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Air pollution
Air pollution is the presence of substances in the air that are harmful to humans, other living beings or the
environment. Pollutants can be gases, like ozone or nitrogen oxides, or small particles like soot and dust.
Both outdoor and indoor air can be polluted.
Outdoor air pollution comes from burning fossil fuels for electricity and transport, wildfires, some industrial
processes, waste management, demolition and agriculture. Indoor air pollution is often from burning
firewood or agricultural waste for cooking and heating. Other sources of air pollution include dust storms
and volcanic eruptions. Many sources of local air pollution, especially burning fossil fuels, also release
greenhouse gases that cause global warming. However, air pollution may limit warming locally.
Air pollution kills 7 or 8 million people each year. It is a significant risk factor for a number of diseases,
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Air pollution kills 7 or 8 million people each year. It is a significant risk factor for a number of diseases,
including stroke, heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, and lung cancer.
Particulate matter is the most deadly, both for indoor and outdoor air pollution. Ozone affects crops, and
forests are damaged by the pollution that causes acid rain. Overall, the World Bank has estimated that
welfare losses (premature deaths) and productivity losses (lost labor) caused by air pollution cost the world
economy over $8 trillion per year.
Various technologies and strategies reduce air pollution. Key approaches include clean cookers, fire
protection, improved waste management, dust control, industrial scrubbers, electric vehicles and renewable
energy. National air quality laws have often been effective, notably the 1956 Clean Air Act in Britain and the
1963 US Clean Air Act. International efforts have had mixed results: the Montreal Protocol almost eliminated
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9c73f535-7539-4bc6-9763-e6fcab30e98c
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1963 US Clean Air Act. International efforts have had mixed results: the Montreal Protocol almost eliminated
harmful ozone-depleting chemicals, while international action on climate change has been less successful.
Sources
Human sources
Industry and construction
Demolition of the cooling towers of a power
station, Athlone, Cape Town, South Africa,
2010.
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cb141194-2931-434d-9bbf-b80b4268a95f
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Before flue-gas desulfurization was
installed, the emissions from this power
plant in New Mexico contained excessive
amounts of sulfur dioxide.
Burning fuel to generate electricity causes air pollution; lignite and coal produce the most air pollution,
followed by oil, and then by fossil gas and biomass.
[1][2]
Methane leaks are common in oil and gas
production,
[3][4]
and oil refineries emit a wide range of pollutants.
[5]
Some hazardous air pollutants are
produced in plastic and rubber production, whereas chloroform can be produced during water chlorination,
and arsenic is found in the mining industry.
[6]
Many polluting industries have been pushed out of richer
nations, and China too has started to push its most polluting industries out of the country.
[7]
Construction and demolition produces dust, but also other pollutants. The direct particles from construction
and demolition are relatively coarse.
[8][9]
Construction also has an indirect impact on air quality, as cement
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64d91168-41a2-4a7e-9acc-4c4235dce998
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and demolition are relatively coarse.
[8][9]
Construction also has an indirect impact on air quality, as cement
production is one of the main sources of particle pollution.
[5]
Though banned in many countries, asbestos
persists in older buildings, where it poses a risk of lung disease when disturbed.
[10]
Building materials
including carpeting and plywood emit formaldehyde, a gas which can cause difficulty breathing and
nausea.
[11]
Transportation
Road vehicles produce a significant amount of all air pollution. For instance, they may be responsible for a
third to half of all nitrogen dioxide emissions,
[12][13]
and are a major cause of climate change.
[14]
Vehicles
with petrol and diesel engines produce about half of their emissions from their exhaust gas, and the other
half from non-exhaust emissions (tire and brake wear and erosion or disturbance of the road surface);
electric vehicles produce no tailpipe emissions, but still produce the other emissions.
[15]
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c042d087-359d-4e97-959a-4d1eb8197a2a
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half from non-exhaust emissions (tire and brake wear and erosion or disturbance of the road surface);
electric vehicles produce no tailpipe emissions, but still produce the other emissions.
[15]
Diesel trains, ships,
and planes also cause air pollution.
[16]
Agriculture and waste
Controlled burning of a field outside of
Statesboro, Georgia, US, in preparation for
spring planting.
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efed2f2d-c8a8-479d-955f-dad88737cf30
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E-waste processing in Agbogbloshie,
Ghana, using open-burning of electronics
to access valuable metals like copper.
Agricultural emissions, both from crops and from animal agriculture, contribute substantially to air
pollution.
[17][18]
For instance, methane is emitted by the digestion of food by cattle, causing ground-level
ozone.
[19]
Agriculture is also a major source of ammonia, which can form fine particulate matter.
[20]
Practices like slash-and-burn in forests like the Amazon cause large air pollution alongside deforestation.
[21]
Open dumps of waste are a common source of air pollution in low-income countries. They can be a source
of toxins and can promote the growth of microbes that pollute water and air. Through open burning of waste
—whether self-ignited or burned on purpose—soot, methane, and other pollutants are released.
