milesjreding/Seshat_db · Datasets at Hugging Face

132

IqAbbs1

750

946

Abbasid Caliphate I

iq_abbasid_cal_1

LEGACY

In 750 CE, following a revolt, Abbasid rulers took power from the Umayyad Dynasty under Abu al-'Abbas al-Saffah. To secure his rule, Abu al-'Abbass al-Saffah sought to destroy the male line descending from Fatima and Ali, §REF§ (Zayzafoon 2005, 139) Lamia Ben Youssef Zayzafoon. 2005. The Production of the Muslim Woman: Negotiating Text, History, and Ideology. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. §REF§ and had about 300 members of the Umayyad family killed. §REF§ (Uttridge and Spilling, eds. 2014, 186) S. Uttridge and M. Spilling, eds. 2014. The Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare. London: Amber Books. §REF§ The last 80 Umayyads were tricked into attending a banquet with their hosts in Damascus and massacred there. §REF§ (Schwartzwald 2015, 24) Jack L. Schwartzwald. 2016. The Collapse and Recovery of Europe, AD 476-1648. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company. §REF§ (One twenty-year-old prince, Abd al-Rahman, famously managed to escape this fate: he dodged assassins all the way to Spain, where he founded an Umayyad Emirate). The First Abbasid Caliphate Period ended in 946 CE when the Daylamite Buyids from northwestern Iran reduced the caliph to a nominal figurehead. Ironically, given the bloody manner in which the dynasty began, the final Abbasid caliph was rolled up in his own carpet and trampled to death by Mongol horsemen in 1258 CE. §REF§ (Kennedy 2001, 164) Hugh N. Kennedy. 2001. The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State. London: Routledge. §REF§ The zenith of the Abbasid period is considered to be the reign of Harun al Rashid (763-809 CE), whose rule is described in The Thousand and One Nights. §REF§ (Esposito, ed. 2003, 699) John L. Esposito, ed. 2003. The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Population and political organization The capital of the Abbasid Caliphate eventually settled at Baghdad, but in the earlier years the central administration was run from Kufa (750-762 CE), Al-Raqqah (796-809 CE), Merv (810-819 CE), §REF§ (Starr 2013, xxxii) S. Frederick Starr. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. §REF§ and Samarra (836-870 CE). §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 53-54) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. A History of Islamic Societies. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 106) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The Abbasid caliph, spiritual leader of the Sunni Muslim world and commander-in-chief of its army, left the day-to-day administration to his vizier and heads of the diwans in the complex bureaucracy. The departments were divided into three main areas of responsibility: the chancery (diwan-al-rasa'il); tax collection (diwan al-kharif); and army administration (diwan al-jaysh). §REF§ (Kennedy 2001, 60-66) Hugh N. Kennedy. 2001. The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State. London: Routledge. §REF§ Professional officials and soldiers were paid both in cash and in kind. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 250) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The task of organizing the 'collection and payment of revenues' fell to the Abbasid military. §REF§ (Kennedy 2001, 21) Hugh N. Kennedy. 2001. The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State. London: Routledge. §REF§ However, while it was a professional institution, it lacked a rigid hierarchy or a well-defined officer class. §REF§ (Kennedy 2001, 21) Hugh N. Kennedy. 2001. The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State. London: Routledge. §REF§ Below the caliph himself, the top military rulers were the provincial governors in Iraq, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Syria, Western Iran and Khuzistan. In Iraq and Egypt, local government was divided into a hierarchy of districts, with subdivisions (kura, tassuj and rustaq) used for assessing taxation, which was passed to the governor. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 61) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. A History of Islamic Societies. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Within the Abbasid Caliphate there were also relatively independent vassals, who were required to pay tribute to the central government at Baghdad. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 61) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. A History of Islamic Societies. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The law code was based largely on sharia law and the ijma' (legal opinions of religious scholars). §REF§ (Zubaida 2005, 74-84) Sami Zubaida. 2005. Law and Power in the Islamic World. London: I. B. Tauris. §REF§ The Abbasid state provided centres of medical care, built ornate public markets, often with drinking fountains, and furnished welfare for the poor. §REF§ (Pickard 2013, 431) John Pickard. 2013. Behind the Myths: The Foundations of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse. §REF§ As paper technology diffused from China, libraries became a common fixture in the cities of the caliphate. In Baghdad, the Khizanat al-Hikma, or 'treasury of wisdom', became a refuge for scholars, providing access to a large collection as well as free lodgings and board. §REF§ (Bennison 2009, 180) Amira K. Bennison. 2009. The Great Caliphs: The Golden Age of the Abbasid Empire. London: I. B. Tauris. §REF§ Each important city included an official called the saheb al-sorta, who was responsible for maintaining public order, and the amir al-suq, in charge of regulating the bazaar. §REF§ (Lambton 2011) Ann K. S. Lambton. 2011. 'Cities iii: Administration and Social Organization', in Encyclopedia Iranica V/6, 607-23; an updated version is available online at <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a> (accessed 2 April 2017). §REF§ The territory possessed by the caliphate was lost in dramatic fashion, shrinking from 11.1 million square kilometres in 750 CE, to 4.6 million around 850 CE, to just 1 million square kilometres half a century later as Egypt, Afghanistan and Central Asia were all lost. §REF§ Christopher Chase-Dunn 2001, personal communication. §REF§ Nevertheless, in 900 CE the core region of Abbasid control in the Middle East still had a substantial population of about 10 million people. §REF§ (Blankinship 1994, 37-38) Khalid Y. Blankinship. 1994. The End of the Jihad State: The Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd Al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. §REF§ Over 300,000 (or maybe 900,000) of these lived in Baghdad, §REF§ Christopher Chase-Dunn 2001, personal communication. §REF§ which by this date had probably outgrown Byzantine Constantinople.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

8

Southern Mesopotamia

Levant-Mesopotamia

44.42

32.47

Babylon (Hillah)

IQ

Iraq

Southwest Asia

62

Mesopotamia

Iraq, Kuwait

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

484

IqAbbs2

1,191

1,258

Abbasid Caliphate II

iq_abbasid_cal_2

LEGACY

The Second Abbasid Period (1191-1258 CE) was mostly remarkable for the city of Baghdad which is usually estimated to have had about 1 million inhabitants at the time of the Mongol sack in 1258 CE. With the Mongol sack of Baghdad in 1258 CE "the culture, science and learning for which Baghdad had been known for centuries simply disappeared in a period of a week." §REF§ (DeVries 2014, 209) Kelly DeVries in Morton, N. John, S. eds. 2014. Crusading and Warfare in the Middle Ages: Realities and Representations. Essays in Honour of John France. Ashgate Publishing Ltd. §REF§ The city was defended by a garrison of just 10,000 soldiers. §REF§ (DeVries 2014, 207) Kelly DeVries in Morton, N. John, S. eds. 2014. Crusading and Warfare in the Middle Ages: Realities and Representations. Essays in Honour of John France. Ashgate Publishing Ltd. §REF§ In 1200 CE the Abbasids held Iraq and part of western Iran south of the Caspian, the territories holding perhaps 3.9 million inhabitants. The governance system was still Perso-Islamic with a vizier chief bureaucrat who oversaw government departments. §REF§ (Shaw 1976, 5) Stanford J Shaw. 1976. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey: Volume 1, Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1280-1808. Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The reign of al-Nasir (1180-1225 CE) was notable for being absolutely repressive "the caliph's spies were so efficient and the caliph himself so ruthless that a man hardly dared to speak to his own wife in the privacy of his home." §REF§ (Bray 2015, xxi) Shawkat M Toorawa ed. 2015. Consorts of the Caliphs: Women and the Court of Baghdad. NYU Press. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

8

Southern Mesopotamia

Levant-Mesopotamia

44.42

32.47

Babylon (Hillah)

IQ

Iraq

Southwest Asia

62

Mesopotamia

Iraq, Kuwait

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

107

IrAchae

-550

-331

Achaemenid Empire

ir_achaemenid_emp

LEGACY

The Achaemenid Empire was established by Cyrus II 'the Great', who inherited the small kingdom of Persia (named after the capital city, Persis) in southwest Iran, a vassal territory of the larger Median Empire to the Northwest. From 553 to 550 BCE, Cyrus led his fellow Persians against Median hegemony (even though the Medes were ruled by his own relatives), establishing the Persians as the dominant group in Iran. His kingdom became known as the Achaemenid Empire after the legendary first King of Persia, Achaemenes, claimed to be an ancestor of the Great Cyrus himself (Achaemenid essentially translates to 'children of Achaemenes'). §REF§ (Briant [1996] 2002) Pierre Briant. [1996] 2002. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire, translated by Peter T. Daniels. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. §REF§ Capitalizing on these early victories, Cyrus II the Great continued his military domination, conquering the wealthy Lydian Kingdom in modern-day Turkey along with most of Asia Minor and the Neo-Babylonian Kingdom in Mesopotamia, as well as consolidating Persia's hold over much of central Asia as far as modern Pakistan. His son and heir, Cambyses II, continued this tradition, expanding Achaemenid rule into the large and wealthy kingdom of Egypt. After Cambyses II's death in 522 BCE, a noble Persian named Darius came to power after overthrowing an alleged usurper to the throne (Gautama, supposedly posing as Cyrus II's son Bardiya, more commonly known by his Greek name Smerdis). §REF§ (Shayegan 2006) M. Rahim Shayegan. 2006. 'Bardiya and Gaumata: An Achaemenid Enigma Reconsidered'. Bulletin of the Asia Institute (n.s.) 20: 65-76. §REF§ Darius I, who also took the title of 'the Great', was a powerful ruler who inaugurated several military, administrative, and economic reforms, §REF§ (Cook 1983) J. M. Cook. 1983. The Persian Empire. London: J. M. Dent and Sons. §REF§ though is most well known for leading the Persian army to defeat at the hands of a coalition of small Greek city-states during the famous Persian Wars of the early 5th century BCE. Despite the fact that Darius' son and heir Xerxes I (the Great) also failed to conquer the Greek Aegean and lost a decisive battle to the same outnumbered coalition of Greeks, the Achaemenid Empire remained intact. §REF§ (de Souza 2003) Philip de Souza. 2003. The Greek and Persian Wars, 499-386 BC. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. §REF§ In 330 BCE, Darius III became the twelfth and final emperor in the Achaemenid line when he succumbed to the conquests of Alexander the Great and his invading Macedonian army (twelfth not including the alleged usurper Bardiya/Smerdis nor the short-lived Artaxerxes V, who declared himself emperor for a brief moment after Darius III was killed as Alexander was completing his conquest). §REF§ (Kuhrt 2001, 94) Amelie Kuhrt. 2001. 'The Achaemenid Persian Empire (c. 550 - c. 330 BCE): Continuities, Adaptations, Transformations', in Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D'Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla M. Sinopoli, 93-123. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Alexander became the ruler of all the territory formerly held by the Persians, incorporating it into the massive, though short-lived, Macedonian Empire and bringing an end to the great Persian Achaemenid Empire. Population and political organization The Achaemenid Empire was one of the largest empires in the pre-modern world, stretching nearly 6 million square kilometres across the Near East, Central Asia, the Indus Valley, Middle East, and into Egypt at its greatest extent. §REF§ (Broodbank 2015, 583) Cyprian Broodbank. 2015. The Making of the Middle Sea. London: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ It was a massive, multi-ethnic society made up of Medes, Persians, Lydians, Greeks, Egyptians, Babylonians, Bactrians, Sogdians, and numerous other cultural-ethnic groups; indeed, Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian, Aramaic, hieroglyphic Egyptian, and Greek were all used in royal and provincial communication. §REF§ (Shahbazi 2012, 135) A. Shapour Shahbazi. 2012. 'The Achaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE)', in The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History, edited by Touraj Daryaee, 120-41. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Between the Great rulers Cyrus II, Cambyses II, and Darius I, the Persians had stitched together an empire out of the centres of the oldest civilizations from Anatolia to Egypt, Mesopotamia and the Indus valley. Persepolis and the grand Pasargadae were large ceremonial and ritual centres in the heartland of Persia, while Susa in western Iran was the major administrative capital. At its peak under Darius I, the empire covered a huge swathe of diverse territory from the eastern Mediterranean all the way to the Indus Valley, incorporating navigable seas and rivers, protected ports and fertile agricultural land as well as rough mountainous passes. This territory held a population of between 17 and 35 million people. §REF§ (Wiesehöfer 2009) Josef Wiesehöfer. 2009. 'The Achaemenid Empire', in The Dynamics of Ancient Empires: State Power from Assyria to Byzantium, edited by Ian Morris and Walter Scheidel, 66-98. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

9

Susiana

Levant-Mesopotamia

48.235564

32.382851

Susa (Shush)

IR

Iran

Southwest Asia

45

Iran

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

637

so_adal_sultanate

1,375

1,543

Adal Sultanate

so_adal_sultanate

POL_AFR_EAST

The Adal Sultanate was one of the earliest Islamic Sultanates in the Somali region. The Adal, which was part of the Walasma Dynasty, was originally established in the late 9th or early 10th centuries based at the costal port city of Zelia on the Gulf of Aden. §REF§ (Mukhtar 2016, Encyclopedia of Empire) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2016. ‘Adal Sultanate.’ In J. Mackenzie Encyclopedia of Empire. Wiley. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FM8D55XW/library">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FM8D55XW/library</a> §REF§ During this time the dynasty was under the confederation of a larger Ifat Sultanate. It was not until the last quarter of the 14th century that the Adal became a powerful Sultanate that controlled vast swaths of territory from the Harar reigion to the Gulf of Aden up through present-day Eritrea. §REF§ (Tamrat 2008, 149) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list</a> §REF§ The Adal Sultanate was frequently in conflict with the Christian kingdoms in Ethiopia, most notably from the 14th through the 16th centuries. The most powerful leader of the Adal Sultanate was Ahmād Ibrāhīm al Ghāzī also known as Ahmad Gurey (1506-1543). Gurey titled himself as imām and declared jihad on Christian Ethiopia. During his rule, he was supplied with military supplies from the Ottoman Empire which helped his army conquer over three-quarters of Ethiopia and even defeat early attacks from the Portuguese. His farthest inland campaign reached south-eastern Sudan. In 1543, imam Ahmad was mortally wounded in battle by Ethiopian and Portuguese forces at Lake Tana whom defeated the imam’s army. After the imam’s death the Adal Sultanate disintegrated and was absorbed into different kingdoms. §REF§ (Mukhtar 2016, Encyclopedia of Empire) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2016. ‘Adal Sultanate.’ In J. Mackenzie Encyclopedia of Empire. Wiley. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FM8D55XW/library">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FM8D55XW/library</a> §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

