ Venetia Porter, ‘THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE TĀHIRID DYNASTY OF THE YEMEN’, Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies, Vol. 19, Proceedings of the Twenty Second SEMINAR FOR ARABIAN STUDIES held at Oxford on 26th - 28th July 1988 (1989), p. 105 §REF§
Political organization was comprised of a 4-tiered settlement hierarchy, with the capital in Zabid followed by towns of various sizes. §REF§ (Stookey 1978, 122) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder. §REF§ The polity was led by a sultan, who headed a central government which was then followed by a provincial line. §REF§ (Bosworth 2014) Clifford Edmund Bosworth. 2014. The New Islamic Dynasties. Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",12.0,Yemeni Coastal Plain,Arabia,43.315739000000,14.850891000000,Sanaa,YE,Yemen,Southwest Asia,44,Arabia,Arabian Peninsula,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
358,SaRashd,632,661,Yemen Hijaz,sa_rashidun_dyn,LEGACY,,,"JR: bit confused about this polity -- its polID and date range suggest that it's the Rashidun Caliphate, which extended into multiple regions (Arabia, Northeast Africa, Mesopotamia etc.). Rashidun Caliphate should have some SC and other sorts of data attached to it.",,2024-04-15T14:45:14.904335Z,"{'id': 17, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}",,,,,,,,,,44,Arabia,Arabian Peninsula,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
359,YeZiyad,822,1037,Yemen Ziyad Dynasty,ye_ziyad_dyn,LEGACY,"The Ziyadid dynasty occupied and ruled southern Tihama coastal plains between 822 CE and 1037 CE from the city of Zabid in the Red Sea coastal desert. In 893 CE, Al-Hadi ila al-Haqq (al-Hadi) founds the Zaydi imamate based on the Zaydi Shii teachings, which popularized throughout at least part of North Yemen until the 1962 Revolution. §REF§ (Burrows 2010, xxiv) Robert D Burrows. 2010. Historical Dictionary of Yemen. Second Edition. The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham. §REF§ In 1007 CE, Yu’frid prince ‘Abdullah ibn Qahtan ruled Sanaa and “made a successful foray against the stronghold of Sunnism.” §REF§ (Stookey 1978, 57) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder. §REF§
No population estimates could be found in the consulted literature; however, the polity territory is estimated to be around 100,000 square kilometers. §REF§ (Stookey 1978, 54) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder. §REF§
Moreover, the Ziyadid dynasty had a loose political organization under the control of a sultan at Aden, who held less authority over the highlands. The settlement hierarchy is three-tiered, while administrative levels are four-tiered. The Abbasid court sent governors to Sanaa with lower hierarchy levels governed by rulers of petty states and tribal chiefs. §REF§ (Stookey 1978, 50-54) Robert W Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. Boulder. §REF§ ",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",12.0,Yemeni Coastal Plain,Arabia,43.315739000000,14.850891000000,Sanaa,YE,Yemen,Southwest Asia,44,Arabia,Arabian Peninsula,"{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
105,IlYisrl,-1030,-722,Yisrael,il_yisrael,LEGACY,"_Short description_
The ancient kingdom of Israel 1030-722 CE was a monarchy established by Israelite people that was eventually conquered by the Assyrian Empire. Initially a monarchic union with Judah, around 930 BCE the Northern Kingdom (Israel) gained autonomy. In the 9th century Israel entered an anti-Assyria coalition but from Jehu (841 BCE) paid them tribute and thereafter were frequently a vassal of the Mesopotamian empire. After a revolt against Assyria in 727 CE the Assyrians ended the polity sending many of its inhabitants into exile.
The century authorities ruled through administrative centers and fortresses sites that had ""public buildings and ... large open spaces."" §REF§ (Finkelstein 2013, 104)Israel Finkelstein. 2013. The Forgotten Kingdom: The Archaeology and History of Northern Israel. Society of Biblical Literature. Atlanta, GA. Available online here. §REF§ Local administration may have been through tribal elders who may have been responsible for tax collection. Our image of a centralized monarchy (for some of or the whole of the period) might be tempered by the ideas of Pfoh (2008) who has argued Israel was actually a ""patronage kingdom"" in which a monarchy did not control a truly unitary state. Nevertheless, Israel possessed a standing army with a strong chariot corps, and used weapons of iron and bronze. Fortifications were many and imposing, and the Palace of Omri was one of the grandest in the Ancient Near East.