[22]
Organic
waste in landfills itself also produces methane as it decomposes.
[23]
Globally, a quarter of solid waste is not
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2086466e-ca17-4a48-b1d7-830fc9ca024e
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[22]
Organic
waste in landfills itself also produces methane as it decomposes.
[23]
Globally, a quarter of solid waste is not
collected and another quarter is not disposed of properly.
[24]
Household sources
Smoking fish over an open fire in Ghana,
2018.
As of 2023, more than 2.3 billion people in developing countries rely on burning polluting fuels such as
firewood, agricultural waste, dry dung, coal, or charcoal for cooking, which causes harmful household air
pollution.
[25]
Kerosene, another polluting fuel, is used in many countries for lighting and sometimes for
space heating or cooking. Globally, 12% of outdoor fine particle pollution comes from household cooking.
Health effects are concentrated among women, who are likely to be responsible for cooking, and young
children.
[26]
Gas stoves for cooking contribute to indoor air pollution by emitting NO
2
, benzene, and carbon
monoxide.
[27]
Toasters can produce particulate pollution.
[28]
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63568e0f-57d4-4ed7-9b2d-536c2177bb2d
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children.
[26]
Gas stoves for cooking contribute to indoor air pollution by emitting NO
2
, benzene, and carbon
monoxide.
[27]
Toasters can produce particulate pollution.
[28]
Similarly, heating systems such as furnaces and
other types of fuel-burning heating devices release pollutants into the air.
[29]
In some developed countries,
including the UK and Sydney, Australia, wood stoves are the major source of particulate pollution in urban
areas.
[30][31]
Wood stoves can also emit carbon monoxide and NO
x
.
[11]
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230f548f-ac2b-48bf-ae53-754ced409cae
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Other sources of indoor air pollution are building materials, biological material and tobacco smoke.
Biological material, such as dander, house dust mite, mold and pollen, can come from humans, animals or
plants. Some of this material can trigger allergies, such as allergic rhinitis.
[11]
Fumes from pesticides, paints,
cleaning products and personal care products can be substantial, and make up an increasing share of
outdoor and indoor air pollution as transportation is getting cleaner.
[32]
Natural sources
Dust storm approaching Stratford, Texas, in
1935.
Dust from desert can cause poor air quality far from its source. For instance, dust from the Gobi Desert in
China and Mongolia can reach Hawaii, and dust from the Sahara reaches the Amazon rainforest in South
America.
[33]
Radon is a radioactive gas that can build up in buildings from the soil. It can cause lung cancer, especially
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a5af56a5-06e3-4cb7-a3a7-527a1c752ac9
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The theory motivated an enormous emphasis on public sanitation in major cities to remove smelly pollution,
especially human and animal excrement, from streets and back alleys. The theory collapsed when
physicians accepted the new germ theory of disease in the late 19th century. Germs coughed up by an
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d6fea0e1-a1cf-4c88-a4b2-7e5691ee78c7
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America.
[33]
Radon is a radioactive gas that can build up in buildings from the soil. It can cause lung cancer, especially
in smokers. Levels are generally low, but can be elevated in buildings with "leaky" foundations or areas with
soils rich in uranium.
[34]
Volcanic eruptions can be a large source of sulfur dioxide and also produce particle
pollution.
[35]
Vegetation can emit gases that contribute to ozone formation and particle pollution. This is especially true in
warmer climates and during the growth season.
[36]
These gases react with human pollution sources to
produce a seasonal haze.
[37]
Black gum, poplar, oak and willow emit gases that can raise ozone levels up
to eight times more than low-impact tree species.
[38]
Wildfires, which have become more severe and more
common due to climate change, release fine particles. They are a major source of air pollution.
[39]
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a7c6cab8-96b5-4790-abe2-061ce0ee2c1b
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Major pollutants
Major pollutants, their sources and effects: (1)
greenhouse gases, (2) particulate pollution, (3) ozone-
depleting gases, (4) acid rain, (5) ground-level ozone, (6)
nitrogen oxides
Air pollutants can be tiny solid or liquid particles dispersed in the air (called aerosols), or gases.
[40]
Pollutants are classified as primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are produced directly by a source and
remain in the same chemical form after they have been emitted into the atmosphere. Examples include
carbon monoxide gas from car exhausts and sulfur dioxide from factories. Secondary pollutants are not
emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react with each other or with other parts
of the atmosphere. Ground-level ozone is one example of a secondary pollutant. Some pollutants may be
both primary and secondary — both are emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants.
[41]
Ammonia
Ammonia (NH
3
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c35df22a-4e98-4042-b739-babd97723bb8
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both primary and secondary — both are emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants.
[41]
Ammonia
Ammonia (NH
3
) is emitted mainly by overuse of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers on farmland, and from manure
and urine from livestock.
[42]
At typical concentrations in the air, it is not harmful to health directly. However,
ammonia can react with other pollutants in the air to form ammonium sulfate or nitrate salts, contributing to
particulate matter pollution. Furthermore, when ammonia is deposited onto the soil, it can harm ecosystems
via eutrophication.
