milesjreding/Seshat_db · Datasets at Hugging Face

791

bd_khadga_dyn

650

700

Khadga Dynasty

bd_khadga_dyn

OTHER_TAG

null

2023-12-07T16:13:34.676069Z

2023-12-07T16:13:34.676082Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

37

Eastern South Asia

Bangladesh + Indian states of West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and Sikkim

{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}

469

UzJanid

1,599

1,747

Khanate of Bukhara

uz_janid_dyn

LEGACY

"Under their rule the city and khanate crystallized into an almost classical pattern of a Muslim polity of its time, cherishing and even enhancing traditional values while ignoring or rejecting the vertiginous changes initiated by the Europeans but now reaching other parts of the world. Most khans, especially the virtuous Abdalaziz (ruled 1645-81), were devout Muslims who favored the religious establishment and adorned Bukhara with still more mosques and madrasas." §REF§ (Soucek 2000, 177) §REF§ "(g) Janids or Ashtarkhanids (or Toqay-Timurids: descendants of Toqay-Timur, Juchi’s 13th son); Bukhara, 1599-1785; Bosworth, pp. 290-1)x. Yar Muhammad1. Jani Muhammad (1599-1603)2. Baqi Muhammad (1603-1606), his son, 2nd generation3. Vali Muhammad (1606-12), Baqi Muhammad’s brother4. Imam Quli (1612-42), their nephew, 3rd generation5. Nazr Muhammad (1642-45), his brother6. Abd al-Aziz (1645-81), Nazr Muhammad’s son, 4th generation 7. Subhan Quli (1681-1702), Abd al-Aziz’s brother8. Ubaydallah I (1702-11), Subhan Quli’s son, 5th generation9. Abu l-Fayz (1711-47), Ubaydallah’s brother10. Abd al-Mu’min (1747), his son,6th generation11. Ubaydallah II (1747-53), Abd al-Mu’min’s brotherx. [Muhammad Rahim the Manghit, in the absence of Janid incum- bency]12. Abu l-Ghazi (1758-85), from a lateral branchEnd of Genghisid rule in Transoxania" §REF§ (Soucek 2000, 325-326) §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

23

Sogdiana

Turkestan

66.93817

39.631284

Samarkand

UZ

Uzbekistan

Central Eurasia

13

Turkestan

Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

903

az_caucasus_khanates

1,748

1,828

Khanates of the Caucasus

az_caucasus_khanates

OTHER_TAG

null

Khanates of the Caucasus

null

2024-10-16T09:28:22.181427Z

2024-10-16T09:28:22.181445Z

null

43

Anatolia-Caucasus

Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

285

RuKhazar

626

965

Khazar Empire

ru_khazar_emp

LEGACY

null

2024-11-26T14:07:43.196812Z

{'id': 152, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

null

10

Pontic-Caspian

The steppe belt of Ukraine and European Russia

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

288

MnKhitn

907

1,125

Khitan I

mn_khitan_1

LEGACY

"The Khitan first appear in documentary sources in the 4th century as a people of the south-central portion of northeast China, from a region of mountains and open grasslands. Under the leadership of Abaoji, the Khitan rapidly adopted a centralized royal form of organization, with clear similarities to Chinese traditions but also incorporating some of the familiar steppe pastoralist strategies (Wittfogel and Feng 1949, pp. 59-65). Although Buddhism was a central feature of the polity, as the empire expanded into Central Asia the majority of the population was actually Muslim (Biran 2006, p. 66; Dunnell 1996, p. 4)." §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 227) §REF§ "Liao occupation of the Central Plains, 947" §REF§ (Standen 2009, 102) §REF§ "The Liao emperor did not conquer and govern the Central Plains directly. ... by dint of military success, he had become the legitimate emperor of the Central Plains. Familiar with T'ang protocols, and advised by formally educated ministers from both Liao and the Later Chin, Te-kuang observed such practices as declaring a new dynasty, wearing Chinese dress, and reemploying former officials. ... He appointed new governors, demoted K'ai-feng from its capital status, and established Chen-chou as a capital instead. But Te-kuang did not intend to stay. ... he treaded the conquest as a very large raid, in which public relations were irrelevant and only loot mattered. Perhaps most damaging to Te-kuang's image was the policy of "smashing the pasture and grain" (ta ts'ao-yu) ... The Liao armies devestated the region around the capital, foraging to supply themselves and practicing the all-too-common cruelties of soldiers in wartime. To reward his troops, claimed to number three hundred thousand, Te-kuang demanded from an already overtaxed population cash and cloth to be stockpiled for transport north. Most ambitious of all was Te-kuang's attempt to take north every material element of the Later Chin imperial institution, including palace women and eunuchs, the complete contents of the imperial storehouses, and every last bureaucrat. ... Te-kuang ... apparently wrote his younger brother listing his own three faults in this venture: demanding cash from the people. ordering indiscriminate foraging and plundering, and failing to return the governors to their provinces in good time. The letter, preserved in the Liao shih (Official history of the Liao), describes the "foreignness" of the Khitan: they are raiders (rather than tax collectors) and pastoralists (rather than farmers), and they keep their governors at court(rather than giving them active responsibility in their provinces)." §REF§ (Standen 2009, 102-103) §REF§ Revolts against Liao: "Te-kuang, preoccupied with removing himself and his plunder north to the Liao homeland, was largely unresponsive to these events, although he did make an example of Hsiang-chou2, slaughting some hundred thousand men and children, and taking away the women." §REF§ (Standen 2009, 105) §REF§ "The Liao, for their part,did not vigorously defend the territory they had conquered. On the few occasions when they did fight, they did not try very hard." §REF§ (Standen 2009, 105) §REF§ "The one region the Liao seemed concerned to hold was the key strategic city of Chen-chou, which controlled the main access between the Central Plains and the Liao homeland." §REF§ (Standen 2009, 106) §REF§ Standen, N. "The Five Dynasties." in Twitchett, D and Smith, P J ed. 2009. The Cambridge History of China Volume 5: The Sung Dynasty and its Precursors, 907-1279, Part 1. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. "The comitatus of the early Khitan, a Mongolic people, is known from the ac- counts of An Lu-shan’s Rebellion. For a detailed treatment of the later Liao Dynasty of the Khitan, including discussion of its imperial guard corps, see the outstanding early study by Wittfogel and Fêng (1949). “Each [Khitan Liao] emperor had a separate ordo, or camp, with a ‘heart and belly guard’ of 10,000 to 20,000 households. . . . The members of this guard, particularly the non-Khitans, were the emperor’s private slaves, but their proximity to him gave them high status. After the emperor’s death they guarded his mausoleum while his suc- cessor recruited a new ordo and guard” (Atwood 2004: 297). The Liao state, with its five capitals (ordo), seems to have been organized, theoretically, around the ideal of the “khan and four-bey” system. The khan of the Kereit, who were rivals of Temüjin during his rise to power, “had crack forces of ba’aturs, ‘heroes’, and a 1,000-man day guard, institutions Chinggis Khan would later imitate” (Atwood 2004: 296), along with the golden tent (ordo) connected to them." §REF§ (Beckwith 2009, 391-392) §REF§