2

East Africa

Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

872

tn_aghlabid_dyn

800

908

Aghlabid Dynasty

tn_aghlabid_dyn

OTHER_TAG

null

Aghlabid Dynasty

null

2024-04-30T13:35:38.451828Z

2024-04-30T13:35:38.451849Z

null

3

Maghreb

From Morocco to Libya

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

879

in_ahmadnagar_sultanate

1,490

1,636

Ahmadnagar Sultanate

in_ahmadnagar_sultanate

OTHER_TAG

null

Ahmadnagar Sultanate

null

2024-05-06T10:03:30.630491Z

2024-05-06T10:03:30.630504Z

null

40

Southern India

Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana

{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}

639

so_ajuran_sultanate

1,250

1,700

Ajuran Sultanate

so_ajuran_sultanate

POL_AFR_EAST

The Ajuran Sultanate originated in the mid-sixteenth century as a leading clan of confederated states which included the Muzzafar Dynasty of Mogadishu. The Ajuran Sultanate controlled the Shabelle valley in southern Somalia all the way to the Kenyan border. §REF§ (Mukhtar 2003, 35) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2003. Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Mukhtar/titleCreatorYear/items/J8WZB6VI/item-list">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Mukhtar/titleCreatorYear/items/J8WZB6VI/item-list</a> §REF§ The Sultanate’s capital was the Indian Ocean port city of Marka, which allowed for lucrative trade connections with other parts of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, India and China. §REF§ (Njoku 2013, 40) Njoku, Raphael C. 2013. The History of Somalia. Santa Barbara: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U9FHBPZF/library">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U9FHBPZF/library</a> §REF§ The Ajuran leader was known as the imam or emir. Below the imam were a number of governors and viceroys that helped maintain the Sultanate. By the 18th century internal resistance to Ajuran rule by various clan alliances led to the Sultanate’s decline which ultimately allowed for other kingdoms to rise in its place. §REF§ (Mukhtar 2003, 35) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2003. Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Mukhtar/titleCreatorYear/items/J8WZB6VI/item-list">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Mukhtar/titleCreatorYear/items/J8WZB6VI/item-list</a> §REF§ Within the literature consulted, there has been no mention of population numbers for this polity.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

2

East Africa

Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

508

IrAkKoy

1,339

1,501

Ak Koyunlu

ir_ak_koyunlu

LEGACY

The Ak Koyunlu were a loose confederation of nomadic Turkman tribes that ruled in Iran between 1339-1501 CE. §REF§ (Quiring-Zoche 2011) R Quiring-Zoche. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a> §REF§ They formed an alliance with the Timurid Emirate (1370-1526 CE) until Uzun Hasan (r. c1453-1478 CE) declared himself an independent sultan. §REF§ (Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a> §REF§ Their rule was ended by the Safavids in 1501 CE. §REF§ (Quiring-Zoche 2011) R Quiring-Zoche. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a> §REF§ The initial Ak Koyunlu government system was not complex; the sultan, a member of the Bayandor clan, was the head of a confederation §REF§ (Quiring-Zoche 2011) QR Quiring-Zoche. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a> §REF§ and obliged to attend and abide by the decisions of a powerful council of Amirs (kengac) and tribal chiefs (boy kanlari). This collective "determined military matters and the recurrent issue of succession to the sultanate". §REF§ (Quiring-Zoche 2011) R Quiring-Zoche. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a> §REF§ However, by Qara Otman (c1398 CE) the Ak Koyunlu had gained "at least a rudimentary bureaucratic apparatus of the Iranian-Islamic type." §REF§ (Quiring-Zoche 2011) R Quiring-Zoche. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a> §REF§ in addition to support from more tribes, and better relations with Christian sedentary people. In the second half of the fifthteenth century, the complexity of state institutions increased another step with the conquest of eastern Iran. §REF§ (Quiring-Zoche 2011) R Quiring-Zoche. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a> §REF§ Uzun Hasan maintained the existing administrative system as well as their officials. §REF§ (Quiring-Zoche 2011) R Quiring-Zoche. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a> §REF§ Woods (1998) notes that there is evidence of an attempt to standardize and regularize administrative and financial procedures. §REF§ (Woods 1998, 108) J E Woods. 1999. The Aqquyunlu. Clan, Confederation, Empire. Salt Lake City: The University of Utah Press. §REF§

null

2024-11-20T13:24:55.592756Z

{'id': 137, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

9

Susiana

Levant-Mesopotamia

48.235564

32.382851

Susa (Shush)

IR

Iran

Southwest Asia

45

Iran

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

113

GhAshnE

1,501

1,701

Akan - Pre-Ashanti

gh_akan

LEGACY

The gold-producing region between the Comoé and Volta rivers has been inhabited by Akan-speaking people since the 13th century CE. This region has seen the emergence of various autonomous states, including Bono, Djomo, Akwamu, Fante, and Asante. Later in its history, the founders of the Ga and Ewe states arrived from what is now Nigeria. §REF§ (Fage et al. 2017) Fage, John D., Ernest Amano Boateng, Donna J. Maier, and Oliver Davies. 2017. "Ghana." Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class="external free" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Ghana" rel="nofollow">https://www.britannica.com/place/Ghana</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XFKDKSW3" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XFKDKSW3</a>. §REF§ In 1471, Portuguese sailors reached this stretch of coast and quickly established trade with the coastal Akan states, exchanging European goods for gold. §REF§ (Fage et al. 2017) Fage, John D., Ernest Amano Boateng, Donna J. Maier, and Oliver Davies. 2017. "Ghana." Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class="external free" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Ghana" rel="nofollow">https://www.britannica.com/place/Ghana</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XFKDKSW3" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XFKDKSW3</a>. §REF§ Trade routes soon connected the coast to the Niger bend region, along which descendants of the former Bonda and Kumbu kingdoms founded the Akyerekyere and Akumu-Akoto kingdoms respectively. The Portuguese referred to this latter kingdom as the 'Acanes', which is the source of the name Akan. §REF§ (Gilbert, Lagacé and Skoggard 2000) Gilbert, Michelle, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard. 2000. "Culture Summary: Akan." eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN</a>. §REF§ In 1701, the Asante rebelled against the dominant Denkyira state and formed a confederacy of Akan states who accepted Asante rule. This confederacy began to conquer the surrounding polities, and by 1764 the Greater Asante controlled an area nearly the size of present-day Ghana. §REF§ (Gilbert, Lagacé and Skoggard 2000) Gilbert, Michelle, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard. 2000. "Culture Summary: Akan." eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN</a>. §REF§ Europeans continued to be drawn to the Ghanaian coast in search of gold and, by the 19th century, the British were the strongest European power in the region. In 1827, British-led troops defeated an Asante army at Katammanso. §REF§ (Gilbert, Lagacé and Skoggard 2000) Gilbert, Michelle, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard. 2000. "Culture Summary: Akan." eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN</a>. §REF§ In 1831, the British and Asante signed a peace treaty that allowed trade in all ports, and by 1844 the British gained control over criminal matters in the areas around trade forts. By 1872, the British had complete control of the coast, and when they did not recognize Asante sovereignty, the Asante attacked. The British were victorious, and after another war in 1895, the Asante king and chiefs were exiled. The entire region was declared a British territory in 1901. §REF§ (Gilbert, Lagacé and Skoggard 2000) Gilbert, Michelle, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard. 2000. "Culture Summary: Akan." eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN</a>. §REF§ Population and political organization During the pre-Asante period, each Akan state consisted of a single kingdom ruled by an omanhene, which literally translates to 'state-chief'. §REF§ (Gilbert, Lagacé and Skoggard 2000) Gilbert, Michelle, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard. 2000. "Culture Summary: Akan." eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN</a>. §REF§ This king came from a royal clan, and was elected by various officials, most notably the ohemmaa ('queen-mother'), who was a senior woman of the clan. The king was a sacred person who could not be observed eating or drinking; nor could he be heard to speak or be spoken to. §REF§ (Gilbert, Lagacé and Skoggard 2000) Gilbert, Michelle, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard. 2000. "Culture Summary: Akan." eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN</a>. §REF§ After 1701, political organization within the region became far more bureaucratic and specialized. Kumasi became the capital of the union of Asante states and the seat of the empire. Appointed officials began to replace those wielding hereditary authority, and a treasury partly operated by literate Muslims was created. §REF§ (McLeod 1981) McLeod, M. D. 1981. The Asante. London: British Museum Publications. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RS692TAZ" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RS692TAZ</a>. §REF§ However, while bureaucrats ran many of the day-to-day operations of the empire, the authority of the king was still absolute. §REF§ (Arhin 1986, 165-66) Arhin, Kwame. 1986. "The Asante Praise Poems: The Ideology of Patrimonialism." Paideuma, no. 32: 163-97. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/87N692IT" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/87N692IT</a>. §REF§ Population estimates are not available for the pre-Asante period. The population of the entire Asante union in 1874 is estimated at three million people. §REF§ (Obeng 1996, 20) Obeng, J. Pashington. 1996. Asante Catholicism: Religious and Cultural Reproduction among the Akan of Ghana. Leiden: E. J. Brill. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P8MFGRGQ" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P8MFGRGQ</a>. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

7

Ghanaian Coast

West Africa

-0.21792

5.573135

Accra

GH

Ghana

Africa

7

West Africa

From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

476

IqAkkad

-2,270

-2,083

Akkadian Empire

iq_akkad_emp

LEGACY

The polity at Akkad in Iraq is often thought to represent the "first world empire". §REF§ (Brisch 2013, 120) N Brisch. 2013. History and chronology. In: H. Crawford (ed.), The Sumerian World.London and New York: Routledge, 111-130. §REF§ §REF§ Liverani 1993 §REF§ Its name derives from city of Akkad (Agade, location still undetermined), which was a capital of the kingdom. The period is also called Sargonic Period after the founder of Akkad and the ruling dynasty - Sargon (Sharrukin). The end of Akkadian empire seems to be associated with the invasion of the Gutians, and is correlated with some climate changes. §REF§ (Weiss 2002, 22) H Weiss. 2002. Akkadian. Akkadian Empire. In: P. N. Peregrine & M. Ember, Encyclopaedia of Prehistory. South and Southeast Asia, Volume 8. New York: Springer, 21-24. §REF§ Sargon's power mainly depended on his army, which was probably a regular standing army. §REF§ (Hamblin 2006, 74-75) W J Hamblin. 2006. Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC. New York: Routledge. §REF§ Foster (2016) describes an Empire as "an entity put together and maintained by force, with provinces administered by officials sent out from the capital in the heartland" and claims this is "precisely what we see in the Akkadian period." §REF§ (Foster 2016, 80) Benjamin R Foster. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London. §REF§ Barjamovic (2012) notes that the formation of the private royal army and the construction of regional military strongholds together with the division of the conquered territories into provinces was the key to Akkad's "permanent imperial presence." §REF§ (Barjamović 2012, 130) G Barjamović. 2012. Mesopotamian Empires. In: P. Fibiger Bang & W. Scheidel (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 120-160. §REF§ To increase control from the center, Sargon appointed Akkadian governors (ensi) in Sumerian cities in a place of older Sumerian rulers §REF§ (Hamblin 2006, 75) W J Hamblin. 2006. Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC. New York: Routledge. §REF§ although some cities continued to be ruled by a local ensi. §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 138) Mario Liverani. Soraia Tabatabai trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§ In fact, all local officials probably had a great deal of de facto independence. §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 138) Mario Liverani. Soraia Tabatabai trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§ As an additional means of control, Sargon sent his daughter - Enheduanna - to be the highest priestess of god Sin in Uruk. This practice was continued by his descendants. §REF§ (Franke 1995, 831-841) S Franke. 1995. Kings of Akkad: Sargon and Naram-Sin. In: J. M. Sasson (ed.) Civilization of Ancient Near East. Peabody: Hendrikson, 831-841. §REF§ Naram-Sin, a grandson of Sargon, was one of the greatest ruler of Akkad in terms of military conquest and administration. His reforms included a unified system of measurements. He undertook also the process of renovation of Ekur temple and on his death was deified and treated as protective deity. §REF§ (Franke 1995, 384) S Franke. 1995. Kings of Akkad: Sargon and Naram-Sin. In: J. M. Sasson (ed.) Civilization of Ancient Near East. Peabody: Hendrikson, 831-841. §REF§ Akkadian was the official language of empire, and all official documents were written in Akkadian, although Sumerian still was in use, especially in Southern Mesopotamia. §REF§ (Van de Mieroop 2007, 67) §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

8

Southern Mesopotamia

Levant-Mesopotamia

44.42

32.47

Babylon (Hillah)

IQ

Iraq

Southwest Asia

62

Mesopotamia

Iraq, Kuwait

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

578

mo_alawi_dyn_1

1,631

1,727

Alaouite Dynasty I

mo_alawi_dyn_1

LEGACY

“In 1666 Mawlay al-Rashid was proclaimed sultan in Fez as the first ruler of the new 'Alawi dynasty. In 1669 he conquered Marrakesh and two years later, in 1671, his envoy came to Timbuktu and 'the army pledged allegiance to Mawlay al-Rashid'.2 In other words, as soon as a new Sharifian dynasty assumed authority in Morocco, the arma in Timbuktu renewed nominal and symbolic allegiance.”§REF§(Fage and Oliver 1975: 150) Fage, J. D. and Oliver, Roland Anthony. 1975. eds., The Cambridge History of Africa: Volume 4, from c. 1600 to c. 1790. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Z6BCU87M§REF§ “As the two Sa’did makhzans based on Marrakech and Fez crumbled in the middle years of the seventeenth century (see above, no. 20), Morocco was rent by internal factions, usually with strong religious, maraboutic bases. It was the ‘Alawids or Filālī Shorfā, of the same Hasanī descent as the declining Sa’dids, who finally succeeded in imposing order from an original centre in Tafilalt, the valley of the Wādī Zīz in south-eastern Morocco (whence the name Filālī). Mawlāy al-Rashīd was the first of the family to assume the title of sultan. He began the work of pacification and attempted a a restoration of central authority throughout Morocco, but this proved an extremely lengthy process, so deep-rooted had become provincialism and anarchy. A strong figure like Mawlāy Ismā’īl tried in vain to solve these problems by recruiting, in addition to the gīsh (<Class. Ar. jaysh) or the sultans’ military guard of Arabs, a standing army which included among other elements black slave troops, the ‘abīd al-Bukhārī (colloquially known as the Bwākher), descendants of black slaves imported by the Sa‘dids; it was also Ismā’īl who developed Meknès as the capital and the favoured place of residence for himself and his eighteenth-century successors. But he failed to dislodge the Christians from the ports held by them, and, after his death, Morocco was plunged into its nadir of anarchy and brigandage, with a succession of rival, ephemeral rulers.”§REF§(Boswroth 1996: 115) Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. 1996. "The 'Alawid or Filali Sharifs". The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual. Edinburgh. Edinburgh University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B6JRSLIB§REF§ Isma'il ruled between 1672-1727 and was one of the longest reigning Moroccan sultans. Upon his death his sons fought over the succession and the country went to war until 1757. Isma'il had fathered hundreds of sons, most of whom were eligible for the throne. While the sons were fighting for control of the throne, the country was rebelling against the taxes that Isma'il had imposed. The 'Abid had also grown incredibly powerful during Isma'il's reign and were able to install, influence and depose of sultans. Three of Isma'il's sons ruled on and off between 1727-1733 during which time installations and depositions of sultans were controlled by the 'Abid and in the meantime, north Morocco became almost completely independant of central governement, being ruled by the son of a local governor. . Abu'l Abbas Ahmad was deposed in 1728, only to be reinstated shortly after, but then deposed again on the day of his death on 5 March 1729 - he was smothered to death by his wives in a palace conspiracy. (El Hamel 2014: 213) His half-brother Moulay Abdelmalik was proclaimed sultan before Ahmad was deposed but was murdered three days before his brother died. (El Hamel 2014: 213) His brother and successor, Moulay Abdallah, was made Sultan and deposed six times between 1729 and 1757 (1729–1734, 1736, 1740–1741, 1741–1742, 1743–1747 and 1748–1757). Upon Abdallah's death his sole surviving heir, Mohammed ben Abdallah, became sultan in 1757 and full order was restored across the country. §REF§(El Hamel 2014: 213) El Hamel, Chouki. 2014. Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/T9JFH8AS§REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