[43]
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide (CO
2
) is mainly emitted by the burning of fossil fuels.
[44]
CO
2
is sometimes called an air
pollutant, because it is the main greenhouse gas responsible for climate change.
[45][46]
Although the World
Health Organization recognizes CO
2
as a climate pollutant, it does not include the gas in its Air Quality
Guidelines or set recommended targets for it.
[47]
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4a6c77c1-a383-4313-8a97-4dc7e9800362
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[45][46]
Although the World
Health Organization recognizes CO
2
as a climate pollutant, it does not include the gas in its Air Quality
Guidelines or set recommended targets for it.
[47]
This question of terminology has practical consequences,
for example, in determining whether the U.S. Clean Air Act (which is designed to improve air quality) is
deemed to regulate CO
2
emissions. The Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 amended the Clean Air Act to
define CO
2
from fossil fuel burning explicitly as an air pollutant.
[48]
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6f247858-9f1f-491e-aabe-6a0d7053ede8
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Carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, and toxic gas.
[49]
It is a product of combustion of fuel such
as natural gas, coal, or wood. In the past, emissions from vehicles were the main source of CO, but modern
vehicles do not emit much of it. Now, wildfires and bonfires are the main source of outdoors CO.
[50]
Indoors,
CO is a larger problem and mainly comes from cooking and heating.
[51]
In poorly ventilated spaces, CO can
accumulate to dangerous levels, and exposure may cause people to lose consciousness and die. When CO
is destroyed in the atmosphere, it can raise levels of CO
2
and CH
4
.
[52]
Ground-level ozone
Leaves damaged by exposure to ozone.
Ground-level ozone (O
3
) is mostly created when NO
x
and volatile organic compounds mix in the presence
of sunlight. It can also form from carbon monoxide or methane.
[53]
Due to the influence of temperature and
sunlight on this reaction, high ozone levels are most common on hot summer afternoons.
[54]
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da81dd04-c996-45b6-a287-6ceb5a479967
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[53]
Due to the influence of temperature and
sunlight on this reaction, high ozone levels are most common on hot summer afternoons.
[54]
It is the main
gas in photochemical smog.
[55]
O
3
can be harmful to human health, but also to some materials, forests, plants, and crops.
[56]
Smog is a
particular problem in big cities where it cannot easily be transported away by wind (e.g. cities built in valleys
surrounded by mountains).
[57]
When ground-level ozone is produced, it can linger in the air for days or
weeks, and therefore be transported far from where it was first formed.
[53]
Nitrogen oxides
A NASA video on satellite measurement of nitrogen
oxides, showing declining levels due to regulation.
However, some regions did see rising levels of NO
2
pollution, for instance, those with fracking or civil
unrest.
0:00
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38d395f8-d12e-4129-82b4-ac5484e0982e
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Nitrogen oxides (NO
x
), particularly nitrous oxide (NO), are mostly created by the burning of fossil fuels, and
in lesser amounts by lightning. Nitrogen dioxide (NO
2
) is formed from NO in a reaction with other
atmospheric gases.
[58][59]
NO and NO
2
can form acid rain, can form into a haze, and can cause nutrient
pollution in water.
[60]
NO
2
is a reddish-brown toxic gas with a strong odor, whereas NO is odorless and
colorless.
[61]
Particulate matter
Particulate matter (PM), also known as particle pollution, includes all airborne substances that are not
gases.
[8][62]
It is a mix of microscopic solid particles or droplets suspended in a gas.
[63]
Particulate matter can contain a large variety of materials and chemical compounds including toxic
substances, which can vary strongly in size.
[8]
Coarse PM (PM
10
) is 10 micrometer (μm) or smaller in
diameter, fine PM (PM
2.5
) is smaller than 2.5 μm, and ultrafine particles are 0.1 μm or smaller.
[64]
Smaller
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in Data Studio
Fire Domain Knowledge Safety Wikipedia Embeddings
Pre-computed vector embeddings from Wikipedia articles covering fire hazard safety, environmental effects, and related topics — ready to drop into your RAG pipeline without any embedding overhead.
Dataset Details
| Property | Details |
|---|---|
| Embedding Model | nomic-ai/nomic-embed-text-v1.5 (135M) |
| Vector Dimensions | 768 |
| Source | Wikipedia |
| Topics | Fire safety, hazard prevention, environmental impact, and more |
| Format | CSV (vectors + metadata) |
Quickstart
import pandas as pd
import ast
df = pd.read_csv("hf://datasets/rakhasetiawan/fire-knowledge-embedding-wikipedia/blob/main/fire_domain_vector_embeddings.csv")
# Convert the embedding column from string to list
df["embedding"] = df["embedding"].apply(ast.literal_eval)
print(df.head())
# text | embedding | title | url
License
Dataset content is sourced from Wikipedia and is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 license.
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