null

2023-10-23T16:42:37.138401Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

24

Orkhon Valley

Mongolia

102.845486

47.200757

Karakorum

MN

Mongolia

Central Eurasia

9

Mongolia

Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

43

KhCambd

1,432

1,594

Khmer Kingdom

kh_khmer_k

LEGACY

This polity covers the post-Angkor period of Cambodia's history from the early 15th to the end of the 16th century CE. In 1432, the magnificent city of Angkor was sacked by the forces of King Trailok ‒ of the increasingly powerful Thai Kingdom of Ayutthaya ‒ who carried off the Khmer royal regalia as a symbol of their victory. §REF§ (Stark 2006, 146, 164) Miriam T. Stark. 2006. 'From Funan to Angkor: Collapse and Regeneration in Ancient Cambodia', in After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and John J. Nichols, 144-67. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Hall 2011, 233) Kenneth R. Hall. 2011. A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Social Development, 100-1500. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. §REF§ A Khmer royal presence continued at Angkor in reduced form until around 1504, when the rulers retreated to a site near Phnom Penh on the Mekong River, southeast of Tonlé Sap Lake. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 208-09) Michael D. Coe. 2003. Angkor and the Khmer Civilization. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ §REF§ (Andaya 1992, 402-59) Barbara Watson Andaya. 1992. 'Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ However, Thai strength in the region continued to grow at the expense of the Khmer court, and in 1594 the then-capital Lovek was also attacked by the Thais, forcing the Cambodian king to flee to Laos. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 210) Michael D. Coe. 2003. Angkor and the Khmer Civilization. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ Due to the Angkor kings' waning fortunes and endemic warfare with Ayutthaya, §REF§ (Andaya 1992, 421) Barbara Watson Andaya. 1992. 'Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ it is difficult to identify the 'peak' of this polity. Indeed, the post-Angkor period is sometimes referred to somewhat dismissively as the 'Middle Period' of Cambodian history, §REF§ (Thompson 1997, 22) Ashley Thompson. 1997. 'Changing Perspectives: Cambodia after Angkor', in Sculpture of Angkor and Ancient Cambodia: Millennium of Glory, edited by Helen I. Jessop and Thierry Zephir, 22-32. Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art. §REF§ but it should be noted that this term tends to also encompass the span of time between 1594 and the establishment of the French Protectorate in 1863. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 195) Michael D. Coe. 2003. Angkor and the Khmer Civilization. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ Population and political organization Although centralized Khmer power was much weaker than in former centuries, and very few inscriptions survive to throw light on political organization, §REF§ (Thompson 1997, 22-23) Ashley Thompson. 1997. 'Changing Perspectives: Cambodia after Angkor', in Sculpture of Angkor and Ancient Cambodia: Millennium of Glory, edited by Helen I. Jessop and Thierry Zephir, 22-32. Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art. §REF§ Khmer royals did still rise up periodically to assert their authority. For instance, historical accounts indicate that a king called Ang Chan reconquered Angkor in the 16th century and built a golden palace. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 208-09) Michael D. Coe. 2003. Angkor and the Khmer Civilization. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ Meanwhile, the new capital on the lower Mekong was international in outlook, with quarters for Malay, Chinese and Japanese traders, §REF§ (Coe 2003, 208-09) Michael D. Coe. 2003. Angkor and the Khmer Civilization. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ and some post-Classic Khmer kings had Japanese and Portuguese guards in their entourage. §REF§ (Jacq-Hergoualc'h and Smithies 2007, 98) M. Jacq-Hergoualc'h and M. Smithies. 2007. The Armies of Angkor. Bangkok: Orchid Press. §REF§ More generally, this period was characterized by increasing commercial, religious and political connections within mainland Southeast Asia and greater integration into global trade networks, §REF§ (Andaya 1992, 411-12) Barbara Watson Andaya. 1992. 'Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ especially after the arrival of the Portuguese in 1511. §REF§ (Hall 2011, 35-36) Kenneth R. Hall. 2011. A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Social Development, 100-1500. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. §REF§ Wars between mainland Southeast Asian rulers did not preclude the development of a common, 'hybrid' culture among the wider population. §REF§ (Andaya 1992, 411-12) Barbara Watson Andaya. 1992. 'Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Likewise, one reason for the relocation of the Khmer capital (in addition to Thai attacks and drought coupled with 'intense monsoons') §REF§ (Buckley et al. 2010, 6748) Brendan M. Buckley, Kevin J. Anchukaitisa, Daniel Penny, Roland Fletcher, Edward R. Cook, Masaki Sano, Le Canh Nam, Aroonrut Wichienkeeo, Ton That Minh and Truong Mai Hong. 2010. 'Climate as a Contributing Factor in the Demise of Angkor, Cambodia'. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107 (15): 6748-51. §REF§ was likely 'a desire for greater participation in seaborne trade'. §REF§ (Andaya 1992, 410) Barbara Watson Andaya. 1992. 'Political Development between the Sixteenth and Eighteenth Centuries', in The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

17

Cambodian Basin

Siam

103.8667

13.4125

Angkor Wat

KH

Cambodia

Southeast Asia

41

Mainland Southeast Asia

Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam

{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}

295

TmKhwrz

1,157

1,231

Khwarezmid Empire

tm_khwarezmid_emp

LEGACY

The Khwarezmid (Khwarazmian or Khorezmian or Khorezmshah) Empire was ruled by the Khwarazmian dynasty (also known by Khwarazmshah dynasty, Anushtegin dynasty or Anushteginids) and consisted of parts of modern-day Iran, Afghanistan and Central Asia. The Khwarazmshah dynasty were initially vassal rulers of the Seljuqs but later established their own independent state - which quickly grew into an empire - after the death of the Seljuq Sultan, Sanjar, in 1157. The polity ends after the Mongol conquest of the region in 1219-1221, and the death of the final Khwarazmshah, Muḥammad, Jalāl al-Dīn, in 1231. The list of rulers are: c. 470/c. 1077 Anūshtigin Gharcha’ī nominal Khwārazm Shāh. 490/1097 Ekinchi b. Qochqar, Turkish governor with the title Khwdrazm Shah. 490/1097 Arslan Tigin Muḥammad b. Anūshtigin, Abu ’l-Fatḥ, Quṭb al-Dín, Khwārazm Shah. 521/1127 Qïzïl Arslan Atsïz b. Muḥammad, Abu ‘l-Muẓaffar ‘Alā al-Dīn. 551/1156 Il Arslan b. Atsïz, Abu’ l-Fatḥ. 567/1172 Tekish b. Il Arslan, Abu’ l-Muẓaffar Tāj al-Dunyā wa ‘ l-Dīn. 567– 89/1172–93 Mahmūd b. Il Arslan, Abu ‘ l-Qāsim Sulṭan Shāh, Jalāl al- Dunyā wa ’l-Dīn, rival ruler in northern Khurasan, d.589/1193. 596/1200 Muḥammad b. Tekish ‘Alā’ al-Dīn. 617–28/1220–31 Mengübirti (one of the usual renderings of this cryptic Turkish name; a further possibility suggested recently by Dr Peter Jackson is Mingīrinī: ‘having a thousand men’ = the familiar Persian name Hazārmard) b. Muḥammad, Jalāl al-Dīn. Mongol conquest of Transoxania and Persia. §REF§Khwarazmshahs I. Descendants of the Line of Anuštigin. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U9U8ZTYS§REF§§REF§Bosworth 2012: 301-302. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B6JRSLIB§REF§§REF§ Soucek 2000: 320. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GNQIHZ4T§REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

13

Turkestan

Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

281

AfKidar

388

477

Kidarite Kingdom

af_kidarite_k

LEGACY

The Kidarite state in Central Asia (~ 388-477 CE) may have lasted less than 100 years, but its earliest phase under the suzerainty of the Sassanid Empire is not well known. §REF§ (Zeimal 1996, 125) E. V. Zeimal. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf §REF§ "It has been suggested that they conquered K'ang-chu and Sogdiana in c. 300 but the literary sources have not yet been corroborated by the archaeological evidence." §REF§ (Zeimal 1996, 124-125) E V Zeimal. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf §REF§ The most influential ruler of the Kidarites was perhaps king Kidara: narrative sources place him in the c420s CE but numismatists agree his rule began c390 CE. §REF§ (Grenet 2005) Frantz Grenet. 2005. KIDARITES. Iranicaonline. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kidarites §REF§ The Chinese chronicle Peo-Shih (Annals of the Wei Dynasty) say Kidara held "vast territories to the north and south of the Hindu Kush" and his most imporant city was near Peshawar, probably Purushapura, §REF§ (Zeimal 1996, 126) E V Zeimal. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf §REF§ the late capital of the Kushan Empire. Much like the Kushan Empire little is known about how exactly they ruled their territories. The Kidarites founded new cities (Panjikent and Kushaniya), Kushaniya being a royal foundation §REF§ (Grenet 2005) Frantz Grenet. 2005. KIDARITES. Iranicaonline. www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kidarites §REF§ that shows that the Kidarites attempted to draw some of their legitimacy from the preceding Kushan period. Zeimal (1996) concludes that "It seems likely that the administrative and government structure created by the Kushans was left largely intact under the Kidarites." §REF§ (Zeimal 1996, 132) Zeimal, E. V. The Kidarite Kingdom In Central Asia. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.123-137. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

23

Sogdiana

Turkestan

66.93817

39.631284

Samarkand

UZ

Uzbekistan

Central Eurasia

8

Afghanistan

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

314

UaKiev1

880

1,242

Kievan Rus

ua_kievan_rus

LEGACY

null

2024-11-18T16:37:16.777845Z

{'id': 130, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

null

16

Eastern Europe

Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

895

kz_kimek_conf

880

1,227

Kimek–Kipchak Confederation

kz_kimek_conf

OTHER_TAG

null

Kimek–Kipchak Confederation

null

2024-07-03T14:30:47.503291Z

2024-07-03T14:30:47.503305Z

null

13

Turkestan

Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

740

af_afghanistan_k

1,927

1,973

Kingdom of Afghanistan

af_afghanistan_k

OTHER_TAG

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

8

Afghanistan

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

822

gb_alba_k

900

1,292

Kingdom of Alba

gb_alba_k

OTHER_TAG

null

Kingdom of Alba

null

2024-04-09T12:50:03.928211Z

2024-07-03T15:53:08.626528Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

20

Western Europe

British Isles, France, Low Countries

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

880

fr_arles_k

933

1,006

Kingdom of Arles

fr_arles_k

OTHER_TAG

null

Kingdom of Arles

null

2024-05-18T16:42:01.797477Z

2024-05-18T16:42:01.797492Z

null

20

Western Europe

British Isles, France, Low Countries

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

842

es_asturias_k

718

924

Kingdom of Asturias

es_asturias_k

OTHER_TAG

null

Kingdom of Asturias

null

2024-04-10T08:30:50.133883Z

2024-04-10T08:30:50.133896Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

416

InAyodE

-64

34

Kingdom of Ayodhya

in_ayodhya_k

LEGACY

The Middle Ganga corresponds to the eastern portion of the Upper Ganga Plain, in the eastern part of the north-central modern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh and the state of Bihar. From the literature consulted, it is not entirely clear which polity occupied this region between the first century BCE and the first CE, though it was likely a relatively small kingdom resulting from the fragmentation of the Sunga Empire. This should therefore be considered a temporary "placeholder" page.