3

Maghreb

From Morocco to Libya

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

585

mo_alawi_dyn_2

1,728

1,912

Alawi Dynasty

mo_alawi_dyn_2

LEGACY

null

JR: this seems to be missing from SeshatPolsVars. The polity dates were off, 10,000 BCE to 2000 CE, so have changed to 1728-1912 to follow on from mo_alawi_dyn_1. 1912 is when Morocco became a French Protectorate. Do we have any other data on this polity? If so, date range should be harmonized with it. MB: It is only present as other_polity in this crisis case here: https://seshat-db.com/core/polity/578#crisis_case_var

null

2024-04-15T14:47:23.856471Z

{'id': 19, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

null

3

Maghreb

From Morocco to Libya

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

659

ni_allada_k

1,100

1,724

Allada

ni_allada_k

POL_AFR_WEST

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

7

West Africa

From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

225

MaAlmoh

1,123

1,248

Almohad Empire

ma_almohad_emp

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

3

Maghreb

From Morocco to Libya

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

223

MaAlmor

1,035

1,150

Almoravids

ma_almoravid_dyn

LEGACY

null

2023-11-07T13:28:52.474216Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

3

Maghreb

From Morocco to Libya

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

214

SdAlodia

600

1,504

Alodia Kingdom

sd_alodia

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

4

Northeast Africa

Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

479

IqBabAm

-2,000

-1,600

Amorite Babylonia

iq_babylonia_1

LEGACY

The Amorites were a tribal group from the Levant area of Semitic descent. They migrated towards Mesopotamia and Amorite names can be seen in Mesopotamian literature throughout the 3rd millennium BCE. By the 2nd millennium BCE a number of Amorites had managed to gain control of Mesopotamian city-states in the power vacuum created by the collapse of the Ur III period. §REF§ Goddeeris, A. 2002. Economy and Society in Northern Babylonia in the Early Old Babylonian Period (ca.2000-1800 BC). Leuven: Peeters Publishers. p.8 §REF§ Very early descriptions suggest they were nomadic, eating raw meat and "careless even of burying their dead", but at least part of the population settled into a sedentary lifestyle and took up the western Semetic language of Akkadian. The city and kingdom of Mari was an Amorite establishment. §REF§ Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.55 §REF§ One problem encountered when considering the Amorites as a polity is that they are frequently identified by their Amorite name, but it cannot be certain whether this corresponds to an individual who is actually an Amorite or if Amorite names are in general use. For example, the Isin-Larsa period is considered a separate polity from the Old Babylonian, Amorite Dynasty, yet the kings of both cities used Amorite names and titles. §REF§ Goddeeris, A. 2002. Economy and Society in Northern Babylonia in the Early Old Babylonian Period (ca.2000-1800 BC). Leuven: Peeters Publishers. p.8-9 §REF§ The Babylonian king Sumu-la-el started to assert control over other towns in northern Babylonia and in the first few centuries of the 2nd Millennium Babylon became one of several city-states with a limited and fluctuating control over surrounding areas. This was the situation when Hammurabi came to the throne in 1792. By the end of his reign, he had conquered the whole of Babylon and briefly Assyria. He titled himself "King of the Four Quarters of the World" and "King of Sumer and Akkad" §REF§ Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.65-66 §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

8

Southern Mesopotamia

Levant-Mesopotamia

44.42

32.47

Babylon (Hillah)

IQ

Iraq

Southwest Asia

62

Mesopotamia

Iraq, Kuwait

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

465

UzKhw01

-1,000

-521

Ancient Khwarazm

uz_khwarasm_1

LEGACY

"The most interesting Early Iron Age culture of ancient Khorezm was that of Amirabad in the tenth to eighth centuries b.c.2 Dozens more settlements were found in the lower reaches of the former channels of Akcha Darya, the ancient delta of the Amu Darya. The most interesting was Yakka-Parsan II, alongside which were found ancient fields, and the remnants of an Amirabad-period irrigation system (Fig. 1). The old channel passed near by, its banks being reinforced with dykes.Two rows of semi-dugout houses - some twenty in all - were found in the Yakka-Parsan II settlement. Large numbers of storage pits were found around the houses, and the entire site is rich in animal bones, pottery, grain-querns and so on. The houses stood between two canals that merged to the south, all the doors giving on to the canals. Rectangular in ground-plan, the houses were 90 to 110 m2 in area and had two or three rooms. The interiors contained many storage pits and post-holes, each with a long fireplace in the centre. The major finds were pottery, hand-made with a darkish brown, red or greyish slip, the shoulders of the bowls being decorated with small crosses, lattice-work or 'fir-trees'. Accord ing to S. P. Tolstov, the Amirabad culture was genetically akin to the Kaundy complex and dates from the ninth to eighth centuries b.c. It should be observed that the pottery shows more obvious traces of Karasuk influence, the commonest shapes being similar to the ceramics ofthe latter; this entitles us to date its origins to a somewhat earlier period - the tenth century b.c. Other finds include bronze artefacts - a needle with an eye, a sickle with a shaped handle, a bronze arrow¬ head with a shaft - and stone moulds for casting shaft-hole arrowheads and sickles. A bronze sickle, large numbers of grain-querns and the advanced irrigation network and fields together show that agriculture was widely practised, while the bone finds further indicate that the population was engaged in stock- breeding.3" §REF§ (Askarov 1992, 441-443) §REF§ "The Achaemenids found in Sogdiana an urban civilization. Along two divergent canals fed by the Zarafshan, the proto-Dargom and the Bulungur, two gigantic sites, Afrasiab-Samarkand and Kök Tepe - each covering more than two hundred hectares - were occupied from the 8th or 7th century before our era.2 The valley of the Zarafshan had already known an earlier urban phase at the site of Sarazm, a small distance upstream from Samarkand, but this phase had ended a millenium before.3 Kök Tepe declined rapidly, but Samarkand became for two millenia the greatest city of Sogdiana, and, with Merv and Bactra, one of the very great cities of western Central Asia. The Achaemenids brought writing to Sogdiana, and the written language long remained the Aramaic of the Achaemenid Empire." §REF§ (De la Vaissière 2005, 17) §REF§ "The 6th and 5th cenuries BC are represented by only a few monuments, and the nature of Persian political and economic control over Chorasmia is,, therefore, still in question. Similarly unresolved is the question of the introduction of large-scale irrigation to the area - whether this was an indigenous development, gradually evolving as the cattle-breeding nomadic tribes became sedentised, or whether it was a new technology introduced by an hydraulic imperial state, the Achaemenid Empire under Darius I, in about 525 BC. Up until last year only three large-scale settlements of this period were properly documented - i.e. Kiuzeli-g'ir, Kakal'i-g'ir, and Chirik-rabat." §REF§ (Helms 1998, 87-88) §REF§ Reference to check: A. I. Isakov, “Sarazm: An Agricultural Center of Ancient Sogdiana,” Bulletin of the Asia Institute 8, 1996, pp. 1-13. 'The process of urbanization began earlier and on a greater scale in Chorasmia and on the left bank of the middle Syr Darya, localities which were more advanced in economic and cultural terms. They were geographically closer to the ancient urban centres of south-western and southern Central Asia and were open to their influence through Margiana and Sogdiana. They were later incorporated as provinces of the Achaemenid Empire and came into its socio-economic orbit for a time. In the southern Aral region, the sedentary farmers and pastoralists of the Chorasmian oasis represent the Late Bronze Age Amirabad cultural pattern seen in the Dzhanbas and Yakka-Parsan settlements. At that time they had master craftsmen (the 'house of the caster') with settled houses and social gradations. [...] The oldest Chorasmian city, and the key monument of this period, was Kyuzeli-gir, dating from the fifth and fourth centuries B.C. It lay on the left bank of the Amu Darya in the Sarîkamîsh region of the delta. Standing on a natural elevation, roughly triangular in ground-plan, it occupied an area of 25 ha. The city was surrounded by a powerful defensive wall with oval bastions. Its residential district was densely packed with buildings of rectangular unbaked brick and pakhsa. It had an advanced pottery industry, based on the wheel, and art objects of a type common in Saka burial complexes of the period have been found. Another early city of the same date, Kalalî-gîr, was surrounded by triple walls with bastions and had four gates with entrance barbicans and a hill-top palace, but it was never completed.' §REF§ (Negmatov 1994, 446) §REF§ Throughout the periods Helms and Yagodin focus on in their 1997 article (from the end of the Bronze Age to the incursions of the Hephthalites, Turks and early 'Afrighids' in the mid-1st millennium CE), 'the region saw the infiltration of many nomadic groups (initially cattle-breeders, later also sheep-goat and camel) some of which formed settled communities, even states and empires. These are the Scythians (a generic term), Massagetae, Sacae, Sav[u]romats, Yueh-chih (later "Kushans"), Sarmatians, and others of the Greek, Persian, and Chinese sources. Identifying evidence of their presence has never been easy: the bulk of data has had to come from burials (kurgans) whose contents have been loosely arranged in a relative chronology (see Itina 1979). Recent work by Yagodin has provided more precise information regarding tribal groupings in and about ancient Chorasmia, including the Ustiurt Plateau, as early as the "Archaic" period (Yagodin 1990) and, more generally, the major trade routes (i.e., the Silk Road) through northern Central Asia (Yagodin 1994)'. §REF§ (Helms and Yagodin 1997, 44) Svend Helms and Vadim N. Yagodin. 1997. 'Excavations at Kazakl'i-Yatkan in the Tash-Ki'rman Oasis of Ancient Chorasmia: A Preliminary Report'. Iran 35: 45-47. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

23

Sogdiana

Turkestan

66.93817

39.631284

Samarkand

UZ

Uzbekistan

Central Eurasia

13

Turkestan

Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

463

KzAndro

-1,800

-1,200

Andronovo

kz_andronovo

LEGACY

The Andronovo culture, named for the village where the first archaeological remains identified as belonging to the culture were discovered, is a blanket term for the groups of people who inhabited the Kazakh steppe between 1800 and 1200 BCE. §REF§ (Cunliffe 2015, 142) Cunliffe, Barry. 2015. By Steppe, Desert, and Ocean: The Birth of Eurasia. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/AF5PABXA" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/AF5PABXA</a>. §REF§ Although these people were dispersed throughout the steppe, there is evidence that communities were in communication with each other. Similar subsistence strategies - sheep and cattle herding combined with small-scale arable farming - were employed and evidence of a shared pottery style has been found. There was also a tradition of metallurgy that included the mining and use of copper, tin and gold and the manufacture of bronze, which was exchanged within interregional trade networks. §REF§ (Masson 1992, 349-350) Masson, V. M. 1992. “The Decline of the Bronze Age Civilization and Movements of the Tribes.” In History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol I: The Dawn of Civilization: Earliest Times to 700 B.C., edited by A. H. Dani and V. M. Masson, 337-56. Paris: UNESCO. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IKGC9NGJ" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IKGC9NGJ</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Cunliffe 2015, 142) Cunliffe, Barry. 2015. By Steppe, Desert, and Ocean: The Birth of Eurasia. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/AF5PABXA" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/AF5PABXA</a>. §REF§ Population and political organization Little is known about the social or political organization of Andronovo communities. Settlements were small in scale, comprising around 10 to 40 houses with between 50 and 250 inhabitants per settlement. §REF§ (Cunliffe 2015, 142) Cunliffe, Barry. 2015. By Steppe, Desert, and Ocean: The Birth of Eurasia. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/AF5PABXA" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/AF5PABXA</a>. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

23

Sogdiana

Turkestan

66.93817

39.631284

Samarkand

UZ

Uzbekistan

Central Eurasia

13

Turkestan

Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

574

gb_anglo_saxon

410

926

Anglo-Saxon England I

gb_anglo_saxon_1

LEGACY

Anglo-Saxon England existed between the fall of Roman Britain in 410 CE and the quickly subsequent mass migration into the region of the Germanic speaking Angle, Saxon, and Jute tribes from western Europe, until the Norman invasion and conquest of 1066. “The most developed vision of a ‘big’ sub-Roman Britain, with control over its own political and military destiny for well over a century, is that of Kenneth Dark, who has argued that Britain should not be divided during the fifth, and even the bulk of the sixth, century into ‘British’ and ‘Anglo-Saxon’ cultural and/or political provinces, but should be thought of as a generally ‘British’ whole. His thesis, in brief, is to postulate not just survival but continuing cultural, political and military power for the sub-Roman elite, both in the far west (where this view is comparatively uncontroversial) but also in the east, where it has to be imagined alongside incoming settlements. He postulates the sub-Roman community to have been the dominant force in insular affairs right up to c.570. Then, over a sixty year period, but for no very obvious reason, Anglo-Saxon kingship begins to emerge, the English conversion began and, in this scenario, Anglo- Saxon leaders overthrew British power and set about establishing their own kingdoms.”§REF§(Higham 2004: 4) Higham, Nick. ‘From Sub-Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England: Debating the Insular Dark Ages’, History Compass 2, no. 1 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00085.x. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZT7A79K§REF§ Anglo-Saxon ‘England’ after the migration of the Germanic tribes from the European mainland was in fact formed of several kingdoms known as the Heptarchy: Wessex, Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia and the minor kingdoms of Essex, Sussex, and Kent all ruled by different monarchs or dynasties (in the case of the minor kingdoms), and who all at one time or another were allies or enemies, looking to claim more power from the others. The three major kingdoms all looked at one point that they would become the dominant power and unite the kingdoms under one rule; Northumbria in the seventh century and Mercia in the eighth century. But it was the House of Wessex that rose to the greatest power under King Egbert at the beginning of the ninth century. During his reign 802-839 CE Wessex expanded rapidly across the south. It benefitted from its strategic position and its growing wealth enabled the purchase of the best warriors and military technology. It also led the wars against the incoming Viking invasions, whose first raid on the island had taken place in 793 CE. §REF§(Roberts et al 2014: 27) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3§REF§ Vikings, mainly from Denmark and Norway, raided and conquered territories in East Anglia, Essex and parts of Mercia and Northumbria between the 9th and 11th centuries. From 865 CE the Viking-settled region became known as Danelaw and was granted Danish self-rule in 884 CE under King Guthrum of Norway. Ongoing battles and attempts to expand territory on both sides resulted in the beginning of the breakup of Danelaw in 902 CE when the region of Essex submitted to the rule of King Æthelwald.§REF§(Roberts et al 2014: 27-28) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3§REF§ The region now known as England was not completely united as a country, the Kingdom of England, until 927 under King Æthelstan, after a drawn-out process of conflict and consolidation. Moreover, Northumbria, the northern most region of England and therefore the most susceptible to invasion by Scandinavian forces, continued to fall in and out of English and Danish rule until 954 when King Eadred brought it fully under English control, where it remained. At the same time, Lothian, the small area which bordered northern Northumbria, was ceded to Scotland as part of the deal.§REF§(Roberts et al 2014: 29-30) Roberts, Clayton, Roberts, F. David, and Bisson, Douglas. 2014. ‘Anglo-Saxon England: 450–1066’, in A History of England, Volume 1, 6th ed. Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P2IHD9U3§REF§