At its height, Israel imposed tribute on many of the surrounding kingdoms, not only Judah but Moab, Edom, and perhaps others as well. The Israelite population primarily lived in cities and towns in the hills, with fortified cities protecting the frontiers on the plains and dominating major trade routes through the region. Trade linked Israel with its northern neighbor Phoenicia, particularly through the port of Dor. At the height of its power, Israel was also a significant military force, contributing the largest contingent to the regional coalition that turned back Assyria's first attempt to conquer the Levant.
At least some of the population was literate even before the 10th Century BCE, though the prevalence of literacy is disputed. While the majority of the populace lived in small towns and villages, a significant fraction lived in walled cities such as the capital, Samaria. Most of the economy was in agriculture and pastoral production; staples for export included grain, wine, and oil. In the eighth century BCE the population likely exceeded well over a quarter of a million people, a vast increase on the less than 100,000 people estimated for the earliest times.
_Oren's long description_
How the Kingdom of Israel began is a matter of dispute. The Bible depicts it as originally being the greater part of the old Israelite tribal confederation, and then a part of the United Monarchy under Saul, David, and Solomon (c. 1030 BCE)—before seceding during the rule of Rehaboam, and forming its own state. This narrative is more or less accepted by some archaeologists such as Mazar, while others such as Finkelstein assert that Israel actually emerged first from a process of gradual state formation, with the southern kingdom of Judah emerging later. §REF§ Cf. Finkelstein/Mazar (2007). §REF§
Regardless, the two kingdoms always had close interactions, and the northern kingdom of Israel was almost always the dominant one. At its height, Israel imposed tribute on many of the surrounding kingdoms, not only Judah but Moab, Edom, and perhaps others as well. The Israelite population primarily lived in cities and towns in the hills, with fortified cities protecting the frontiers on the plains and dominating major trade routes through the region. Trade linked Israel with its northern neighbor Phoenicia, particularly through the port of Dor. At the height of its power, Israel was also a significant military force, contributing the largest contingent to the regional coalition that turned back Assyria's first attempt to conquer the Levant. Israel featured a standing army with a strong chariot corps, with weapons of iron and bronze. Fortifications were many and imposing, and the Palace of Omri was one of the grandest in the Ancient Near East.
However, starting with the assassination of the Omrid king Jehoram by Jehu (c. 841 BCE), Israel's fortunes waned; and it spent the rest of its existence as the tributary of either Aram or Assyria, depending on which of the two empires were ascendent. Even when the economy of Israel flourished during particular periods of the next century (as attested to by the greater incidence of luxury goods in archaeological finds), Israel was still subject to the depredations of foreign powers, being invaded several times. Ultimately, following an ill-fated rebellion against Assyria, the polity of Israel was dissolved (c. 722 BCE), its people exiled, and the land turned into an Assyrian province.
Israelite politics were marked with instability. In contrast to the kingdom of Judah, which featured a single ruling dynasty that traced its beginnings to David, Israelite kings frequently met violent ends. These would typically be at the hands of rebellious military commanders who would seize the throne, though such rebels ran the risk of being deposed themselves in short order. Zimri, one rebel captain, would rule for only a single week before losing the support of the army to rival captain Omri, founder of the Omrid Dynasty.
At least some of the population was literate even before the 10th Century BCE, though the prevalence of literacy is disputed. While the majority of the populace lived in small towns and villages, a significant fraction lived in walled cities such as the capital, Samaria. Most of the economy was in agriculture and pastoral production; staples for export included grain, wine, and oil.
A word of caution is in order about coding methodology. Much of the evidence we have about this polity comes from archaeological finds. However, the brute fact of an archaeological artifact is often used as the basis for considerable interpretation and conjecture. Methods have been improving over time, but still some archaeologists tend to leap far ahead of what the evidence will support. Additionally, the meaning of many finds is hotly disputed by archaeologists, each faction insisting for its point of view.