null

2024-07-19T07:50:20.956498Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

14

Middle Ganga

Indo-Gangetic Plain

82.7

25.75

Jaunpur

UTPR

India

South Asia

64

North India

Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal

{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}

676

se_baol_k

1,550

1,890

Kingdom of Baol

se_baol_k

POL_AFR_WEST

The Kingdom of Baol became an independent kingdom after the breakup of the Jolof Empire in the mid-sixteenth century. Baol established its capital in Lambaye. §REF§ (Bigon and Ross 2020, 42) Bigon, Liora and Ross, Eric. 2020. Grid Planning in the Urban Design Practices of Senegal. London: Springer. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MM67I638/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MM67I638/collection</a> §REF§ Some scholars such as Fiona McLaughlin have classified the Kingdom of Baol as a Wolof kingdom while Liora Bigon and Eric Ross and Ibrahima Thiaw have grouped the Baol along with its Sereer neighbours. Nevertheless, the Kingdom of Baol had longstanding unions with the Wolof kingdom of Cayor throughout its duration and their leader was known as the damel-teen signifying the merging of both kingdoms. The Kingdom of Baol like its coastal neighbours participated in trade relations with various European partners, particularly the French. §REF§ (Ogot 1999, 138) Ogot, B. A. 1999. ‘Senegambia from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century: Evolution of Wolof, Sereer and Tukuloor.’ In General History of Africa V. from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century. Berkeley: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/862PZTJ6/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/862PZTJ6/collection</a> §REF§ In 1890 CE the Kingdom of Baol became a protectorate of the French Empire. §REF§ (Glover 2009, 74) Glover, John. 2019. ‘Murid Modernity: Historical Perceptions of Islamic Reform, Sufism, and Colonization.’ In New Perspectives on Islam in Senegal: Conversion, Migration, Wealth, Power, and Femininity. Edited by Mamadou Diouf and Mara Leichtman. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ET3G9CJD/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ET3G9CJD/collection</a> §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

7

West Africa

From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

568

cz_bohemian_k_2

1,310

1,526

Kingdom of Bohemia - Luxembourgian and Jagiellonian Dynasty

cz_bohemian_k_2

LEGACY

“The physical setting for this history is fixed easily enough: the lands of the present-day Czech Republic, which closely correspond to the core of the historical Kingdom of Bohemia (Bohemia proper, Mora- via, and part of Silesia) lie between 51° 03’ and 48° 33’ north latitude, and 12° 05’ and 18° 51’ east longitude.”§REF§(Agnew 2004: 4) Agnew, Hugh LeCaine. 2004. The Czechs and the Lands of the Bohemian Crown. California: Hoover Institution Press. http://archive.org/details/czechslandsofboh0000agne. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6LBQ5ARI§REF§ This polity period begins and ends with the rule of the House of Luxembourg, which succeeded four centuries of the Přemyslid dynasty. “From 1310 to 1437 Bohemia was ruled by the House of Luxemburg, many of whom were Emperors of Germany as well as Kings of Bohemia.”§REF§(Thorndike 1917: 552) Thorndike, Lynn. 1917. The History of Medieval Europe. Massachusetts, USA: The Riverside Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KJSEM6KC§REF§ “Sigismund, who it will be remembered, became emperor in 1410, succeeded his brother Wenzel as King of Bohemia as well, where he reigned from 1419 to his death in 1437, so far as the Hussites, indignant at his betrayal of their leader, would let him. On Sigismund's death, Bohemia and Hungary, like the imperial office which he had held, passed for a few years to the House of Hapsburg. But then, through exercise of the old custom of election by the nobility, the two lands came under the rule of native kings and did not again come into the possession of the Austrian dynasty until well into the sixteenth century.”§REF§(Thorndike 1917: 553) Thorndike, Lynn. 1917. The History of Medieval Europe. Massachusetts, USA: The Riverside Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KJSEM6KC§REF§

null

2024-01-26T14:05:25.538254Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

15

Central Europe

Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

598

cz_bohemian_k_1

1,198

1,309

Kingdom of Bohemia - Přemyslid Dynasty

cz_bohemian_k_1

LEGACY

The Kingdom of Bohemia under the Přemyslid dynasty from 1198 to 1309 CE was a period marked by significant development, territorial expansion, and the consolidation of royal power, which laid the foundational structures of the Bohemian state and its integration into the broader European medieval political landscape. This era witnessed the transformation of Bohemia from a duchy into a kingdom, with Prague emerging as a significant cultural and political center in Central Europe.§REF§Jaroslav Pánek and Oldřich Tůma, A History of the Czech Lands (Prague: Karolinum Press, 2009).<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5MFK58ZP" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: 5MFK58ZP</a>§REF§ The formal recognition of Bohemia as a kingdom came in 1198, when Duke Ottokar I assumed the title of King, a status confirmed by the Holy Roman Emperor. This elevation reflected not only the growing power and prestige of the Přemyslid rulers but also the strategic importance of Bohemia within the Holy Roman Empire.§REF§Jörg K. Hoensch, Geschichte Böhmens: von der slavischen Landnahme bis zur Gegenwart.<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/APL977ZI" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: APL977ZI</a>§REF§ The Přemyslid dynasty, which traced its origins back to the 9th century, was instrumental in shaping the identity and political structures of the Bohemian state.§REF§Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Neue Deutsche Biographie.<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2B7YCXT3" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: 2B7YCXT3</a>§REF§ One of the most notable rulers of this period was Ottokar II (1253-1278), known as Ottokar the Great. His reign was characterized by ambitious territorial expansion, extending Bohemian control over adjacent regions, including Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, thereby significantly enhancing the kingdom's power and influence in Central Europe. Ottokar II's efforts to consolidate his rule and expand his territory brought him into conflict with other regional powers and the Holy Roman Emperor, leading to his eventual defeat and death at the Battle of Marchfeld in 1278.§REF§Hoensch, Přemysl Otakar II. von Böhmen.<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LVNSK3MW" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: LVNSK3MW</a>§REF§ Despite the dynastic challenges and occasional conflicts with the Holy Roman Empire, the Přemyslid dynasty succeeded in maintaining Bohemia's sovereignty and distinct identity within the imperial framework. The legal codifications and administrative reforms of this period laid the groundwork for the kingdom's future development. The end of the Přemyslid dynasty came in 1306, following the assassination of Wenceslaus III. The subsequent period saw the rise of the Luxembourg dynasty, which would continue to shape the kingdom's trajectory in the future.§REF§Hirschbiegel, Höfe und Residenzen im spätmittelalterlichen Reich.<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R4DMTD9L" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: R4DMTD9L</a>§REF§