null

2024-11-18T10:50:32.224192Z

{'id': 122, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

null

20

Western Europe

British Isles, France, Low Countries

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

606

gb_england_k

927

1,065

Anglo-Saxon England II

gb_anglo_saxon_2

LEGACY

The Kingdom of England was formed in 927 CE when the independent kingdoms of Wessex, Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Danelaw (the Danish occupied kingdom) and the minor kingdoms of Essex, Sussex, and Kent were finally unified as one country after under King Æthelstan, after a drawn-out process of conflict and consolidation in the preceding few centuries. Northumbria, the northern most region of England and therefore the most susceptible to invasion by Scandinavian forces, continued to fall in and out of English and Danish rule until 954 CE when King Eadred brought it fully under English control, where it remained. At the same time, Lothian, the small area which bordered northern Northumbria, was ceded to Scotland as part of the deal. In 1016 Cnut (Canute), the son of Swein of Denmark invaded and defeated the weak King Ethelred of England. He was invited to take up the throne of England and established a strong and united England. Despite being a Dane, he was Christian, and the English people and nobles wanted a strong ruler who would end the incessant raids from the north. He married Ethelred’s widow, Queen Emma of Normandy. Cnut was allied with the English and the Danes and brought peace to the kingdom. Cnut also became King of Denmark in 1019 and King of Norway in 1028, which along with England, formed the Great North Sea Empire under his rule. Though both of his sons succeeded his rule - Harald 1035-1040, and Harthacnut 1040-1042 - the death of the second resulted in Edward, the son of King Ethelred and Queen Emma, to be recalled from Normandy (France) to take the throne. Anglo-Saxon monarchs then ruled a united Kingdom of England in peace until January 1066 with the death of King Edward, who had no children. A succession crisis occurred when Harold, Edward’s brother-in-law, and William, duke of Normandy, his cousin, both claimed that Edward had promised them the throne. Though Harold was crowned immediately after Edward’s death, William later invaded the south coast and defeated King Harold’s forces at the Battle of Hastings in October 1066. His succession to the English throne as William the Conqueror marked the beginning of Norman England – bringing with it new language, customs, and culture - and the end of the Anglo-Saxon period.

null

2023-07-10T15:44:50.145449Z

2024-05-16T13:37:00.545128Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

20

Western Europe

British Isles, France, Low Countries

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

563

us_antebellum

1,776

1,865

Antebellum US

us_antebellum

LEGACY

This polity period spans from American Independence in 1776 following the American Revolution, until 1865 with the end of the American Civil War.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

22

East Coast

East Coast of US

{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}

908

gr_antigonid_emp

-311

-168

Antigonid Dynasty

gr_antigonid_emp

OTHER_TAG

null

2024-10-16T10:07:56.530285Z

2024-10-16T10:07:56.530302Z

null

19

Southeastern Europe

Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

633

sl_anuradhapura_1

-300

70

Anurādhapura I

sl_anuradhapura_1

POL_SA_SI

“The city of Anuradhapura is located in the North-Central Province of Sri Lanka, a semi-arid zone situated in the island’s ‘Dry Zone’ characterized by low level plains, punctuated with low granitic outcrops. Human occupation in the region is almost entirely dependent upon large-scale irrigation works, first constructed in the third and fourth centuries BCE, and heavily restored in the early nineteenth century by colonial pioneers.” §REF§ (Coningham et al. 2016, 35) Coningham, Robin et al. 2016. “Reconstructing Networks of Trade and Exchange in the Indian Ocean during the Early Historic Period: Case Studies from Anuradhapura (Sri Lanka)” in Imperial Rome, Indian Ocean Regions and Muziris: New Perspectives on Maritime Trade. Edited by K.S. Mathew. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/REEBBEZZ/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/REEBBEZZ/collection</a> §REF§ “Anuradhapura (377 BCE–1017 CE) was the first Buddhist city in Sri Lanka, and the great architectural edifices in this city are invaluable sources to understand Buddhist sacred architecture and landscape. The city was nominated under the world heritage list in 1982. However, apart from the Buddhist architectural edifices, agriculture and irrigation landscape are significant, encircling the city and still functioning, since they emphasize the traditional land occupation. It is understood that agriculture and irrigation landscape play a vital role through- out the history in these sacred landscapes and settlements in Sri Lanka.” §REF§ (De Silva 2019, 163). De Silva, Wasana. 2019. ‘Urban agriculture and Buddhist concepts for wellbeing: Anuradhapura Sacred City, Sri Lanka’. International Journal of Design & Nature and Ecodynamics. Vol 14: 3. Pp 163-177. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/JIJEFKG3/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/JIJEFKG3/collection</a> §REF§

null

2025-04-15T09:38:52.945098Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

63

Sri Lanka

{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}

635

sl_anuradhapura_2

70

428

Anurādhapura II

sl_anuradhapura_2

POL_SA_SI

“The dynasty of Devānampiya Tissa became extinct in the first century AD. We do not know how this happened. One significant feature of the subsequent political history of Sri Lanka was that the right to the throne appeared to lie with one of two powerful clans, the Lambakannas and the Moriyas. By the beginning of the first century AD the Lambakannas were established in power, enjoying by far the most prestige of all the clans. Their claims to this position of primacy did not go unchallenged. The opposition came mainly from the Moriyas, who became in time their chief rivals for power. Their periodic struggles for the throne are a conspicuous feature of the history of this period. The Lambakannas were more successful than their rivals, as the following brief summary of the dynastic history of the period would show. The first Lambakanna dynasty (established by Vasabha AD 67-111) retained hold on the throne at Anurādhapura till the death of Mahānāma in AD 428, when the dynasty itself became extinct.” §REF§ (De Silva 1981, 18) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4R6DQVHZ/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4R6DQVHZ/collection</a> §REF§ “The Lambakanna dynasty ruled between the first and fourth centuries CE in comparative peace. For the next several centuries there were more invasions from southern India and Anuradhapura was ruled by both Tamils and Sinhalese.” (Bouma et al. 2010, 109) Bouma, Gary M., Rod Ling and Douglas Pratt. 2010. Religious Diversity in Southeast Asia and the Pacific: National Case Studies. London and New York: Springer. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/JR2SJMP2/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/JR2SJMP2/collection</a> §REF§

null

2025-04-15T09:39:37.015180Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

63

Sri Lanka

{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}

631

sl_anuradhapura_3

428

614

Anurādhapura III

sl_anuradhapura_3

POL_SA_SI

“In the fifth century, the Moriyas were able to ascend the throne after more than five centuries of Lambakanna dominance. Two hundred years of open conflict between the two clans followed, until the last Moriya king was overthrown in 614 and the dominance of the Lambakannas re-established. Later in that century, the reign of the Lambakannas stabilised thanks to a new law of succession to the throne which helped to monopolise the power of the Lambakannas.” §REF§ (Wenzlhuemer, R. 2008, 21) Wenzlhuemer, Roland. 2008. From Coffee to Tea Cultivation in Ceylon, 1880–1900An Economic and Social History. Leiden and Boston: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/EMUGE5WD/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/EMUGE5WD/collection</a> §REF§

null

2025-04-15T09:39:54.138796Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

63

Sri Lanka

{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}

629

sl_anuradhapura_4

614

1,017

Anurādhapura IV

sl_anuradhapura_4

POL_SA_SI

“Indeed Dhātusena (455–73) had hardly consolidated his position when he was murdered by his son Kassapa who usurped the throne at Anurādhapura at the expense of Moggallāna I, Kassapa’s brother, whom Dhātusena had been grooming as his legitimate successor. There was, for a brief period under Upatissa II (517–18) and his successors, a return of the Lambakaṇṇas to power, but Mahānāga (569–71) re-established Moriya control. His immediate successors Aggabodhi I (571–604) and Aggdobhi II (604–14) managed to maintain the Moriya grip on the Anurādhapura throne but not to consolidate their position, for the Lambakaṇṇas were in fact always a formidable threat, and under Moggallāna III (614–17) they overthrew Saṅghatissa II (614), who proved to be the last of the Moriya kings. It took nearly six decades of devastating civil war for the Lambakaṇṇas to re-establish their supremacy, but having done so they maintained their pre-eminence once again over a great length of time. Indeed the second Lambakaṇṇa dynasty established by Mānavamma gave the island two centuries of comparatively stable government. In the last phase of the dynasty’s spell of power the severest tests that confronted it came from South India invaders and not local rivals.” §REF§ (De Silva 1981, 18-19) De Silva, K.M. 1981. A History of Sri Lanka. London: C. Hurst & Company, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4R6DQVHZ/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4R6DQVHZ/collection</a> §REF§

null

2025-04-15T09:40:11.090015Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

63

Sri Lanka

{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}

320

EsAragn

1,035

1,163

Aragon Kingdom

es_aragon_k

LEGACY

null

Changing the date range to 1035-1163 (formerly 1035-1479) -- subsequent period to be covered by a new polity, Crown of Aragon

null

2024-04-15T14:32:52.138025Z

{'id': 11, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

null

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

6

MxArch*

-6,000

-2,001

Archaic Basin of Mexico

mx_basin_of_mexico_1

LEGACY

The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Archaic or Pre-Ceramic period (c. 6000-2001 BCE). This period may be described as a long, gradual transition from a lifestyle centred on big-game hunting prevalent in the preceding "Paleo-Indian" period to a sedentary, agricultural lifestyle in the succeeding "Formative" period. Indeed, Archaic sites are defined by their lack of both large animal remains and ceramics. §REF§ (Kennett 2012: 141) Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RTF3FP57" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RTF3FP57</a>. §REF§ No population estimates could be found in the consulted literature. Similarly, no information could be found on the political organisation of settlements at the time.

null

2024-08-13T11:26:42.083068Z

{'id': 80, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

27

Basin of Mexico

Mexico

-99.13

19.43

Ciudad de Mexico

MX

Mexico

North America

23

Mexico

{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}

67

GrCrArc

-710

-500

Archaic Crete

gr_crete_archaic

LEGACY

Crete is a large island in the Eastern Mediterranean. The Archaic Crete (7th-6th centuries) is divided in the following periods: Orientalizing or Daedalic or Early Archaic (710-600 BCE) and Archaic Archaic (600-500). There was no capital city as Crete was divided into territorial entities, each one centered upon a city that served as the main political and economic centre of its well-defined region. Political, military and religious control was exercised by the Kosmoi, a board of 3 to 10 annually elected nobles. §REF§ Lembesi, A. 1987. "Η Κρητών Πολιτεία," in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός, Heraklion, 166-72. §REF§ §REF§ Lembesi, A. 1987. "Η Κρητών Πολιτεία," in Panagiotakis, N. (ed.), Κρήτη: Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός, Heraklion, 166-72. §REF§ No information could be found in the sources consulted regarding the polity's overall population, however the largest settlement, Knossos, is estimated to have housed about 4,000 people.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

4

Crete

Southeastern Europe

25.1442

35.3387

Heraklion

GR

Greece

Europe

19

Southeastern Europe

Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

726

ar_argentina_rep_1

1,816

1,983

Argentine Republic I

ar_argentina_rep_1

OTHER_TAG

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

33

Southern South America

Parguay, Uruguay, Argentina

{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}

351

AmArtax

-188

6

Armenian Kingdom

am_artaxiad_dyn

LEGACY

The founder of the dynasty was Artaxias I who ascended as King of Greater Armenia in 188 BCE.§REF§Hovannisian 2004: 47. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B4DBDFU§REF§ Although Armenia had a strong Iranian culture, particularly with religion, it was greatly influenced by Hellenistic Greek culture and religion, although it was one of the regions that had not been conquered by them. Some of the contemporary Armenian coins describe the kings as ‘Philhellenes’; lovers of Greek culture.§REF§“Artaxias I,”. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7V7RMBLQ§REF§§REF§Hovannisian 2004: 50. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B4DBDFU§REF§ Artaxiad Armenia was at its peak power during the reign of Tigranes the Great (95-55 BCE). Tigranes was able to unifiy the country’s various autonomous regions, which were governed by the nakharars, and brought central control to the kingdom.§REF§“Artaxiad Dynasty,” https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IVLMP6Q8§REF§ His empire, though only this large for a short time, stretched “from the Caucasus mountains and Media in the northeast to Lebanon in the southwest.”§REF§Hovannisian 2004: 64. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B4DBDFU§REF§ During the reign of Tigranes the Great the ongoing wars between the Roman and Parthian Empires led to the demise of the Artaxiad dynasty. Tigranes had allied himself (officially through marriages) with Mithridates the Great, King of Pontus in Anatolia and as the Romans won victories and conquered the surrounding regions, they eventually forced Tigranes to surrender. The Romans, under Pompey, allowed Tigranes to remain on the throne, but reduced the Armenian territory and forced him to become a Roman ally, hence leaving the Armenian kingdom as a buffer between the Roman and the Parthian Empires. Tigranes son and successor, Artavasdes II, remained an ally to the Romans. However, upon Mark Antony’s rule of Rome’s eastern territories, he invaded Armenia, captured Artavasdes II and had him executed, while then placing his own son, Alexander Helios, on the Armenian throne. Artavasdes' son Artaxias II, again allied with the Parthians and took back the throne. After a rule of ten years, he was murdered and the Armenian kingdom broke out in civil war led by two factions, pro-Roman and pro-Parthian. Though the Artaxians remained in power, the region became a Roman protectorate under emperor Augustus and the dynasty eventually died out completely with the final Roman overthrow in 12 CE.§REF§Hovannisian 2004: 58-62. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8B4DBDFU§REF§ Overall, there is a general lack of information about the social and cultural nature of the Armenian Empire, and a lot of the information is taken from Roman sources and Armenia numismatic evidence.§REF§ Bournoutian 2003: 36. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/645FKRNL§REF§