Worse, scholars of this particular polity often operate with ideological motives - either to prove the essential historicity of the Bible, or to disprove it—which can distort their claims. Israel Finkelstein, for example, once claimed that King David never existed, before having to revise his view after the discovery of the Tel Dan Stela. §REF§ Cf. Finkelstein/Mazar (2007). §REF§ (He now believes, as National Geographic puts it, that David was ""a raggedy upstart akin to Pancho Villa."") His ""Low Chronology"" seems to have been motivated by the attempt to disprove the early existence of the United Monarchy, and the weight of the evidence now contradicts the chronology (while still inconclusive on the matter of the United Monarchy). §REF§ Mazar (2005) §REF§ In general, it seems that many archaeologists treat the absence of evidence as evidence of absence—risky to do, considering that new finds are unearthed practically every month.
In short, every data point that is backed up with archaeology must be considered provisional, and new discoveries can totally upend our picture of what happened. As can new interpretations that correct erroneous early interpretations, a constant danger with motivated archaeologists.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",10.0,Galilee,Levant-Mesopotamia,35.303500000000,32.699600000000,Nazareth,IL,Israel,Southwest Asia,61,Levant,"Israel/Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria","{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}"
248,CnYueKg,-510,-334,Yue Kingdom,cn_yue_dyn,LEGACY,,,,,2023-11-14T12:49:51.753702Z,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,59,South China,Yangtze Basin and South China,"{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}"
279,KzYueba,350,450,Yueban,kz_yueban,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,13,Turkestan,"Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
754,sr_yugoslavia,1944,1992,Yugoslavia,sr_yugoslavia,OTHER_TAG,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,19,Southeastern Europe,"Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece","{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}"
227,EtZagwe,1137,1269,Zagwe,et_zagwe,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,2,East Africa,"Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
231,DzBrbZy,1235,1509,Zayyanid Berber Kingdom,dz_zayyanid_dyn,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,5,Sahel,"Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Chad (Arid)","{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
222,TnZirid,973,1148,Zirids,tn_zirid_dyn,LEGACY,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,3,Maghreb,From Morocco to Libya,"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"
444,MnZungh,1670,1757,Zungharian Empire,mn_zungharian_emp,LEGACY,"The Zungharian polity was, according to Atwood, §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 622) §REF§ ""the last great independent power of the steppe"". The tribal name ""Zunghar"" first appeared in the seventeenth century, as part of the Oirat confederation of steppe tribes; their rise to dominance within the confederation began under the leadership of Khara-Khula (d. 1634), but it was only in the 1670s, under Galdan, that they officially became the confederacy's leading tribe, and recognised as such even by the Dail Lama, who gave Galdan the title of Boshogtu Khan. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 622) §REF§ At its height, the Zungharian polity included portions of Central Asia, Kazakhstan, western Mongolia, neighbouring areas of southern Siberia, and Xinjiang. §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 236) §REF§ In 1755, the Qing empire was able to annex the Zungharians following a relatively quick and bloodless military campaign; because the Zungharians had successfully repelled the Chinese army several times before, the cause for this sudden collapse can most likely be found in the conflict between the successors of the last great Zugharian ruler, Galdan-Tseren (d. 1735). §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 623-624) §REF§
Population and political organization
The Zungharian ruler, known as Khung-Taiji, benefited from the support of an office (yamu) or court (zarghu) composed of four chief officials, known as ministers (tüshimed), judges (zarghuchis), or grand councillors (zaisangs). Galdan-Tseren, the only Zungharian ruler to also be known by the title of Khan, added six additional councillors. Each of the tribes that made up the Zungharian-led confederacy (previously known as the Oirat confederacy) and its own ruler who was himself supported by his own councillors, as well as minor functionaries such as standard-bearers and trumpeters. Finally, each tribe was itself subdivided into otogs, which were themselves subdivided into smaller units (of 40 and then 20 households) governed by local commoner officials. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 421) §REF§
Sources say that the Zungharian polity included ""200,000 households""; §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 421) §REF§ with a conservative estimate of 3-8 people per household, the population would therefore have been in the range of 600,000-1,600,000 people.",,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",24.0,Orkhon Valley,Mongolia,102.845486000000,47.200757000000,Karakorum,MN,Mongolia,Central Eurasia,9,Mongolia,"Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria","{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}"
668,ni_nri_k,1043,1911,Ọ̀ràézè Ǹrì,ni_nri_k,POL_AFR_WEST,,,,,,"{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}",,,,,,,,,,7,West Africa,From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical),"{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}"