null

2024-02-06T12:13:29.036347Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

15

Central Europe

Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

829

ba_bosnia_k

1,377

1,463

Kingdom of Bosnia

ba_bosnia_k

OTHER_TAG

null

Banate of Bosnia

null

2024-04-09T14:07:38.781077Z

2024-04-09T14:07:38.781090Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

19

Southeastern Europe

Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

674

se_cayor_k

1,549

1,864

Kingdom of Cayor

se_cayor_k

POL_AFR_WEST

The Kingdom of Cayor was part of the Wolof kingdoms who spoke the Wolof language in northern Senegal. §REF§ (McLaughlin 2008, 93) McLaughlin, Fiona. 2008. ‘Senegal: The Emergence of a National Lingua Franca’. In Languages and National Identity in Africa. Edited by Andrew Simpson. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/7VBFQ96V/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/7VBFQ96V/collection</a> §REF§ The Kingdom of Cayor originate in the 11th or 12th centuries but became part of the confederacy with the Jolof Empire in 14th century. §REF§ (Barry 1999, 263) Barry, Boubacar. 1999. ‘Senegambia from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century: Evolution of the Wolof, Sereer and ‘Tukuloor.’ In General History of Africa. V: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century. Edited by B.A. Ogot. Berkely: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/24W2293H/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/24W2293H/collection</a> §REF§ The Cayor eventually broke the confederation with the Jolof Empire around 1549 CE and became an independent kingdom from which we get its start date. §REF§ (Europa Publications 2003, 358) Europa Publications. 2003. A Political Chronology of Africa. London: Taylor and Francis. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/528D563M/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/528D563M/collection</a> §REF§ The capital of the Kingdom was at Mdaud. §REF§ (Reclus 1892, 159) Reclus, Elisee et al. 1892. The Earth and Its Inhabitants: West Africa. New York: D. Appleton and Company. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2494BGCZ/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2494BGCZ/collection</a> §REF§ Like its Wolof neighbours of Waalo, the kingdom of Cayor was largely involved in the slave and horse trades for the Atlantic and Saharan markets. §REF§ (Webb Jr 1993, 246) Webb Jr, James L.A. 1993. ‘The Horse and Slave Trade between the Western Sahara and Senegambia.’ Journal of African History. Vol. 34:2. Pp 221-246. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/JDZFX3SC/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/JDZFX3SC/collection</a> §REF§ The Kingdom of Cayor was monarchical and was ruled by the Damel or king. §REF§ (The Philanthropist no. II 1811, 204) 1811. ‘Manners and Customs of the People of Cayor, Sin and Sallum’ In The Philanthropist no. II. London: Longman and Company. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/C5553ITD/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/C5553ITD/collection</a> §REF§ For its duration, the Kingdom of Cayor worked together with the French for trade purposes, but in 1864 Senegal became a French colony. The last Damel of Cayor, Lat Dior, led a rebellion against the French and was defeated and exiled, officially ending the Kingdom’s rule. §REF§ (Europa Publications 2003, 358) Europa Publications. 2003. A Political Chronology of Africa. London: Taylor and Francis. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/528D563M/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/528D563M/collection</a> §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

7

West Africa

From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

241

AoKngo2

1,491

1,568

Kingdom of Congo

ao_kongo_2

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

1

Central Africa

Angola and DRC

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

850

cy_cyprus_k

1,192

1,489

Kingdom of Cyprus

cy_cyprus_k

OTHER_TAG

null

Kingdom of Cyprus

null

2024-04-10T10:05:59.800415Z

2024-04-10T10:05:59.800428Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

19

Southeastern Europe

Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

873

dk_danish_k

936

1,396

Kingdom of Denmark - Medieval

dk_danish_k

OTHER_TAG

null

Kingdom of Denmark, Margaret of Denmark

null

2024-05-02T14:44:48.543124Z

2024-05-02T14:44:48.543137Z

null

17

Northern Europe

Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

875

dk_danish_k_modern

1,946

2,020

Kingdom of Denmark - Modern

dk_danish_k_modern

OTHER_TAG

null

Denmark

null

2024-05-02T14:47:32.277504Z

2024-05-02T14:47:32.277518Z

null

17

Northern Europe

Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

844

es_galicia_k

911

1,111

Kingdom of Galicia

es_galicia_k

OTHER_TAG

null

Kingdom of Galicia

null

2024-04-10T08:35:31.790494Z

2024-04-10T08:35:31.790505Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

290

GeGeoK2

975

1,243

Kingdom of Georgia II

ge_georgia_k_2

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

43

Anatolia-Caucasus

Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

834

ge_georgia_k_3

1,329

1,463

Kingdom of Georgia III

ge_georgia_k_3

OTHER_TAG

null

Kingdom of Georgia

null

2024-04-09T14:57:04.368442Z

2024-04-09T14:57:04.368455Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

43

Anatolia-Caucasus

Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

641

et_gomma_k

1,780

1,886

Kingdom of Gomma

et_gomma_k

POL_AFR_EAST

The Kingdom of Gomma was one of the five Oromo kingdoms located in Western Ethiopia. The Kingdom of Gomma originated in the late eighteenth century CE and its capital was located at Haggaro. According to Historian Spencer Trimingham, the Kingdom of Gomma was one of the first Oromo kingdoms to embrace Islam. By 1886 CE the Kingdom of Gomma was annexed into the Ethiopian Empire under Menelik II. §REF§ (Trimingham 2013, 200) Trimingham, J. Spencer. 2013. Islam in Ethiopia. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/RB7C87QZ/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/RB7C87QZ/collection</a> §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

2

East Africa

Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

651

et_gumma_k

1,800

1,897

Kingdom of Gumma

et_gumma_k

POL_AFR_EAST

The Kingdom of Gumma was one of the five Oromo kingdoms located in Western Ethiopia. The Kingdom of Gumma originated in the early nineteenth century CE and had its capital located in Chora. §REF§ (Recluse 1892, 212) Recluse, Elisee. 1892. The Earth and Its Inhabitance: North-East Africa. Edited by A.H. Keane. New York: D. Appleton and Company. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ISD6B4K2/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ISD6B4K2/collection</a> §REF§ Like its neighbouring Oromo kingdoms, the Kingdom of Gumma seemed to be politically and administratively similar to the Kingdom of Jimma. §REF§ (Lewis 2001, 124-125) Lewis, Herbert S. 2001. Jimma Abba Jifar, an Oromo Monarchy: Ethiopia, 1830-1932. Lawrenceville, New Jersey: The Red Sea Press. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/NRZVWSCD/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/NRZVWSCD/collection</a> §REF§ The Kingdom of Gumma was an Islamic kingdom and was particularly active in Jihadis movements in the second half of the nineteenth century. §REF§ (Hassen 1992, 96) Hassen, Mohammed. ‘Islam as a Resistance Ideology Among the Oromo of Ethiopia.’ In In The Shadow of Conquest: Islam in Colonial Northeast Africa. Trenton, New Jersey: The Red Sea Press. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/search/Hassen/titleCreatorYear/items/PJ3UMMX5/item-list">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/search/Hassen/titleCreatorYear/items/PJ3UMMX5/item-list</a> §REF§ The Kingdom of Gumma was eventually annexed into the Ethiopian Empire by Menelik II at the turn of the twentieth century. §REF§ (Trimingham 2013, 200) Trimingham, Spencer. 2013. Islam in Ethiopia. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/search/Trimingham/titleCreatorYear/items/RB7C87QZ/item-list">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/search/Trimingham/titleCreatorYear/items/RB7C87QZ/item-list</a> §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

2

East Africa

Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

20

USKameh

1,778

1,819

Kingdom of Hawaii - Kamehameha Period

us_kamehameha_k

LEGACY

Hawai'i, also known as the Big Island, is the largest island of the Hawaiian archipelago. Here, we consider the period of its history from 1778 to 1819. 1778 is the date of first European contact ‒ the arrival of Captain Cook ‒ while 1819 is the year of King Kamehameha I's death. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 170, 174) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Kirch 2000, 300) Patrick V. Kirch. 2000. On the Road of the Winds: An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands before European Contact. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Kamehameha was a war chief and keeper of the war god Kūka'ilimoku who, in 1782, rose against King Kīwala'ō and managed to seize power over the Kohala and Kona districts of the Big Island. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 118-19) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Over the next three decades, Kamehameha waged several military campaigns, eventually unifying the entire archipelago (minus Kaua'i and Ni'ihau) in 1804. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 116) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Population and political organization In this period, Kamehameha I sat at the top of the political hierarchy. He was advised on secular affairs, including war, by the kālaimoku, who also oversaw the royal storehouses, while the kahuna nui was in charge of the king's sacred duties and oversaw his temples and main gods. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 50, 57) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Kamehameha did not introduce many changes to the traditional hierarchies, but he did appoint a number of governors to be his representatives on the other islands. §REF§ (Kuykendall 1938, 51) Ralph S. Kuykendall. 1938. The Hawaiian Kingdom, 1778-1854: Foundation and Transformation. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai'i Press. §REF§ Each island was divided into districts under the control of high-ranking chiefs, the ali'i 'ai moku. These districts were in turn subdivided into territories ruled by lesser chiefs, the ali'i 'ai ahupua'a. Below this level, there were the konohiki, who were in charge of the small and largely self-sufficient ahupua'a territories. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 48-49) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ The population of the entire Hawaiian archipelago by Cook's arrival was certainly very large, but there is a long-standing debate regarding exact numbers. Estimates range between 250,000 and 800,000. §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 129-130) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ The 'reasonably accurate' first census of 1832 puts the archipelago's population at around 130,000 people. However, we cannot project this figure backwards in time because the kanaka maoli (indigenous Hawaiian) population fell drastically after Europeans introduced diseases, such as smallpox, syphilis and measles, to which they had no immunity. §REF§ (La Croix and Roumasset 1990, 835) Sumner J. La Croix and James Roumasset. 1990. 'The Evolution of Private Property in Nineteenth-Century Hawaii'. The Journal of Economic History 50 (4): 829-52. §REF§ §REF§ (Kirch 2010, 129-130) Patrick V. Kirch. 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§