null

2023-11-10T15:00:02.602254Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

43

Anatolia-Caucasus

Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

665

ni_aro

1,690

1,902

Aro

ni_aro

POL_AFR_WEST

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

7

West Africa

From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

114

GhAshnL

1,701

1,895

Ashanti Empire

gh_ashanti_emp

LEGACY

The gold-producing region between the Comoé and Volta rivers has been inhabited by Akan-speaking people since the 13th century CE. This region has seen the emergence of various autonomous states, including Bono, Djomo, Akwamu, Fante, and Asante. Later in its history, the founders of the Ga and Ewe states arrived from what is now Nigeria. §REF§ (Fage et al. 2017) Fage, John D., Ernest Amano Boateng, Donna J. Maier, and Oliver Davies. 2017. "Ghana." Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class="external free" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Ghana" rel="nofollow">https://www.britannica.com/place/Ghana</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XFKDKSW3" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XFKDKSW3</a>. §REF§ In 1471, Portuguese sailors reached this stretch of coast and quickly established trade with the coastal Akan states, exchanging European goods for gold. §REF§ (Fage et al. 2017) Fage, John D., Ernest Amano Boateng, Donna J. Maier, and Oliver Davies. 2017. "Ghana." Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class="external free" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Ghana" rel="nofollow">https://www.britannica.com/place/Ghana</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XFKDKSW3" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XFKDKSW3</a>. §REF§ Trade routes soon connected the coast to the Niger bend region, along which descendants of the former Bonda and Kumbu kingdoms founded the Akyerekyere and Akumu-Akoto kingdoms respectively. The Portuguese referred to this latter kingdom as the 'Acanes', which is the source of the name Akan. §REF§ (Gilbert, Lagacé and Skoggard 2000) Gilbert, Michelle, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard. 2000. "Culture Summary: Akan." eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN</a>. §REF§ In 1701, the Asante rebelled against the dominant Denkyira state and formed a confederacy of Akan states who accepted Asante rule. This confederacy began to conquer the surrounding polities, and by 1764 the Greater Asante controlled an area nearly the size of present-day Ghana. §REF§ (Gilbert, Lagacé and Skoggard 2000) Gilbert, Michelle, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard. 2000. "Culture Summary: Akan." eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN</a>. §REF§ Europeans continued to be drawn to the Ghanaian coast in search of gold and, by the 19th century, the British were the strongest European power in the region. In 1827, British-led troops defeated an Asante army at Katammanso. §REF§ (Gilbert, Lagacé and Skoggard 2000) Gilbert, Michelle, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard. 2000. "Culture Summary: Akan." eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN</a>. §REF§ In 1831, the British and Asante signed a peace treaty that allowed trade in all ports, and by 1844 the British gained control over criminal matters in the areas around trade forts. By 1872, the British had complete control of the coast, and when they did not recognize Asante sovereignty, the Asante attacked. The British were victorious, and after another war in 1895, the Asante king and chiefs were exiled. The entire region was declared a British territory in 1901. §REF§ (Gilbert, Lagacé and Skoggard 2000) Gilbert, Michelle, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard. 2000. "Culture Summary: Akan." eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN</a>. §REF§ Population and political organization During the pre-Asante period, each Akan state consisted of a single kingdom ruled by an omanhene, which literally translates to 'state-chief'. §REF§ (Gilbert, Lagacé and Skoggard 2000) Gilbert, Michelle, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard. 2000. "Culture Summary: Akan." eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN</a>. §REF§ This king came from a royal clan, and was elected by various officials, most notably the ohemmaa ('queen-mother'), who was a senior woman of the clan. The king was a sacred person who could not be observed eating or drinking; nor could he be heard to speak or be spoken to. §REF§ (Gilbert, Lagacé and Skoggard 2000) Gilbert, Michelle, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard. 2000. "Culture Summary: Akan." eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=fe12-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ZJ844XUN</a>. §REF§ After 1701, political organization within the region became far more bureaucratic and specialized. Kumasi became the capital of the union of Asante states and the seat of the empire. Appointed officials began to replace those wielding hereditary authority, and a treasury partly operated by literate Muslims was created. §REF§ (McLeod 1981) McLeod, M. D. 1981. The Asante. London: British Museum Publications. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RS692TAZ" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RS692TAZ</a>. §REF§ However, while bureaucrats ran many of the day-to-day operations of the empire, the authority of the king was still absolute. §REF§ (Arhin 1986, 165-66) Arhin, Kwame. 1986. "The Asante Praise Poems: The Ideology of Patrimonialism." Paideuma, no. 32: 163-97. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/87N692IT" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/87N692IT</a>. §REF§ Population estimates are not available for the pre-Asante period. The population of the entire Asante union in 1874 is estimated at three million people. §REF§ (Obeng 1996, 20) Obeng, J. Pashington. 1996. Asante Catholicism: Religious and Cultural Reproduction among the Akan of Ghana. Leiden: E. J. Brill. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P8MFGRGQ" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P8MFGRGQ</a>. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

7

Ghanaian Coast

West Africa

-0.21792

5.573135

Accra

GH

Ghana

Africa

7

West Africa

From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

149

JpAshik

1,336

1,467

Ashikaga Shogunate

jp_ashikaga

LEGACY

The period between 1336 and 1467 CE in Japan is known by several different names but is referred to here as 'Muromachi Ashikaga', a combination of two designations used in isolation in some sources. Muromachi, a district of Kyoto, was the base of the shogunate's power, while Ashikaga is the name of the family who served as shoguns throughout the period. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 3) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The Muromachi Ashikaga period sometimes includes the sub-periods known as 'the Northern and Southern Courts' and the 'Warring States', although we have decided to separate the Warring States period into its own polity. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 3) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The period begins with the disintegration of Emperor Go-Daigo's brief 'Kenmu Restoration', an unsuccessful attempt to restore direct imperial control in Japan, and the appointment of Ashikaga Takauji as shogun by another branch of the imperial line with the support of other disillusioned lords. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 88) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ This initiated the divide between the Northern and Southern Courts (1336-1392 CE), both of which claimed to be the legitimate ruling authority. The Northern Court was located in Kyoto and headed by Emperor Komyo (from the senior imperial line) and the Ashikaga shoguns. The Southern Court was located at Yoshino and was the seat of the Emperor Go-Daigo (from the junior imperial line) and his supporters. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 7) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The peak of the Ashikaga period corresponds to the reign of Shogun Yoshimitsu (r. 1368-1394 CE), who helped to broker the unification of the Northern and Southern Courts (1392 CE), with imperial succession reinstated through the Northern line. An able statesman, he helped advance many aspects of government and policy and was an active patron of the arts. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 8) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ His death in 1408 left a power vacuum that enabled provincial lords to gain greater independence from the court and shogunate. The Onin War (1467-1477 CE) effectively brought an end to this period, although the Ashikaga shogunate remained in power nominally until the overthrow of their last shogun by Oda Nobunaga in 1573. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 9) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ This civil war, precipitated by economic problems, famine and conflicts over succession (both to the shogunate and to provincial military offices) initiated the period of instability known as the Warring States period. The conflict destroyed much of Kyoto, and spilled out into the provinces. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 8) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Initially, the power of the Ashikaga Shogunate had theoretically extended throughout the main islands of Japan; however, by the time of the Onin War, the area under its direct control had shrunk to Kyoto and its hinterland. §REF§ (Totman 1993, 3-4) Conrad Totman. 1993. Early Modern Japan. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Hall 2008, 216) John Whitney Hall. 2008. 'The Muromachi Bakufu', in The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 3: Medieval Japan, edited by Kozo Yamamura, 231-59. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Despite this territorial disintegration, the 'idea' of a larger unified culture did not disappear. §REF§ (Batten 1999, 175) Bruce Batten. 1999. 'Frontiers and Boundaries of Pre-Modern Japan'. Journal of Historical Geography 25 (2): 166-82. §REF§ Population and political organization During the period of the Northern and Southern Courts, the respective imperial heads were nominally in power, while the Ashikaga shogunate controlled the government. In contrast to the preceding Kamakura military regime, the Ashikaga shoguns did not have absolute control: their power was in tension with 'other court families, other members of the military aristocracy, and the religious orders'. §REF§ (Hall 2008, 10) John Whitney Hall. 2008. 'Introduction', in The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 4: Early Modern Japan, edited by Kozo Yamamura, 1-39. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Initially the Ashikaga shogunate retained much of the Kamakura administrative structure, even continuing to occupy the government buildings in Kamakura before moving their administration to the Muromachi district in 1378 CE. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 7-8) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Because the Ashikaga clan 'lacked significant landholdings and military might', these shoguns relied on their relationships with powerful vassals and provincial military governors to enforce their policies and keep other lords in line. However, as personal ties of loyalty deteriorated over time, the control of the shogunate over powerful provincial lords loosened and the latter were able to increase their independence from the central government. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 7-8) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Friday 2004, 59) Karl F. Friday. 2004. Samurai, Warfare and the State in Early Medieval Japan. New York: Routledge. §REF§ Population estimates for this period range from roughly 10 million around 1300 CE to approximately 17 million in 1500 CE. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 181) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. London: Penguin Books. §REF§ §REF§ (Farris 2006, 94) William Wayne Farris. 2006. Japan's Medieval Population: Famine, Fertility, and Warfare in a Transformative Age. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

21

Kansai

Northeast Asia

135.7622

35.02528

Kyoto

JP

Japan

East Asia

14

Northeast Asia

Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East

{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}

373

RuAstrakh

1,466

1,556

Astrakhan Khanate

ru_astrakhan_khanate

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

10

Pontic-Caspian

The steppe belt of Ukraine and European Russia

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

146

JpAsuka

538

710

Asuka

jp_asuka

LEGACY

The last segment of the Kofun period is often designated by historians as Asuka period on the basis of the intoduction of the Buddhism religion in 538 CE. §REF§ G. Barnes, 2007. State formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th-century ruling elite. Routledge, 15. §REF§ §REF§ Brooks, T, 2013. "Early Japanese Urbanism: A Study of the Urbanism of Proto-historic Japan and Continuities from the Yayoi to the Asuka Periods."Unpublished thesis, Sydney University, 11. §REF§ As a consequence the historical period "Asuka" overlaps with the archaeological period "Kofun" until 710 CE.The Asuka period can be divided into two main phases. The first phase covers the period (572-645 CE) when four successive heads of the Soga clan were leading figures at court: Saga no Iname, Saga no Umako, Siga no Emishi, and Soga no Ir. The second period is the phase after the violent overthrow of the Soga which was dominated by Tenchi Tenno, his brother Temmu Tenno, and Temmu's widow Jito Tenno from 645 to 692. It ends with the abdication of Jito Tenno in favor of her son Mommu and the move of the capital to the Heijō Palace of Nara. §REF§ Brown, D., 1993.The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 2.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 164-190. §REF§ Population and political organization In this period there is the establishment of a central administrative control with the introduction of the Ritsuryo law system based on Chinese style law codes. §REF§ G. Barnes, 2007. State formation in Japan: Emergence of a 4th-century ruling elite. Routledge, 15. §REF§ §REF§ Farris, WW 1998, Sacred Texts and Buried Treasures: Issues in Historical Archaeology of Ancient Japan, University of Hawai'i Press, Honolulu. §REF§ The introduction of Buddhism in Japan was favoured by the Soga clan, a Japanese court family, which acquired political prominence with the ascension of the emperor Kimmei in 531. §REF§ McCallum, D. F., 2009. The Four Great Temples: Buddhist Archaeology, Architecture, and Icons of Seventh-Century Japan. Honolulu: University of Haway Press, 19-21. §REF§ The Soga clan intoduced Chinese model-based fiscal policies, etsablished the first national treasury and promoted trade links with the Korean peninsula. §REF§ Brown, D., 1993.The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 2.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 163-164. §REF§ With the Taika reform the size of large burial tumuli (kofun) was strongly decreased by imperial decree. §REF§ K. Mizoguchi, 2013 The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 319. §REF§ The disappearance of large tumuli coincided with the emergence of a marked pyramidal hierarchy indicated by the difference in the burial assemblage. §REF§ K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 320. §REF§ In the seventh century a deceased person was buried in individual, very small round tumuli, which were much smaller than the preceding monumental mounded tombs. However, burial tumuli disapperead at the end of the seventh century. §REF§ K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 320. §REF§ §REF§ Barnes, GL 1993, China, Korea and Japan: The Rise of Civilization in East Asia, Thames and Hudson, London, 251-255. §REF§ During this period elites began devoting resources to the building of Buddhist temples, which explains the reduction in size of tombs §REF§ Brooks, T, 2013. "Early Japanese Urbanism: A Study of the Urbanism of Proto-historic Japan and Continuities from the Yayoi to the Asuka Periods."Unpublished thesis, Sydney University, 43. §REF§ §REF§ K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 322-323. §REF§ We have estimated the population of Kansai to be between 1.5 million and 2 million people in 600 CE, and between 2 million and 3 million by 700 CE. §REF§ Kidder, J. E., 2007. Himiko and Japan's elusive chiefdom of Yamatai: archaeology, history, and mythology. University of Hawaii Press, 60. §REF§ §REF§ Koyama, S., 1978. Jomon Subsistence and Population. Senri Ethnological Studies 2. Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology §REF§

null

2023-12-19T08:45:11.147310Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

21

Kansai

Northeast Asia

135.7622

35.02528

Kyoto

JP

Japan

East Asia

14

Northeast Asia

Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East

{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}

448

FrAtlBA

-2,200

-1,000

Atlantic Complex

fr_atlantic_complex

LEGACY

The Early Bronze Age on the Atlantic seaboard of Western Europe lasted from around 1800 to 1300 BCE. §REF§ (Peregrine 2001, 412) Peregrine, P. N. 2001. Western European Earlier Bronze Age. In Peregrine, P.N. and M. Ember (eds) Encyclopedia of Prehistory. Volume 4: Europe, pp.412-414. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ Several technological and social changes marked this period, taking place in an area expanding over what is now the south of England, west and central France, and Flanders, §REF§ (Mordant 2013, 573) Mordant, Claude. 2013. The Bronze Age in France. In Fokkens, H. and A. Harding (eds) The Oxford Handbook of the European Bronze Age, pp. 571-593. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QX9UG55P" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QX9UG55P</a>. §REF§ but also Portugal and Spain. §REF§ (Otte 2008, 276) Otte, Marcel. 2008. La protohistoire, 2è édition. Bruxelles: de Boeck. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2PQEDZ2I" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2PQEDZ2I</a>. §REF§ Metals were used to craft new types of weapons and ornaments, beginning with copper and then bronze axes, used for working wood and individual defence, §REF§ (Ghesquière in Macigny et al. 2005, 23) Cyril Marcigny, Cécile Colonna, Emmanuel Ghesquière, Guy Verron (eds) 2005. La Normandie à l'aube de l'Histoire. Les découvertes archéologiques de l’âge du Bronze 2300-800 av. J.C. Somogy, Paris. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3ZA57Q27" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3ZA57Q27</a> §REF§ and culminating in more complex forms of weaponry like swords, daggers and halberds. §REF§ (Ghesquière in Macigny et al 2005, 23) Marcigny, Cyril, Cécile Colonna, Emmanuel Ghesquière, and Guy Verron. 2005. La Normandie à L’aube de L'histoire : Les Découvertes Archéologiques de L'âge Du Bronze 2300-800 Av. J.-C. Paris: Somogy éd. d’art. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3ZA57Q27" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3ZA57Q27</a>. §REF§ However, most of the artefacts characterizing this period were items of personal jewellery such as torcs, anklets, and pins. §REF§ (Peregrine 2001, 413) Peregrine, P. N. 2001. Western European Earlier Bronze Age. In Peregrine, P.N. and M. Ember (eds) Encyclopedia of Prehistory. Volume 4: Europe, pp.412-414. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ The trade of these materials formed a vast European network of exchange. §REF§ (Peregrine 2001, 413) Peregrine, P. N. 2001. Western European Earlier Bronze Age. In Peregrine, P.N. and M. Ember (eds) Encyclopedia of Prehistory. Volume 4: Europe, pp.412-414. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ Population and political organization Over the course of the Early Bronze Age, several trends originating in the Beaker period were reinforced: political integration was one of them. Two tiers of social hierarchy can be inferred from burial patterns. While most of these differences were tied to individual achievements over one's lifetime, social status could also be inherited. Indeed, children have been found in elite burials containing prestigious items, contrasting with the much simpler tombs of commoners. §REF§ (Peregrine 2001, 413) Peregrine, P. N. 2001. Western European Earlier Bronze Age. In Peregrine, P.N. and M. Ember (eds) Encyclopedia of Prehistory. Volume 4: Europe, pp.412-414. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§ The construction of fortified settlements intensified, following a two-tiered settlement hierarchy. Simple hamlets corresponded to one or more extended families. Elsewhere, small fortified towns were built on raised areas of land and surrounded by walls and ditches. §REF§ (Peregrine 2001, 412-413) Peregrine, P. N. 2001. Western European Earlier Bronze Age. In Peregrine, P.N. and M. Ember (eds) Encyclopedia of Prehistory. Volume 4: Europe, pp.412-414. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XHZC4QMJ</a>. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