null

2023-10-30T17:38:54.894666Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

33

Big Island Hawaii

Polynesia

-155.916989

19.528931

Kona

USHI

United States

Oceania-Australia

30

Polynesia

{'id': 8, 'name': 'Oceania-Australia'}

21

USHawai

1,820

1,898

Kingdom of Hawaii - Post-Kamehameha Period

us_hawaii_k

LEGACY

null

2023-11-20T10:37:10.262504Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

33

Big Island Hawaii

Polynesia

-155.916989

19.528931

Kona

USHI

United States

Oceania-Australia

30

Polynesia

{'id': 8, 'name': 'Oceania-Australia'}

746

it_italian_k

1,861

1,946

Kingdom of Italy

it_italian_k

OTHER_TAG

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

870

il_jerusalem_k_1

1,099

1,187

Kingdom of Jerusalem I

il_jerusalem_k_1

OTHER_TAG

null

Kingdom of Jerusalem

null

2024-04-26T12:18:19.193224Z

2024-04-26T12:18:19.193238Z

null

61

Levant

Israel/Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

871

il_jerusalem_k_2

1,192

1,291

Kingdom of Jerusalem II

il_jerusalem_k_2

OTHER_TAG

null

Kingdom of Jerusalem

null

2024-04-26T12:19:13.345642Z

2024-04-26T12:19:13.345656Z

null

61

Levant

Israel/Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

636

et_jimma_k

1,790

1,932

Kingdom of Jimma

et_jimma_k

POL_AFR_EAST

The Kingdom of Jimma is said to have formed in the late 18th century by members of the Diggo clan which was a sub-group of the Oromo people. Around the turn of the 19th century, the Diggo captured the southern Ethiopian town of Jiren along with its great market, Hirmata and made this the capital of the kingdom. In 1830, Abba Jifar, became the first monarch of the new established Jimma Abba Jifar Kingdom. The Jimma Abba Jifar was an Islamic Kingdom governed by Shari’a Law. By the late 19th century, the kingdom came under threat by the expanding Abyssinian Kingdom. In order to protect the autonomy of the Kingdom of Jimma, its last ruler Abba Jifar II had to pay tribute to the Abyssinian rulers in exchange for the Kingdom’s independence. In 1932 Emperor Halie Selassie took control of the Kingdom and incorporated the region into the Ethiopian Empire. §REF§ (Lewis 2001, 39-46) Lewis, Herbert S. 2001. Jimma Abba Jifar, an Oromo Monarchy: Ethiopia, 1830-1932. Lawrenceville, New Jersey: The Red Sea Press. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/NRZVWSCD/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/NRZVWSCD/collection</a> §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

2

East Africa

Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

682

se_jolof_k

1,549

1,865

Kingdom of Jolof

se_jolof_k

POL_AFR_WEST

The Kingdom of Jolof was a Wolof kingdom that originated after the breakup of the Jolof Empire in 1549. §REF§ (Searing, 2004) Searing, James. 2004. ‘Wolof and Jolof Empires.’ In Encyclopedia of African History. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/WM3HCI97/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/WM3HCI97/collection</a> §REF§ The capital of the Kingdom of Jolof was Yangyang. §REF§ (Colvin 1986, 68) Colvin, Lucie G. 1986. ‘The Shaykh’s Men: Religion and Power in Senegambian Islam.’ Asian and African Studies. Vol. 20:1 Pp. 61-71. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/GZTDTN6Q/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/GZTDTN6Q/collection</a> §REF§ After the collapse of the Jolof Empire, the independent Kingdom of Jolof never rose to the same prominence as its predecessor. With the increase of the Atlantic slave trade, the landlocked Kingdom of Jolof became less important as trade became centred around the coastal kingdoms of Waalo, Cayor, Baol, Sine and Saloum. §REF§ (Searing, 2004) Searing, James. 2004. ‘Wolof and Jolof Empires.’ In Encyclopedia of African History. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/WM3HCI97/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/WM3HCI97/collection</a> §REF§ In the nineteenth century, the Jolof kingdom was increasingly involved in the marabout wars and by the mid-1860s the kingdom was ruled by the Jihadist forces of Maba Jakhu Ba which officially ended the traditional Kingdom of Jolof. §REF§ (Gellar, 2020) Gellar, Sheldon. 2020. Senegal: An African Nation Between Islam and the West. Second Edition. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZCQVA3UX/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZCQVA3UX/collection</a> §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

7

West Africa

From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

650

et_kaffa_k

1,390

1,897

Kingdom of Kaffa

et_kaffa_k

POL_AFR_EAST

The Kingdom of Kaffa held power in southwest Ethiopia. In the late fourteenth century, the Minjo kings of Kaffa took over the throne of the Mato Dynasty and formed the Kingdom of Kaffa in 1390 CE. In total, there were between sixteen to nineteen Kaffa monarchs during the existence of the kingdom. The capital of the Kingdom of Kaffa was at Bonga, and eventually the kingdom acquired a second capital at Anderacha. The Kingdom of Kaffa controlled vast areas of land, establishing trade networks as far as Gondar in the north of Ethiopia during the mid-nineteenth century. The kingdom was home to a diverse range of forty-eight clans who practiced Islam, Christianity and indigenous religions. Kaffa was also divided into eighteen districts which were organized under minor administrative figures. The kingdom finally collapsed in 1897 when the Ethiopian Emperor Menelik II conquered Kaffa territory. §REF§ (Orent 1970, 263-293) Orent, Amnon. 1970. ‘Refocusing on the History of Kafa Prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes’. African Historical Studies. Vol. 3:2. Pp 263-293. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/2A389XGK/collection</a> §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

2

East Africa

Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

906

cn_khotan_k

852

1,006

Kingdom of Khotan

cn_khotan_k

OTHER_TAG

null

Start date, 852 CE, corresponding to independence from the Tibetan Empire. 1006 CE - conquest by Kara-Khanids. The Khotan Kingdom existed before 852, but was sometimes incorporated into larger polities.

2024-10-16T09:46:26.543250Z

2024-10-16T09:46:26.543269Z

null

13

Turkestan

Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

719

cg_lunda_k

1,600

1,895

Kingdom of Lunda

cg_lunda_k

OTHER_TAG

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

1

Central Africa

Angola and DRC

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

168

TrLydia

-670

-546

Kingdom of Lydia

tr_lydia_k

LEGACY

One of a number of small kingdoms in Anatolia, the Kingdom of Lydia under the Mermnad dynasty (670-546 BCE), which began with the rule of king Gyges and ended with Croesus in the 540s BCE, came to dominate Anatolia after the conquest of Phrygia. Blessed with a rich supply of minable electrum, the natural alloy of silver and gold, Lydia is most famous for being the likely birthplace of coinage. §REF§ (Roosevelt 2012, 897-913) C H Roosevelt. 2012. Iron Age Western Anatolia. In Potts, D.T. (ed.) A Companion to the Archaeology of the Near East. London: Blackwell. §REF§ Like Phrygia archaeologists lack detailed understanding of Lydian government but they believe the rulers ruled from a Palace citadel above the capital Sardis. Some areas under Lydian control were directly ruled through appointments made by the kings: for example, Alyattes appointed his son Croesus as governor of Adramyttetion, northwest of Lydia, when Cimmerians were causing trouble there. However, the Greek city states attacked by Mermnad kings, whom were required to pay tribute, were generally never under Lydian control for long. §REF§ (Roosevelt 2012, 897-913) C H Roosevelt. 2012. Iron Age Western Anatolia. In Potts, D.T. (ed.) A Companion to the Archaeology of the Near East. London: Blackwell. §REF§ The 650 BCE and 500 BCE period was characterized by the expansion of an integrated Mediterranean trading zone §REF§ (Broodbank 2015, 508-509) Cyrprian Broodbank. 2015. The Making of the Middle Sea. Thames & Hudson. London. §REF§ and it seems that pragmatic deal-making to preserve this economic system often characterized Lydian relations with other states. The most immediate threat appears to have been the nomadic Cimmerians who initially were expelled §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 544) Mario Liverani. Soraia Tabatabai trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§ which at times lead to an alliance with Assyria §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 495) Mario Liverani. Soraia Tabatabai trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§ which also became an enemy that required an alliance with Egypt. §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 544) Mario Liverani. Soraia Tabatabai trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§ Lydia kings often utilised marriages to secure alliances with many foreign powers, including the Persian Medians as well as Greek Ionians and Carians and the tyrant of Ephesus. §REF§ (Roosevelt 2012, 897-913) C H Roosevelt. 2012. Iron Age Western Anatolia. In Potts, D.T. (ed.) A Companion to the Archaeology of the Near East. London: Blackwell. §REF§

null

2023-10-23T16:31:46.227128Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

11

Konya Plain

Anatolia-Caucasus

32.521164

37.877845

Konya

TR

Turkey

Southwest Asia

43

Anatolia-Caucasus

Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

885

in_mysore_k

1,566

1,799

Kingdom of Mysore

in_mysore_k

OTHER_TAG

null

Kingdom of Mysore

null

2024-07-03T08:03:46.267566Z

2024-07-03T08:03:46.267580Z

null

40

Southern India

Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana

{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}

851

it_naples_k

1,282

1,442

Kingdom of Naples

it_naples_k

OTHER_TAG

null

Kingdom of Naples

2024-04-10T10:07:22.059324Z

2024-04-10T10:07:22.059336Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

749

no_norway_k_modern

1,905

1,940

Kingdom of Norway - Modern

no_norway_k_modern

OTHER_TAG

null

2024-02-22T10:34:15.877931Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

17

Northern Europe

Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

818

no_norway_k_1

872

1,261

Kingdom of Norway I

no_norway_k_1

OTHER_TAG

null

Old Kingdom of Norway

null

2024-04-09T12:41:03.543975Z

2024-04-09T12:41:03.543987Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

17

Northern Europe

Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

116

NorKing

1,262

1,396

Kingdom of Norway II

no_norway_k_2

LEGACY

The Kingdom of Norway (also Norwegian Empire or Old Norse Noregsveldi) originally covered the west coast of Norway and was allied with an earldom in Þrándheimur (modern Trøndelag). It then expanded to eastern Norway in the middle of the 11th century CE, around Viken and modern-day Oslo, including Båhuslen in modern Sweden, and northwards to Hålogaland, Lofoten and Finnmark. Orkney and Shetland became part of the kingdom as early as 875, according to legend, and became an earldom. The Faroe Islands became part of the kingdom of Norway in 1035 CE, and the Hebrides and Man in the 12th century. Iceland and Greenland were added to its territory in 1256-64 and 1262 respectively. In 1266, however, Man and the Hebrides became part of the Kingdom of Scotland. The 'peak' of the kingdom was thus in the 1260s. Each part of the kingdom had its own assembly: four in Norway and a separate assembly for each of the islands or archipelagoes in the realm. Here the chieftains gathered yearly to discuss and decide on key matters for each assembly area. The Icelandic, Faroese and Man assemblies still exist. Population and political organization The kingdom of Norway was originally a composite of kingdoms or earldoms, with the king of Norway a king of kings. Its extent and composition relied in large part on the fortunes of the royal dynasty, with repeated periods of partition by inheritance and reunification. A fully stable dynasty was only established in about 1240, after a long period of civil war. Royal power was instrumental in introducing Christianity to Norway around 1000, and the church was an important prop to royal power thereafter, providing the bureaucratic framework. The orientation of the Norwegian kingdom shifted after 1314, from North Atlantic expansion to an eastern emphasis, participating in intra-Scandinavian power struggles. In 1397 it joined the Kalmar Union, the kingdom covering the whole of the Swedish, Danish and Norwegian realms. From 1523 to 1814 it was a part of the Danish-Norwegian kingdom, and the Danish king was also the Norwegian king. The population reached about 400,000-600,000 in 1350, before the Black Death, but by 1520 repeated epidemics had reduced the population to around 120,000. This description was provided by Árni Daniel Júlíusson and edited by Jenny Reddish.

null

JR: changing the end date from 1380 to 1396, taking it to just before the Kalmar Union. Variables need to be checked to see whether they still apply to the 1381-96 period

null

2024-04-30T12:29:11.149067Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

3

Iceland

Northern Europe

-21.891497

64.133088

Reykjavik

IS

Iceland

Europe

17

Northern Europe

Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

687

Early Niynginya

1,650

1,897

Kingdom of Nyinginya

Early Niynginya

POL_AFR_EAST

null

2024-06-13T09:26:46.862473Z

{'id': 46, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

null

2

East Africa

Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

845

pt_portugal_k

1,139

1,494

Kingdom of Portugal

pt_portugal_k

OTHER_TAG

null

Kingdom of Portugal

null

2024-04-10T08:43:01.972155Z

2024-04-10T08:43:01.972170Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

540

YeSaRay

-110

149

Kingdom of Saba and Dhu Raydan

ye_saba_k

LEGACY

The Yemeni Coastal Plain or Plateau is the northwestern region of modern Yemen that lies between the Red Sea and the Yemeni Mountains. Beginning in the ninth and eighth centuries BCE, this region became part of a wider "Sabaean" culture region (from the name of the dominant kingdom, Saba), in which many relatively small kingdoms across south and western Arabia, as well as Ethiopia, shared the same alphabet, the same iconographic repertoire (e.g. widespread depiction of animals such as ibexes and oryxes, and use of symbols such as hands, crescents, and circles), and the same vocabulary and turns of phrases in inscriptions. §REF§ (Robin 2015: 94-96) Robin, Christian Julien. 2015. “Before Himyar: Epigraphic Evidence for the Kingdoms of South Arabia.” In Arabs and Empires before Islam, edited by Greg Fisher, 91-126. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZMFH42PE" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZMFH42PE</a>. §REF§ By this time, the influence of Saba over the region had diminished. §REF§ (Korotayev 1994) Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EXB5JVFN" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EXB5JVFN</a>. §REF§ At this time, the largest town in the Yemeni Coastal Plain was Marib, which covered an area of 100 hectares, for a population of about 30,000-40,000. §REF§ (Edens and Wilkinson 1998: 96) Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HGK23ABQ" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HGK23ABQ</a>. §REF§ It is unclear, however, what the average population of a single kingdom.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

12

Yemeni Coastal Plain

Arabia

43.315739

14.850891

Sanaa

YE

Yemen

Southwest Asia

44

Arabia

Arabian Peninsula

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

675

se_saloum_k

1,490

1,863

Kingdom of Saloum

se_saloum_k

POL_AFR_WEST

The Kingdom of Saloum was a Sereer Kingdom that originated in 1490 CE. §REF§ (Ly-Tall 1984, 183) Ly-Tall, M. 1984. ‘The Decline of the Mali Empire’. In Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. Berkeley: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/6NWXJD94/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/6NWXJD94/collection</a> §REF§ The Kingdom of Saloum was part of the confederation of the Jolof Empire up until the mid-sixteenth century when it became an independent kingdom after the breakup of the Jolof Empire. The Kingdom of Saloum thus established its capital in Kahone after its independence. The Kingdom of Saloum heavily participated in trade, particularly the peanut trade, with the Dutch, French and the British. §REF§ (Bigon and Ross 2020, 42) Bigon, Liora and Ross, Eric. 2020. Grid Planning in the Urban Design Practices of Senegal. London: Springer. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MM67I638/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MM67I638/collection</a> §REF§ In 1863, the forces of Maba Jakhu Ba led a jihad and conquered the Kingdom of Saloum officially ending its traditional rule. §REF§ (Babou 2007, 41) Babou, Cheikh Anta Mbacke. 2007. Fighting the Greater Jihad: Amadu Bamba and the Founding of the Muridiyya of Senegal 1853-1913. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/J8IUBWDD/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/J8IUBWDD/collection</a> §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

7

West Africa

From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

897

gb_scotland_k

1,293

1,706

Kingdom of Scotland

gb_scotland_k

OTHER_TAG

null

Kingdom of Scotland

null

2024-07-03T15:54:46.219611Z

2024-07-03T15:54:46.219627Z

null

20

Western Europe

British Isles, France, Low Countries

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

326

ItSicilK

1,194

1,281

Kingdom of Sicily - Hohenstaufen and Angevin dynasties

it_sicily_k_2

LEGACY

null

2024-05-06T09:11:10.401438Z

{'id': 37, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

null

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

677

se_sine_k

1,350

1,887

Kingdom of Sine

se_sine_k

POL_AFR_WEST

The Kingdom of Sine was a Sereer kingdom that originated in the 1350s CE. §REF§ (Richard 2015, 206) Richard, Francois G. 2015. ‘The African State in Theory: Thoughts on Political Landscapes and the Limits of Rule in Atlantic Senegal (and Elsewhere).’ In Theory in Africa, Africa in Theory: Locating Meaning in Archaeology. Edited by Jeffery Fleisher et. al. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/NUNCWJJP/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/NUNCWJJP/collection</a> §REF§The Kingdom of Sine had been a part of the confederation of the Jolof Empire but became independent in the mid-sixteenth century after the breakup of the Jolof Empire. After its independence, the Kingdom of Sine established its capital at Diakhao. §REF§ (Bigon and Ross 2020, 42) Bigon, Liora and Ross, Eric. 2020. Grid Planning in the Urban Design Practices of Senegal. London: Springer. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MM67I638/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MM67I638/collection</a> §REF§The Kingdom of Sine was a monarchy ruling over a complex stratified society. §REF§ (Richard 2015, 206) Richard, Francois G. 2015. ‘The African State in Theory: Thoughts on Political Landscapes and the Limits of Rule in Atlantic Senegal (and Elsewhere).’ In Theory in Africa, Africa in Theory: Locating Meaning in Archaeology. Edited by Jeffery Fleisher et. al. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/NUNCWJJP/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/NUNCWJJP/collection</a> §REF§ Like its Sereer neighbours, the Kingdom of Saloum, the Sine also participated in the food trade with the Dutch, French and the British. §REF§ (Bigon and Ross 2020, 42) Bigon, Liora and Ross, Eric. 2020. Grid Planning in the Urban Design Practices of Senegal. London: Springer. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MM67I638/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MM67I638/collection</a> §REF§ In 1887 CE, the Kingdom of Sine officially became a French protectorate ending the Kingdoms’ reign. §REF§ (Richard 2018, 271) Richard, Francois G. 2018. Reluctant Landscapes: Historical Anthropologies of Political Experience in Siin, Senegal. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZNV5RKBU/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/ZNV5RKBU/collection</a> §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