2

Paris Basin

Western Europe

2.312458

48.866111

Paris

FR

France

Europe

20

Western Europe

British Isles, France, Low Countries

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

347

IrAtrop

-323

200

Atropatene Kingdom

ir_atropatene_k

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

45

Iran

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

759

as_australia_colonial

1,803

1,901

Australia Colonial Period

as_australia_colonial

OTHER_TAG

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

28

Australia

{'id': 8, 'name': 'Oceania-Australia'}

565

at_habsburg_1

1,454

1,648

Austria - Habsburg Dynasty I

at_habsburg_1

OTHER_TAG

Frederick III from the House of Habsburg was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1452, marking the beginning of an almost unbroken line of Habsburg Emperors.§REF§Heinig, Kaiser Friedrich III. (1440-1493).<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LA5W94UA" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: LA5W94UA</a>§REF§ He elevated the Duchy of Austria to Archduchy, a unique title specifically created for the House of Habsburg which elevated the Archduke above all other Dukes which signifies Austria's position of power and influence within the Holy Roman Empire (HRE), but it was through the astute marriage policies—often summarized by the motto "Let others wage war, but you, happy Austria, marry"—that they significantly expanded their power.§REF§Judson, The Habsburg Empire.<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SFXDYXYU" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: SFXDYXYU</a>§REF§ Notably, the marriage of Maximilian I to Mary of Burgundy in 1477 brought the Habsburgs into possession of the Burgundian Netherlands, a valuable and strategically located set of territories. The reign of Maximilian I (1493-1519) also saw further consolidation of Habsburg power within the HRE, culminating in his grandson Charles V's election as Holy Roman Emperor in 1519. Charles V's vast empire, spanning from Spain to parts of Italy, Germany, and the Americas, marked the peak of Habsburg power, embodying the phrase "the empire on which the sun never sets." His reign was marked by religious upheaval, including the Reformation, and constant military engagements, most notably against France and the Ottoman Empire.§REF§Judson, The Habsburg Empire.<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SFXDYXYU" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: SFXDYXYU</a>§REF§ The Kingdom of Bohemia was incorporated into Habsburg domains during this period. The process began with the marriage of Ferdinand I, a Habsburg, to Anna of Bohemia and Hungary in 1521, strategically positioning the Habsburgs for a claim to the Bohemian throne. The opportunity for direct control came in 1526, following the Battle of Mohács, after which Ferdinand I claimed the thrones of Bohemia and Hungary due to the death of Louis II, who died without an heir at the battle.§REF§Jaroslav Pánek and Oldřich Tůma, A History of the Czech Lands (Prague: Karolinum Press, 2009).<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5MFK58ZP" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: 5MFK58ZP</a>§REF§ The period also witnessed the beginning of the long-standing struggle with the Ottoman Empire, including the first siege of Vienna in 1529, which marked the Ottoman Empire's furthest advance into Europe. The military engagements against the Ottomans continued for decades, influencing the political and military strategies of the Habsburgs.§REF§Klaus-Jürgen Bremm, Die Türken Vor Wien: Zwei Weltmächte Im Ringen Um Europa.<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VYHYLAE2" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: VYHYLAE2</a>§REF§ The period culminated in the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) , a defining conflict of this era. The war started as a religious conflict but evolved into a broader power struggle within Europe. The Habsburgs' role in the war was central, with Ferdinand II's attempts to consolidate Catholic power within the Empire leading to widespread conflict. The war concluded with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which had profound implications for the Habsburgs and the HRE, leading to the recognition of the sovereignty of the constituent states of the Empire and a decline in the central power of the Emperor.§REF§Arndt, Der Dreißigjährige Krieg.<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PULFEDKX" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: PULFEDKX</a>§REF§

null

2024-03-12T10:04:15.712719Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

15

Central Europe

Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

567

at_habsburg_2

1,649

1,918

Austria - Habsburg Dynasty II

at_habsburg_2

LEGACY

The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ended the Thirty Years' War, the Habsburgs faced the task of consolidating their fragmented territories, this era was marked by a series of succession wars, reflecting the Habsburgs' quest for territorial expansion and dynastic security.§REF§Arndt, Der Dreißigjährige Krieg.<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PULFEDKX" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: PULFEDKX</a>§REF§ The beginning of the period saw the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession (1700-1714), a conflict over the vast inheritance of the Spanish Habsburgs. The war ended with the Treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt, which, while ceding the Spanish throne to the Bourbon Philip of Anjou, granted the Austrian Habsburgs significant territories in Italy and the Netherlands, reshaping the European balance of power.§REF§Schnettger, Der Spanische Erbfolgekrieg.<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HK6DTTSH" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: HK6DTTSH</a>§REF§ In mid-18th century the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) challenged Maria Theresa's right to her father's throne. Despite initial setbacks, including the loss of Silesia to Prussia, Maria Theresa confirmed her rule and laid the foundation for the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty.§REF§(Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. Kriegsarchiv)<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WC966X6J" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: WC966X6J</a>§REF§ The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) further tested the Habsburg power, as Maria Theresa sought to reclaim Silesia and counter Prussia’s rise. This global conflict, stretching from the heart of Europe to distant colonies, ended without altering the Silesian status quo but significantly realigned international alliances, setting the stage for future confrontations.§REF§Danley and Speelman, The Seven Years’ War.<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AE3M256H" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: AE3M256H</a>§REF§ At the end of the 18th century, the War of the Bavarian Succession (1778-1779) once again pitted the Habsburgs against Prussia, this time over the strategic region of Bavaria on the question of succession to the Electorate of Bavaria after the extinction of the Bavarian branch of the House of Wittelsbach. The conflict ended with the Treaty of Teschen with only minor gains for the Habsburg monarchy. §REF§Michael Kotulla, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte: vom Alten Reich bis Weimar (1495 - 1934).<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U84B9DNB" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: U84B9DNB</a>§REF§ In the 19th century, the Habsburg Empire faced the challenge of Napoleonic France which resulted in the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and the establishment of the Austrian Empire in 1804, Francis II became Francis I, Emperor of Austria.§REF§“Germany - Prussia, Napoleon, Reunification | Britannica.”<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F52JWVA3" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: F52JWVA3</a>§REF§ The Congress of Vienna in 1815 which laid the foundation of the post Napoleonic order in central Europe. further redefined the Habsburg realm, securing its status as a great power.§REF§Heinz Duchhardt, Der Wiener Kongress: die Neugestaltung Europas 1814/15.<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KQ7ZZYPE" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: KQ7ZZYPE</a>§REF§ The revolutionary period of 1848, with its calls for liberalization and nationalism, profoundly challenged the imperial status quo, revealing the deep-seated tensions within its multi-ethnic composition.§REF§Dowe, Haupt, and Langewiesche, Europa 1848.<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZDEFI38W" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: ZDEFI38W</a>§REF§ In response to these internal upheavals and the growing nationalist movements, “the Ausgleich” of 1867 with Hungary marked a pivotal compromise. This agreement gave rise to the Dual Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (“k. u. k.-Monarchie). “The Ausgleich (“compromise”) reached with Hungary in 1867 was a major concession for Franz Joseph, and it created the so-called dualist Austria-Hungary that existed until 1918… The arrangement was dualist because it was not federalist. Rather than parceling out the monarchy into a structure in which the Austro-German lands, the Czech lands, Galicia, and Hungary-Croatia would all have roughly equal weight, it was divided simply into two, the Hungarian half and the Austrian half. This latter was not really called “Austria” but rather “Cisleithania,” meaning “beyond the Leitha River,” which was the border between Austria and Hungary. The formal name of the Cisleithanian half was “the countries and realms represented in the Reichsrat,” which gives some indication of the insubstantial basis for common identity of those territories. The governmental link between these two halves was also minimal. Foreign and military policy belonged almost exclusively to Franz Joseph. He retained the power to appoint and dismiss ministers, who thus had only a partial responsibility to parliament, and he could reject laws passed by the Reichsrat. There was a joint financial ministry and tariff regime. But details such as Hungary’s share of the budget could be renegotiated every decade, which led to repeated political conflicts in the years ahead, so dualism’s division of powers was by no means entirely clear. Nearly everything else was separate. There were distinct parliaments for the Cisleithanian and Hungarian halves, and each half had its own administrative, legal, and school systems. The realm was designated as kaiserlich (“imperial”) for the Austrian Empire of Cisleithania and königlich (“royal”) for the Kingdom of Hungary. In practice, dualism meant that the Austro-Germans dominated the other peoples in their half, and the Hungarians the other peoples in theirs. In many ways, Hungary’s weight within the Dual Monarchy only grew after 1867, thanks to economic advances that in turn fed into greater assertiveness on the part of the Magyar elite… Ultimately, even the Austro-Germans and the Hungarians disliked dualism. The former resented Hungarians’ disproportionate weight in the monarchy, while the latter constantly pushed for more autonomy and resisted any changes that would reduce their weight. And virtually all the other national groups detested the arrangement because it unfairly excluded them.” §REF§Berger, Der Österreichisch-ungarische Ausgleich von 1867.<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7SEQIFJ2" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: 7SEQIFJ2</a>§REF§ “By the summer of 1918 the Habsburg dynasty’s death knell was ringing… Karl presided impotently over the progressive hollowing out of the whole monarchical state until there was almost nothing left that he actually governed. At the end of October the nearly 400-year-old monarchy dissolved in a matter of weeks. Karl issued a proposal for federalization on 16 October, but he and his idea were already irrelevant by that point. Gyula Andrássy, the last foreign minister of Austria-Hungary, said that the implicit logic behind the final, futile moves taken by the leadership was that “so that no one can kill us, we’ll commit suicide.” The initiative was instead firmly in the hands of the various national groups. On 18 October Romanians in Hungary called for union with the Kingdom of Romania. On the 21st the Germans of the monarchy declared their right to self-determination. On the 28th the Czech National Council declared independence, and on the 30th the new Czechoslovakia was officially formed. On the 29th the Croatian parliament formally dissolved its connections to Austria and Hungary and pledged to join the new Yugoslav kingdom. On the 31st the Ruthenians in Galicia announced their secession. On 1 November the Hungarians proclaimed their ties to the monarchy ended, followed ten days later by Galicia joining the new Polish republic. As all this was happening, Karl was still working at his desk in Schönbrunn, but the palace was mostly empty. Only a few loyal servants remained, since even his bodyguards had left. Finally on 11 November Karl signed papers that he was “temporarily” giving up his powers. He never formally abdicated but went into exile, first in Switzerland. Karl twice tried to retake the throne in Hungary in 1921, but after these unsuccessful attempts he was removed by the British to Madeira, where he died in 1922.”§REF§“Das Ende der Monarchie,” Die Welt der Habsburger, accessed February 4, 2024, https://www.habsburger.net/de/kapitel/das-ende-der-monarchie.<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G9K39WS5" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: G9K39WS5</a>§REF§

null

2024-03-12T09:42:59.315585Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

15

Central Europe

Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

572

at_austro_hungarian_emp

1,867

1,918

Austro-Hungarian Monarchy

at_austro_hungarian_emp

LEGACY

“The Ausgleich (“compromise”) reached with Hungary in 1867 was a major concession for Franz Joseph, and it created the so-called dualist Austria-Hungary that existed until 1918… The arrangement was dualist because it was not federalist. Rather than parceling out the monarchy into a structure in which the Austro-German lands, the Czech lands, Galicia, and Hungary-Croatia would all have roughly equal weight, it was divided simply into two, the Hungarian half and the Austrian half. This latter was not really called “Austria” but rather “Cisleithania,” meaning “beyond the Leitha River,” which was the border between Austria and Hungary. The formal name of the Cisleithanian half was “the countries and realms represented in the Reichsrat,” which gives some indication of the insubstantial basis for common identity of those territories. The governmental link between these two halves was also minimal. Foreign and military policy belonged almost exclusively to Franz Joseph. He retained the power to appoint and dismiss ministers, who thus had only a partial responsibility to parliament, and he could reject laws passed by the Reichsrat. There was a joint financial ministry and tariff regime. But details such as Hungary’s share of the budget could be renegotiated every decade, which led to repeated political conflicts in the years ahead, so dualism’s division of powers was by no means entirely clear. Nearly everything else was separate. There were distinct parliaments for the Cisleithanian and Hungarian halves, and each half had its own administrative, legal, and school systems. The realm was designated as kaiserlich (“imperial”) for the Austrian Empire of Cisleithania and königlich (“royal”) for the Kingdom of Hungary. In practice, dualism meant that the Austro-Germans dominated the other peoples in their half, and the Hungarians the other peoples in theirs. In many ways, Hungary’s weight within the Dual Monarchy only grew after 1867, thanks to economic advances that in turn fed into greater assertiveness on the part of the Magyar elite… Ultimately, even the Austro-Germans and the Hungarians disliked dualism. The former resented Hungarians’ disproportionate weight in the monarchy, while the latter constantly pushed for more autonomy and resisted any changes that would reduce their weight. And virtually all the other national groups detested the arrangement because it unfairly excluded them.”§REF§(Curtis 2013: 284-286) Curtis, Benjamin. 2013. The Habsburgs: The History of a Dynasty. London; New York: Bloomsbury. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TRKUBP92§REF§ “By the summer of 1918 the Habsburg dynasty’s death knell was ringing… Karl presided impotently over the progressive hollowing out of the whole monarchical state until there was almost nothing left that he actually governed. At the end of October the nearly 400-year-old monarchy dissolved in a matter of weeks. Karl issued a proposal for federalization on 16 October, but he and his idea were already irrelevant by that point. Gyula Andrássy, the last foreign minister of Austria-Hungary, said that the implicit logic behind the final, futile moves taken by the leadership was that “so that no one can kill us, we’ll commit suicide.”15 The initiative was instead firmly in the hands of the various national groups. On 18 October Romanians in Hungary called for union with the Kingdom of Romania. On the 21st the Germans of the monarchy declared their right to self-determination. On the 28th the Czech National Council declared independence, and on the 30th the new Czechoslovakia was officially formed. On the 29th the Croatian parliament formally dissolved its connections to Austria and Hungary and pledged to join the new Yugoslav kingdom. On the 31st the Ruthenians in Galicia announced their secession. On 1 November the Hungarians proclaimed their ties to the monarchy ended, followed ten days later by Galicia joining the new Polish republic. As all this was happening, Karl was still working at his desk in Schönbrunn, but the palace was mostly empty. Only a few loyal servants remained, since even his bodyguards had left. Finally on 11 November Karl signed papers that he was “temporarily” giving up his powers. He never formally abdicated but went into exile, first in Switzerland. Karl twice tried to retake the throne in Hungary in 1921, but after these unsuccessful attempts he was removed by the British to Madeira, where he died in 1922.”§REF§(Curtis 2013: 304-305) Curtis, Benjamin. 2013. The Habsburgs: The History of a Dynasty. London; New York: Bloomsbury. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TRKUBP92§REF§