7

West Africa

From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

750

sv_sweden_k_modern

1,906

2,020

Kingdom of Sweden

sv_sweden_k_modern

OTHER_TAG

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

17

Northern Europe

Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

868

sv_swedish_k_1

980

1,396

Kingdom of Sweden I

sv_swedish_k_1

OTHER_TAG

null

Swedish Kingdom

null

2024-04-26T12:08:22.061440Z

2024-04-30T12:37:04.170914Z

null

17

Northern Europe

Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

339

SeSwedi

1,524

1,610

Kingdom of Sweden II

sv_swedish_k_2

LEGACY

null

2024-04-26T12:12:54.009901Z

{'id': 35, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

null

17

Northern Europe

Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

678

se_waalo_k

1,287

1,855

Kingdom of Waalo

se_waalo_k

POL_AFR_WEST

The Kingdom of Waalo originated in 1287 CE on Senegal River in northern Senegal. §REF§ (Himpan Sabatier and Himpan 2019, 125) Himpan Sabatier, Diane and Himpan, Brigitte. 2019. Nomads of Mauritania. Wilmington: Vernon Press. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/V4D4DFVG/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/V4D4DFVG/collection</a> §REF§ The Kingdom of Waalo was a subgroup of the Wolof people, and the people of Waalo spoke the Wolof language. §REF§ (McLaughlin 2008, 93) McLaughlin, Fiona. 2008. ‘Senegal: The Emergence of a National Lingua Franca’. In Languages and National Identity in Africa. Edited by Andrew Simpson. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/7VBFQ96V/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/7VBFQ96V/collection</a> §REF§ In the fourteenth century, Waalo became a vassal state within the larger Jolof Empire until its break up in the sixteenth century, when the Waalo became free from Jolof hegemony. §REF§ (Barry 1999, 263) Barry, Boubacar. 1999. ‘Senegambia from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century: Evolution of the Wolof, Sereer and ‘Tukuloor.’ In General History of Africa. V: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century. Edited by B.A. Ogot. Berkely: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/24W2293H/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/24W2293H/collection</a> §REF§ Waalo had three capitals throughout its duration starting with Ndiourbel (Jurbel), Ndiangue and its final capital at Nder. §REF§ (Barry 2012, 43) Barry, Boubacar. 2012. The Kingdom of Waalo: Senegal Before the Conquest. New York: Diasporic Africa Press. Seshat URL:<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/9KV5MEKN/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/9KV5MEKN/collection</a> §REF§ §REF§ (Himpan Sabatier and Himpan 2019, 125) Himpan Sabatier, Diane and Himpan, Brigitte. 2019. Nomads of Mauritania. Wilmington: Vernon Press. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/V4D4DFVG/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/V4D4DFVG/collection</a> §REF§ §REF§ (Barry and Amin 1985, 171) Barry, Boubacar and Amin, Samir. 1985. Le Royaume du Waalo: Le Sénégal avant la conquête. Paris: Karthala. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/7FSQKPU9/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/7FSQKPU9/collection</a> §REF§ The Waalo was a monarchical society, but it was matrilineal in decent as the children of the king’s sister inherited the throne, not the offspring of the ruler. §REF§ (Barry 2012, 33) Barry, Boubacar. 2012. The Kingdom of Waalo: Senegal Before the Conquest. New York: Diasporic Africa Press. Seshat URL:<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/9KV5MEKN/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/9KV5MEKN/collection</a> §REF§Waalo was a major trade kingdom, particularly in the slave trade, as the kingdom exported many slaves to the French for the Atlantic market, but also to the western Sahara trade routes linking to north Africa. §REF§ (Webb Jr 1993, 235) Webb Jr, James L.A. 1993. ‘The Horse and Slave Trade between the Western Sahara and Senegambia.’ Journal of African History. Vol. 34:2. Pp 221-246. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/JDZFX3SC/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/JDZFX3SC/collection</a> §REF§ The Kingdom of Waalo collapsed in 1855 CE as the French took control over the region. §REF§ (Amin 1972, 517) Amin, Samir. 1972. ‘Underdevelopment and Dependence in Black Africa – Origins and Contemporary Forms.’ The Journal of Modern African Studies. Vol 10:4. Pp 503-524. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MR883K86/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/MR883K86/collection</a> §REF§

null

2024-10-17T09:23:07.963472Z

{'id': 93, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

null

7

West Africa

From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

819

fr_burgundian_k

411

534

Kingdom of the Burgundians

fr_burgundian_k

OTHER_TAG

null

Burgundian Kingdom

null

2024-04-09T12:45:40.170715Z

2024-04-09T12:45:40.170727Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

20

Western Europe

British Isles, France, Low Countries

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

859

rs_gepid_k

454

567

Kingdom of the Gepids

rs_gepid_k

OTHER_TAG

null

Kingdom of the Gepids

null

2024-04-10T10:20:25.826079Z

2024-04-10T10:20:25.826096Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

19

Southeastern Europe

Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

280

HuKHuns

376

469

Kingdom of the Huns

hu_hun_k

LEGACY

“The historical reality seems to be that the Huns, a Turkic people from the Central Asian steppes, began to move west around the year 370 and attack the Ostrogothic kingdom in the area of the modern Ukraine. What caused this movement is unclear, but it may have been pressure from other tribes further east. The Ostrogoths were defeated again and again and forced to leave their homes and farms in panic. A vast number of them crossed the Danube into the Balkans, still ruled at this time by the Roman Empire. Here the fugitive Goths, in their desperation, inflicted a massive defeat on the Roman army at Adrianople In 376, when their cavalry ran down the last of the old Roman legions. Now that their horizons were expanded there was no stopping the Huns. They raided the Balkans in the aftermath of the Roman defeat but also attacked the rich provinces of the east, coming through the Caucasus and Anatolia to pillage the rich lands of Syria.”§REF§(Kennedy 2002: 25-26) Kennedy, Hugh. 2002. Mongols, Huns and Vikings: Nomads at War. London: Cassell. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZN9N624X§REF§ “The Huns were far from invincible, however, and in 439 the Visigoths of Toulouse showed their power by defeating Litorius' attempt to take the city and killing the dux himself. Throughout this time, the Huns in Gaul acted as mercenary soldiers and, as far as we can tell, they had no territorial or political ambitions in the region. All this changed with Attila's rise to power. It was Attila who gave the Huns a clear identity and made them, briefly, into a major political power. After his death, they disintegrated with remarkable speed.”§REF§(Kennedy 2002: 37) Kennedy, Hugh. 2002. Mongols, Huns and Vikings: Nomads at War. London: Cassell. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZN9N624X§REF§ “After Attila’s death his sons divided up the subject nations equally among themselves, so that, as a shocked Goth puts it, ‘warlike kings with their peoples should be divided among them like a family estate’. We do not know how many sons there were: we only have Jordanes’ statement that ‘through the boundlessness of [Attila’s] lust, they were almost a people in themselves’. At any rate, this was the only occasion in Hun history, so far as we know, when a father’s kingdom was thus shared out by his sons… It was not many months after their father’s death that they began to quarrel. As to the cause of their quarrel, it would seem that one or more tried to dispossess the others from their share of the inheritance, and that several great battles were fought between them as a result.”§REF§(Thompson 2004: 167-168) Thompson, E.A. 1996. The Huns. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/49W8PAAS§REF§