null

2024-03-12T11:15:02.803449Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

15

Central Europe

Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

382

MmAva

1,364

1,527

Ava Kingdom

mm_ava_k

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

41

Mainland Southeast Asia

Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam

{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}

284

HuAvarK

586

822

Avar Khaganate

hu_avar_khaganate

LEGACY

null

Propose changing polID to hu_avar_khaganate

null

2024-03-13T11:07:57.528021Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

15

Central Europe

Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

208

EtAksm1

-149

349

Axum I

et_aksum_emp_1

LEGACY

An empire with Aksum as its capital dominated the northern highlands of Ethiopia from the first to the seventh century CE. ". §REF§ (Hatke 2013) George Hatke. 2013. Aksum and Nubia: Warfare, Commerce, and Political Fictions in Ancient Northeast Africa (Institute for the Study of the Ancient World). New York University Press. §REF§ This empire was characterised by a combination of indigenous Ethiopian and South Arabian culture. ." §REF§ (Ricard 2004, 16) Alain Ricard. The Languages & Literatures of Africa: The Sands of Babel. James Currey Publishers. Oxford. §REF§ Between about 150 and 270 CE, Aksum extended its control to South Arabia, including the Yemen Coastal Plain or Plateau, the northwestern region of modern Yemen that lies between the Red Sea and the Yemeni Mountains. Without Arabian and Nubian territories, the population of the Aksumite empire has been estimated as "at the outside half a million". §REF§ (Munro-Hay 1991, 166) Stuart C Munro-Hay. 1991. Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity. Edinburgh University Press. §REF§ As for Aksum itself, during the first four centuries CE its core area covered between 80 and 100 hectares; §REF§ (Curtis 2017, 106) Matthew C Curtis. Aksum, town and monuments. Siegbert Uhlig. David L Appleyard. Steven Kaplan. Alessandro Bausi. Wolfgang Hahn. eds. 2017. Ethiopia: History, Culture and Challenges. Michigan State University Press. East Lansing. §REF§ assuming 50-200 people per hectare, this would mean a population of between 4,500 and 200,000, at least in the core area. The empire was governed by a single ruler (negus) and his retinue; according to some sources, the administrative system was relatively poorly developed. §REF§ (Kobishanov 1981, 385) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California. §REF§ Provinces were ruled indirectly through regional rulers §REF§ (Kobishanov 1981, 384) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California. §REF§ who sent tribute. §REF§ (Falola 2002, 58) Toyin Falola. 2002. Key Events in African History: A Reference Guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. Westport. §REF§

null

2023-10-31T10:41:53.708288Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

12

Yemeni Coastal Plain

Arabia

43.315739

14.850891

Sanaa

YE

Yemen

Southwest Asia

2

East Africa

Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

210

EtAksm2

350

599

Axum II

et_aksum_emp_2

LEGACY

null

2023-10-31T10:42:19.731432Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

2

East Africa

Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

213

EtAksm3

600

800

Axum III

et_aksum_emp_3

LEGACY

null

2023-10-31T10:42:38.095859Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

2

East Africa

Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

44

ThAyuth

1,593

1,767

Ayutthaya

th_ayutthaya

LEGACY

The city of Ayutthaya was founded in 1351 CE in the Chao Phraya Basin, in modern-day Thailand, and soon emerged as a dominant force in the region, turning neighbouring mueang, or city-states, into its tributaries. §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, xv, 7-13) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. A History of Thailand. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ This was largely thanks to its advantageous geographical position, which allowed it to become an entrepôt where goods could be exchanged between China to the east, India and Arabia to the west, and the Malay archipelago to the south. §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 10) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. A History of Thailand. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ In 1569, Ayutthaya fell to the Burmese army. §REF§ (Wyatt 1984, 100) David K. Wyatt. 1984. Thailand: A Short History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§ Here, we only consider the second phase of the polity's history, starting in 1593, when Ayutthaya regained its independence after defeating Burma at the Battle of Nong Sarai. §REF§ (Wyatt 1984, 103) David K. Wyatt. 1984. Thailand: A Short History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§ The kingdom flourished throughout the 17th century, regaining its status as the dominant political and economic power of mainland Southeast Asia and ruling over Khmer, Lao, Lanna, and Shan. §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 13-18) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. A History of Thailand. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The polity may have reached its peak under King Borommakot (reigned 1733‒1758): during this time, Ayutthaya faced no serious external threats (indeed, it made peace with Burma and consolidated its hold over Cambodia), and supplanted Sri Lanka as the preeminent centre of Buddhist culture. §REF§ (Wyatt 1984, 130-31) David K. Wyatt. 1984. Thailand: A Short History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§ Shortly afterwards, however, hostilities with Burma resumed due to the ambitions of a new Burmese dynasty. In 1767, Ayutthaya was once again captured ‒ and this time, it was destroyed. §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 21-22) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. A History of Thailand. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ A number of different spellings of Ayutthaya are in use, including Ayuthaya, Ayudhya, and Ayuthia. §REF§ (Ooi 2004, xxiii) Keat Gin Ooi. 2004. Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia from Angkor Wat to East Timor. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. §REF§ Population and political organization In the Ayutthaya Kingdom, kings ruled over a society composed of a 'service nobility of maybe 2000 people and their families, and a mass of people bound to surrender some or all of their labour to the elite'. §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 15) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. A History of Thailand. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ There was a four-part administrative structure: one ministry was dedicated to the palace and the capital; one to military affairs and relations with tributary states and cities; one to trade, the treasury, and foreign communities; and one, made up of Brahmans, to ritual, astrology, and records. §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 15) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. A History of Thailand. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ It is difficult to give a firm figure for the population of the kingdom as a whole. However, Ayutthaya may have been the largest city in Southeast Asia in the 17th and 18th centuries, §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 13) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. A History of Thailand. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ with perhaps 150,000 inhabitants in 1700 and 160,000 in 1750. §REF§ Christopher K. Chase-Dunn 2001, personal communication 2012 §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

17

Cambodian Basin

Siam

103.8667

13.4125

Angkor Wat

KH

Cambodia

Southeast Asia

41

Mainland Southeast Asia

Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam

{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}

367

EgAyyub

1,171

1,250

Ayyubid Sultanate

eg_ayyubid_sultanate

LEGACY

The Ayyubid Sultanate was established in Egypt by Saladin (Ṣalāḥ-al-dīn), a member of the Kurdish Ayyubid family who had risen to prominence in Syria in the service of a local ruling dynasty, the Zangids. §REF§ (Humphreys 1987) R. S. Humphreys. 1987. 'Ayyubids', Encyclopӕdia Iranica III/2, pp. 164-67; an updated version is available online at <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids</a> (accessed 24 February 2017). §REF§ In 1168-69 CE, the Zangid prince Nur al-Din placed Saladin's uncle, Shirkuh, in command of a military expedition to Egypt (at that time under Fatimid rule) to take control of the country and expel the invading Frankish Crusaders. §REF§ (Lev 2010, 218) Yaacov Lev. 2010. 'The Fatimid Caliphate (358‒567 / 969‒1171) and the Ayyūbids in Egypt (567‒648 / 1171‒1250)', in The New Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 2. The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries, edited by Maribel Fierro, 201-36. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 290) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. A History of Islamic Societies, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Saladin accompanied him and was appointed vizier of Egypt by the Fatimid caliph when Shirkuh died in 1169. §REF§ (Humphreys 1987) R. S. Humphreys. 1987. 'Ayyubids', Encyclopӕdia Iranica III/2, pp. 164-67; an updated version is available online at <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids</a> (accessed 24 February 2017). §REF§ Saladin, however, did not have the local dynasty's interests at heart. He immediately set about undermining its power and the Ismaili (Shi'a) Islam professed by its elite in favour of a new Sunni order, in theory loyal to the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad. §REF§ (Lev 2010, 210-11) Yaacov Lev. 2010. 'The Fatimid Caliphate (358‒567 / 969‒1171) and the Ayyūbids in Egypt (567‒648 / 1171‒1250)', in The New Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 2. The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries, edited by Maribel Fierro, 201-36. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ We begin our Ayyubid Sultanate polity in 1171, when the last Fatimid caliph, Al-Adid, died and Saladin progressed from vizier to sultan in Egypt. §REF§ (Lev 2010, 210) Yaacov Lev. 2010. 'The Fatimid Caliphate (358‒567 / 969‒1171) and the Ayyūbids in Egypt (567‒648 / 1171‒1250)', in The New Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 2. The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries, edited by Maribel Fierro, 201-36. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ He nevertheless suppressed his ambitions until his old Zangid overlord Nur al-Din died in 1174, after which he launched a successful campaign of military expansion into the Levant and Upper Mesopotamia, as well as a brief 'holy war' on the Crusader states along the Levantine coast. §REF§ (Lyons and Jackson 1982, 201) Malcolm Cameron Lyons and D. E. P. Jackson. 1982. Saladin: The Politics of the Holy War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Humphreys 1987) R. S. Humphreys. 1987. 'Ayyubids', Encyclopӕdia Iranica III/2, pp. 164-67; an updated version is available online at <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids</a> (accessed 25 February 2017). §REF§ A succession crisis followed Saladin's death in 1193, and a devastating famine in 1200 reduced parts of the population to cannibalism. §REF§ (Lev 2010, 226) Yaacov Lev. 2010. 'The Fatimid Caliphate (358‒567 / 969‒1171) and the Ayyūbids in Egypt (567‒648 / 1171‒1250)', in The New Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 2. The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries, edited by Maribel Fierro, 201-36. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ However, Saladin's brother, al-'Adil, declared himself sultan in 1200 and managed to impose some degree of internal stability on the empire, §REF§ (Humphreys 1977, 125-26) R. Stephen Humphreys. 1977. From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus, 1193‒1260. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. §REF§ which was split into the kingdoms of Egypt, Damascus, Aleppo and Mosul. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 291) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. A History of Islamic Societies, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The reign of al-'Adil's son, al-Kamil, from 1218 to 1238 CE, was also a relatively stable and prosperous period in Egypt, §REF§ (Werthmuller 2010, 48) Kurt J. Werthmuller. 2010. Coptic Identity and Ayyubid Politics in Egypt, 1218‒1250. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press. §REF§ although he faced opposition from Ayyubid princes in Syria and Palestine. §REF§ (Hamblin 2005, 753) William J. Hamblin. 2005. 'Egypt: Ayyubid Dynasty, 1169-1250', in Encyclopedia of African History, volume 1: A-G, edited by Kevin Shillington, 752-54. New York: Fitzroy Dearborn. §REF§ As-Salih Ayyub, the sultan who came to power in 1240 CE, §REF§ (Keenan 1999, 287) James G. Keenan. 1999. 'Fayyum Agriculture at the End of the Ayyubid Era: Nabulsi's Survey'. Proceedings of the British Academy 96: 287-99. §REF§ attempted to enhance his power at the expense of other Ayyubid princely lines by purchasing many more Turkish Mamluks (high-ranking slave soldiers) than his predecessors. §REF§ (Levanoni 1990, 124) Amalia Levanoni. 1990. 'The Mamluks' Ascent to Power in Egypt'. Studia Islamica 72: 121-44. §REF§ They served him as a military and governmental elite. §REF§ (Humphreys 1987) R. S. Humphreys. 1987. 'Ayyubids', Encyclopӕdia Iranica III/2, pp. 164-67; an updated version is available online at <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids</a> (accessed 25 February 2017). §REF§ §REF§ (Levanoni 1990, 124) Amalia Levanoni. 1990. 'The Mamluks' Ascent to Power in Egypt'. Studia Islamica 72: 121-44. §REF§ The Mamluks' increasingly powerful position proved to be the downfall of the Ayyubid Sultanate when, after Salih-Ayyub's death in 1249, one faction (the Bahriyya Mamluks) assassinated his son Turanshah and seized the throne. §REF§ (Levanoni 1990, 137) Amalia Levanoni. 1990. 'The Mamluks' Ascent to Power in Egypt'. Studia Islamica 72: 121-44. §REF§ The Ayyubid dynasty hung onto power in Syria until 1260, when the Mamluks defeated the invading Mongols at 'Ayn Jalut and gained popular recognition of their right to rule as 'saviours of Islam'. §REF§ (Northrup 1998, 248) Linda S. Northrup. 1998. 'The Baḥrī Mamlūk Sultanate, 1250‒1390', in The Cambridge History of Egypt, Vol. 1: Islamic Egypt, 640‒1517, edited by Carl F. Petry, 242-89. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ However, we end our Ayyubid period with the assassination of Turanshah, the last Ayyubid sultan of Egypt. Population and political organization The Ayyubids made use of the pre-existing Fatimid bureaucratic system to administer Egypt, §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 246) I. M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and ruled via a Turkish and Kurdish 'military aristocracy', including some slave (Mamluk) regiments. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 291) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. A History of Islamic Societies, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lev 2010, 210, 213) Yaacov Lev. 2010. 'The Fatimid Caliphate (358‒567 / 969‒1171) and the Ayyūbids in Egypt (567‒648 / 1171‒1250)', in The New Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 2. The Western Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries, edited by Maribel Fierro, 201-36. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ This was funded by the distribution of iqta's ‒ rights to tax revenue from estates of land ‒ in exchange for military and administrative services. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 291, 877) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. A History of Islamic Societies, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Saladin and his successors also promoted Sunni Islam in the empire by sponsoring law schools (madrasas) to serve as centres for the teaching of Sunni law. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 291, 877) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. A History of Islamic Societies, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The Ayyubid Sultanate was never particularly centralized: it has been described as a 'family confederation', meaning that male members of the ruling dynasty were given principalities across the realm and allowed to govern them with substantial political autonomy. §REF§ (Humphreys 1987) R. S. Humphreys. 1987. 'Ayyubids', Encyclopӕdia Iranica III/2, pp. 164-67; an updated version is available online at <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids</a> (accessed 25 February 2017). §REF§ Kinship ties determined relationships between different princes, so that, for example, two brothers ruling different regions would have less authority over each other than a father would over his son. §REF§ (Humphreys 1987) R. S. Humphreys. 1987. 'Ayyubids', Encyclopӕdia Iranica III/2, pp. 164-67; an updated version is available online at <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ayyubids</a> (accessed 25 February 2017). §REF§ However, the sultan of Egypt was usually successful in asserting his suzerainty over the other kingdoms. §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 291, 877) Ira M. Lapidus. 2002. A History of Islamic Societies, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ It is difficult to find substantiated estimates for the population of the entire Ayyubid Sultanate, but there were about 2.4 million people in Egypt under Saladin. §REF§ (Dols 1977, 149) M. W. Dols. 1977. The Black Death in the Middle East. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

5

Upper Egypt

Northeastern Africa

32.714706

25.725715

Luxor

EG

Egypt

Africa

4

Northeast Africa

Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

16

MxAztec

1,427

1,526

Aztec Empire

mx_aztec_emp

LEGACY

The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Late Postclassic period, when the Aztecs or Mexica rose to power (c. 1427-1526 CE). The Aztec Empire was born from the "Triple Alliance" between the city-states (altepetl) of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan, who agreed to collaborate on campaign of territorial expansion and share the resulting tribute and tax payments. §REF§ (Smith and Sergheraert 2012: 449-451) Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q</a>. §REF§ Within a century, the three cities came to control a significant portion of Northern Mesoamerica, the main exception being the West, which, despite some military successes on the part of the Triple Alliance early on, largely remained under the control of the Tarascans. §REF§ (Evans 2012: 125) Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X</a>. §REF§ As the empire grew, so did the power of Tenochtitlan, which became the de-facto administrative capital, whose ruler came to hold the title huey tlatoani (“high king”). Tenochtitlan's power was strongest over the empire's central provinces, where the Aztecs ruled through governors, judges, tax collectors and other officials that they appointed themselves. For the "outer" provinces, the Aztecs limited themselves to targeting major centres, where, again, they appointed their governors and administrative officials. Finally, the Aztecs secured their power over "frontier" provinces by guaranteeing military protection from external foes, in exchange for "gifts" of soldiers and prestige goods. §REF§ (Smith and Sergheraert 2012: 455-457) Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XC9E2B7Q</a>. §REF§ By the time of Spanish conquest in the 1520s, Tenochtitlan likely housed between 150,000 and 250,000 people, §REF§ (Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to E. Cioni and G. Nazzaro) §REF§ perhaps even 3,000. §REF§ (De Rioja 2017: 220) Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GC3T83JD" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GC3T83JD</a>. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

27

Basin of Mexico

Mexico

-99.13

19.43

Ciudad de Mexico

MX

Mexico

North America

23

Mexico

{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}

510

EgBadar

-4,400

-3,800

Badarian

eg_badarian

LEGACY

The Badarian, a Neolithic archaeological culture located in Upper Egypt and dating from c. 4400 to 3300 BCE, was first described in 1928 by archaeologists Guy Brunton and Gertrude Caton-Thompson, who excavated in the Badari district near Assyut. §REF§ (Hassan 1988, 138) F. A. Hassan. 1988. 'The Predynastic of Egypt'. Journal of World Prehistory 2 (2): 135-85. §REF§ Its relationship to an earlier culture, called the Tasian, is unclear, §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ but there is some evidence to link it to the later Naqada I period in Upper Egypt. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Little is known of the everyday lives of the people who occupied the Badarian sites: our information comes mainly from the numerous grave sites in the region around Assyut. Population and political organization Research on Badarian sites has yielded a total of about 600 graves and 40 poorly documented settlements. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The culture was first identified in the el-Badari region, near the modern city of Sohag, but several small sites near the villages of Qau el-Kebir, Hammamiya, Mostagedda, and Matmar are also categorized as Badarian. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Characteristic Badarian material culture has also been discovered much further south at Mahgar Dendera, Armant, Elkab, and Hierakonpolis, as well as to the east of the Nile in the Wadi Hammamat. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The archaeology of the period has inevitably been affected by the flooding of the Nile over the millennia: any larger, more permanent settlements were likely situated close to the great river and subsequently washed away or covered with alluvium. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Surviving remains come from raised desert spurs and include 'huts and windbreaks associated with hearths and large, well-shaped granary pits or silos'. §REF§ (Hassan 1988, 153) F. A. Hassan. 1988. 'The Predynastic of Egypt'. Journal of World Prehistory 2 (2): 135-85. §REF§ A Badarian settlement at Deir Tasa covered an area of about 5000 square metres. §REF§ (Hassan 1988, 153) F. A. Hassan. 1988. 'The Predynastic of Egypt'. Journal of World Prehistory 2 (2): 135-85. §REF§ At the Seshat standard of 50-200 inhabitants per hectare, this gives us an estimated population between the range of 25 and 100 inhabitants. Evidence from Badarian settlements shows that the people who occupied these sites were primarily engaged in agriculture and animal husbandry, §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ but we know trade also occurred. Badarians imported raw materials like wood, turquoise, shells and ivory and exchanged goods with groups from as far away as Palestine, the Red Sea and Syria. §REF§ (Trigger 1983, 29) Bruce G. Trigger. 1983. 'The Rise of Egyptian Civilization', in Ancient Egypt: A Social History edited by Bruce G. Trigger, Barry J. Kemp, David O'Connor and Alan B Lloyd, 1-70. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Model boats found at the site of Merimda to the north 'suggest that boats and canoes were already in use [in Egypt] before 4500 B.C.' §REF§ (Hassan 1988, 157) F. A. Hassan. 1988. 'The Predynastic of Egypt'. Journal of World Prehistory 2 (2): 135-85. §REF§ Very little can be concluded about Badarian political and social structure, but analysis of grave goods shows that there was an unequal distribution of wealth, and that the wealthier graves tended to be kept separate within the cemeteries. §REF§ (Hendrickx and Vermeersch 2000, 36-40) Stan Hendrickx and Pierre Vermeersch. 2000. 'Prehistory: From the Palaeolithic to the Badarian Culture', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 16-40. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ However, no monumental remains have been found so it is likely that higher-status members of society did not command a significant labour force.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

5

Upper Egypt

Northeastern Africa

32.714706

25.725715

Luxor

EG

Egypt

Africa

4

Northeast Africa

Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

379

MmPagan

1,044

1,287

Bagan

mm_bagan

LEGACY

null

2023-11-14T13:55:38.367148Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

41

Mainland Southeast Asia

Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam

{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}

411

InBahma

1,347

1,518

Bahmani Sultanate

in_bahmani_sultanate

LEGACY

null

2025-04-08T15:48:16.237373Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

40

Southern India

Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana

{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}

262

KrBalha

698

926

Balhae Kingdom

kr_balhae_k

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

14

Northeast Asia

Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East

{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}

434

MlBaman

1,712

1,861

Bamana kingdom

ml_bamana_k

LEGACY

The Bamana Kingdom was founded in 1712 by Biton Kulibali §REF§ (Brett-Smith 2002, 940) Sarah C. Brett-Smith. 2002. 'Bamana Identity, State Formation, and the Sources of Bamana Art'. American Anthropologist 104 (3): 939-52. §REF§ and became part of the Tukulor (or Toucouleur) empire in 1861, when El Hajj Umar Tall seized the capital, Segu. §REF§ (Oloruntimehin 1972, 141) B. Olofunmilayo Oloruntimehin. 1972. The Segu Tukulor Empire. London: Longman. §REF§ This polity derives its name from its dominant ethnic group, §REF§ (Brett-Smith 2002, 939-952) Sarah C. Brett-Smith. 2002. 'Bamana Identity, State Formation, and the Sources of Bamana Art'. American Anthropologist 104(3): 939-952. §REF§ and because an alternative name for this group is 'Bambara', some sources will refer to the 'Bambara kingdom'. §REF§ (Izard and Ki-Zerbo 1992, 329-338) Michel Izard and Joseph Ki-Zerbo. 1992. 'From the Niger to the Volta' in "General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries", edited by Bethwell Allan Ogot. London: Heinemann. §REF§ Because this was not the only Bambara kingdom at the time, it is often known as the Bambara Kingdom of Segu, from the name of its capital. French spellings of some of these names are also commonly found in the literature ‒ for example, Kulibali is sometimes spelled Coulibaly and Segu is sometimes spelled Segou. §REF§ (Brett-Smith 2002, 940) Sarah C. Brett-Smith. 2002. 'Bamana Identity, State Formation, and the Sources of Bamana Art'. American Anthropologist 104(3): 939-52. §REF§ The kingdom was located in the Niger Bend, in West Africa. Between 1725 and 1751, under Biton's leadership, the Bamana of Segu conquered the whole of Bamana territory (including the Beledugu region, Jenne, and Timbuktu), and took Niani, the capital of the Mali Empire. §REF§ (Izard and Ki-Zerbo 1992, 333) Michel Izard and Joseph Ki-Zerbo. 1992. 'From the Niger to the Volta', in General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries, edited by Bethwell Allan Ogot, 327-67. London: Heinemann. §REF§ After a series of weak successors, Ngolo Diarra (1766‒1790) strengthened the kingdom's hold over Timbuktu and Macina and conquered part of Dogon country. §REF§ (Izard and Ki-Zerbo 1992, 333-34) Michel Izard and Joseph Ki-Zerbo. 1992. 'From the Niger to the Volta', in General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries, edited by Bethwell Allan Ogot, 327-67. London: Heinemann. §REF§ The Bamana Kingdom reached its greatest size under the rule of Monson Diarra (1792‒1808), who extended Segu power from San to Timbuktu, and from the Land of the Dogons to Kaarta. §REF§ (Izard and Ki-Zerbo 1992, 334) Michel Izard and Joseph Ki-Zerbo. 1992. 'From the Niger to the Volta', in General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries, edited by Bethwell Allan Ogot, 327-67. London: Heinemann. §REF§ Population and Political Organization The Bamana kingdom was ruled by single leader, known as the faama, who also led the army and was advised by an assembly of 40 men, including warriors and holy men. This assembly was based on a pre-existing Bamana institution known as fla-n-ton or ton, that is, an association of young men who had undergone circumcision together. With exceptions like Biton Kulibali and Ngolo Diarra, it seems that most faama were weak and ineffectual, at the mercy of the assembly. Stronger rulers, however, were able to govern with few constraints. §REF§ (Izard and Ki-Zerbo 1992, 333-34) Michel Izard and Joseph Ki-Zerbo. 1992. 'From the Niger to the Volta', in General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries, edited by Bethwell Allan Ogot, 327-67. London: Heinemann. §REF§ It is also worth noting that slavery was an important institution in the Bamana kingdom: the trade in slaves for guns and horses lay at the heart of the power of this nascent 'warrior-state'. §REF§ (Brett-Smith 2002, 941) Sarah C. Brett-Smith. 2002. 'Bamana Identity, State Formation, and the Sources of Bamana Art'. American Anthropologist 104 (3): 939-52. §REF§ No official population estimates could be found for the Bamana Kingdom. However, the kingdom covered about half the territory of modern Mali, Guinea and Senegal, and the total population of these three countries in 1960 was around 12 million. §REF§ (World Bank 2016) World Bank, World DataBank. 2016. 'Mali: Population, total' [dataset]. Retrieved from <a class="external free" href="http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=ML&view=chart" rel="nofollow">http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=ML&view=chart</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (World Bank 2016) World Bank, World DataBank. 2016. 'Guinea: Population, total' [dataset]. Retrieved from <a class="external free" href="http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?end=1960&locations=GN&start=1960&view=chart" rel="nofollow">http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?end=1960&locations=GN&start=1960&view=chart</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (World Bank 2016) World Bank, World DataBank. 2016. 'Senegal: Population, total' [dataset]. Retrieved from <a class="external free" href="http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?end=1960&locations=SN&start=1960&view=chart" rel="nofollow">http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?end=1960&locations=SN&start=1960&view=chart</a>. §REF§ No reference could be found to a population crash between 1800 and 1960, but demographic growth was probably slower in the 19th century than in the 20th century. The population of the Bamana Kingdom in 1800 may have numbered three or four million people.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

6

Niger Inland Delta

Sahel

-3.041703

16.717549

Timbuctu

ML

Mali

Africa

7

West Africa

From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

828

ba_bosnia_banate

1,154

1,376

Banate of Bosnia

ba_bosnia_banate

OTHER_TAG

null

Banate of Bosnia

null

2024-04-09T14:06:42.415836Z

2024-04-09T14:06:42.415847Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

19

Southeastern Europe

Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

226

IbBnGhn

1,126

1,227

Banu Ghaniya

ib_banu_ghaniya

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

3

Maghreb

From Morocco to Libya

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

481

IqBazi*

-1,005

-986

Bazi Dynasty

iq_bazi_dyn

LEGACY

This period begins with the ascension of the founder of the Bazi dynasty, Eulmash-shakin-shumi in 1005 BCE after a turbulent period of famine and invasions. §REF§ (Brinkman, 297) Brinkman, J.A. 1982. “Babylonia.” In The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 3, Part 1: The Prehistory of the Balkans, the Middle East and the Aegean World, Tenth to Eighth Centuries B.C., edited by John Boardman, I.E.S. Edwards, N.G.L. Hammond, and E. Sollberger, 282-312. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IWUWJEQ3" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IWUWJEQ3</a>. §REF§ There were four main settlement types during this period: the capital city of Babylon, secondary provincial cities, smaller towns, and villages. Although the capital city was Babylon, it was the city of Kar-Marduk where the king resided, potentially as this was located in a less vulnerable area. §REF§ Liverani, M. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge. p.364-370 §REF§ Although all settlements were joined under the king, political and economic crisis led to all major cities running their own affairs and so they held some level of autonomy. Temples acted as the centres of resources, policy and activity in each area and the sanga / shangum (chief priest) was an administrative as well as religious role. §REF§ (Liverani 2014, 471) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (McIntosh 2005: 206) McIntosh, J. 2005. Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD</a>. §REF§ Written records, scripts, poems, religious texts and ‘scientific’ literature increased during this period.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

8

Southern Mesopotamia

Levant-Mesopotamia

44.42

32.47

Babylon (Hillah)

IQ

Iraq

Southwest Asia

62

Mesopotamia

Iraq, Kuwait

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}