null

2024-03-12T09:43:08.114380Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

15

Central Europe

Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

820

pt_suebi_k

409

584

Kingdom of the Suebi

pt_suebi_k

OTHER_TAG

null

Kingdom of the Suebi

null

2024-04-09T12:48:20.240492Z

2024-04-09T12:48:20.240504Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

877

it_two_sicilies_k

1,816

1,861

Kingdom of the Two Sicilies

it_two_sicilies_k

OTHER_TAG

null

2024-05-06T09:20:22.545715Z

2024-05-06T09:20:22.545730Z

null

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

464

UzKok01

-1,400

-1,000

Koktepe I

uz_koktepe_1

LEGACY

"Pre-Achaemenid period. Before the arrival of Iranian peoples in Central Asia, Sogdiana had already experienced at least two urban phases. The first was at Sarazm (4th-3rd m. BCE), a town of some 100 hectares has been excavated, where both irrigation agriculture and metallurgy were practiced (Isakov). It has been possible to demonstrate the magnitude of links with the civilization of the Oxus as well as with more distant regions, such as Baluchistan. The second phase began in at least the 15th century BCE at Kok Tepe, on the Bulungur canal north of the Zarafsan River, where the earliest archeological material appears to go back to the Bronze Age, and which persisted throughout the Iron Age, until the arrival from the north of the Iranian-speaking populations that were to become the Sogdian group. It declined with the rise of Samarkand (Rapin, 2007). Pre-Achaemenid Sogdiana is recalled in the Younger Avesta (chap. 1 of the Vidēvdād, q.v.) under the name Gava and said to be inhabited by the Sogdians. §REF§ (De la Vaissière, Encyclopedia Iranica online, <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology</a>) §REF§ "Archaeologists are now generally agreed that the Andronovo culture of the Central Steppe region in the second millennium BC is to be equated with the Indo-Iranians. However, no matter how pastorally oriented these people's culture probably was, they were no nomads. They lived in permanent houses, not on wagons or in tents as the earliest nomads are known to have done." §REF§ (Beckwith 2009, 49) Beckwith, Christopher I. 2009. Empires of the Silk Road. A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. Princeton University Press. Princeton. §REF§ According to Claude Rapin, for "the complex question relating to the Early Iron Age in Central Asia" read this (and another 2001 work) Francfort, H. -P. 1989. Fouilles de Shortugai. Recherches sur l'Asie central protohistorique, Memoires de la Mission archeologique francaise en Asie centrale 2, Paris. "it can be provisionally assumed that the two earlier Iron Age phases distinguished at Koktepe could represent the first manifestations of local agricultural development. Maurizio Tosi has proposed that for the southern slopes of the Zerafshan valley, along the Dargom canal, this economic system could have developed from an earlier period, when irrigation was limited to the natural flows of water from the foothills (Koktepe I period), to a later irrigation system, mainly exemplified by the excavation of the great canals deriving from the Zerafshan, the Bulungur and the Dargom (Koktepe II period)." §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 35) Rapin, Claude. "Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period." in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ "As was the case for various earlier constructions, both monuments were abandoned during a period of nomad invasions, possibly in the sixth century BC. (We know, for instance, that east of the Caspian Sea Darius I had to fight Scythian nomads like those represented by their king Skunkha illustrated as a defeated prisoner on the relief of Behistun)." §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. "Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period." in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ ??? - 1000 BCE Koktepe I 1000 - 750 BCE Chronological gap 750 - 550 BCE Koktepe II "sacred courtyard area" "strongly fortified courtyards" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. "Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period." in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ 550 - ??? BCE Scythians? "nomadic establishment" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. "Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period." in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ ??? - ??? BCE Koktepe IIIa "totally different expression of monumental urbanism" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. "Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period." in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ - could be Archaemenid Koktepe IIIa "The next period is represented at Koktepe by the construction of two platforms with religious and political functions ... and by a huge fortification wall built in the plain around the site." §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. "Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period." in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ "this rampart seems to have been built at the same time as the fortification that surrounds the plateau of Afrasiab ... Both walls not only protected monumental buildings, but also encircled a large open area, probably for the surrounding population to shelter with their cattle when necessary. This conception is characteristic of Central Asian urbanism near the steppe areas (Francfor 2001), and is also apparent in later cities, such as Ai Khanum or Taxila-Sirkap." §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. "Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period." in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ "The sacred function of the monument, probably related to early Zoroastrianism (or at least to a local cult affiliated to the Indo-Iranian complex), is confirmed by the evidence of a ritual of foundation performed just before its construction." §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 37) Rapin, Claude. "Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period." in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ Early Iron Age settlement C14 dated to second-half of second and beginning of first millennium BCE. §REF§ (Lhuillier and Rapin 2013) Lhuillier, J. Rapin, C. Handmade painted ware in Koktepe: some elements for the chronology of the early Iron Age in northern Sogdiana. Wagner, Marcin ed. 2013. Pottery and Chronology of the Early Iron Age in Central Asia. Warszawa. §REF§ <div>Koktepe site excavated by C. Rapin and M. Kh. Ismaddinov between 1994 and 2008 by the French Uzbek Archaeological Mission of Sogdiana. §REF§ (Lhuillier and Rapin 2013) Lhuillier, J. Rapin, C. Handmade painted ware in Koktepe: some elements for the chronology of the early Iron Age in northern Sogdiana. Wagner, Marcin ed. 2013. Pottery and Chronology of the Early Iron Age in Central Asia. Warszawa. §REF§ Site about 17ha. §REF§ (Lhuillier and Rapin 2013) Lhuillier, J. Rapin, C. Handmade painted ware in Koktepe: some elements for the chronology of the early Iron Age in northern Sogdiana. Wagner, Marcin ed. 2013. Pottery and Chronology of the Early Iron Age in Central Asia. Warszawa. §REF§ Of samples taken, earliest C14 date c1400-1200 BCE, latest C14 date 810-760 BCE §REF§ (Lhuillier and Rapin 2013) Lhuillier, J. Rapin, C. Handmade painted ware in Koktepe: some elements for the chronology of the early Iron Age in northern Sogdiana. Wagner, Marcin ed. 2013. Pottery and Chronology of the Early Iron Age in Central Asia. Warszawa. §REF§ "we can now suggest dividing the Early Iron Age in Sogdiana into two sub-periods characterized by a strong continuity." §REF§ (Lhuillier and Rapin 2013) Lhuillier, J. Rapin, C. Handmade painted ware in Koktepe: some elements for the chronology of the early Iron Age in northern Sogdiana. Wagner, Marcin ed. 2013. Pottery and Chronology of the Early Iron Age in Central Asia. Warszawa. §REF§ </div> Köktepe I: " L’objet le plus ancien de Koktepe est un poids discoïdal en pierre muni d’une anse datable du XVIIIe siècle av. n. è. Cette trouvaille isolée d’un instrument cultuel suppose le voisinage d’un site du bronze moyen que l’on ne peut identifier pour le moment, car les périodes les plus anciennes de l’occupation de la plaine du Zerafshan ne sont pour l’essentiel représentées aujourd’hui que par le site de Sarazm (Lyonnet 1996) et des trouvailles funéraires isolées (Avanesova 2010). Le milieu urbain au début de l’occupation de Koktepe est celui d’une agglomération relativement dense composée de maisons à pièces multiples construites en piséau-dessus du sol, plus rarement creusées dans le sol naturel, mais vers la fin de cette période, l’habitat n’est plus représenté que par des huttes légères (figures 6-7). Le développement économique repose alors encore sur une agriculture sèche qui pourrait avoir été périodiquement secondée par les eaux d’un torrent de montagne (communications orales de B. Rondelli et M. Isamiddinov). Durant cette première phase, le site s’inscrit dans le contexte de la céramique modelée peinte caractéris-tique de la culture de Burgulûk (oasis de Tashkent), qui fait elle-même partie de la civilisation qui, du Turkménistan au Xinjiang, s’étend dans la période de transition entre l’age du bronze et l’age du fer, du dernier tiers du IIe millénaire au début du Ier millénaire av. n. è. (époque dite « de Yaz I ») (Lhuillier 2010 ; Lhuillier, Isamiddinov, Rapin 2012 ; Lyonnet, ce volume)." §REF§ (Rapin and Isamiddinov 2013, 124-125) §REF§ During its first phase, Kok Tepe was part of the Burguluk culture, which corresponds to the Yaz I civilization from Turkmenistan to Xinjiang (last third of the second millennium BCE- beginning of the first millennium BCE) "Pre-Achaemenid period. Before the arrival of Iranian peoples in Central Asia, Sogdiana had already experienced at least two urban phases. The first was at Sarazm (4th-3rd m. BCE), a town of some 100 hectares has been excavated, where both irrigation agriculture and metallurgy were practiced (Isakov). It has been possible to demonstrate the magnitude of links with the civilization of the Oxus as well as with more distant regions, such as Baluchistan. The second phase began in at least the 15th century BCE at Kok Tepe, on the Bulungur canal north of the Zarafšān River, where the earliest archeological material appears to go back to the Bronze Age, and which persisted throughout the Iron Age, until the arrival from the north of the Iranian-speaking populations that were to become the Sogdian group. It declined with the rise of Samarkand (Rapin, 2007). Pre-Achaemenid Sogdiana is recalled in the Younger Avesta (chap. 1 of the Videvdad, q.v.) under the name Gava and said to be inhabited by the Sogdians. §REF§ (De la Vaissière, Encyclopedia Iranica online, <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology</a>) §REF§ Transition period between Kok01 and Kok02:"Sur le plan stratigraphique, la fin de cette première période vers la fin du IIe ou le début du Ier millénaire est apparemment marquée par une interruption de la céra-mique peinte. D’après les vestiges d’une épaisse couche organique présente partout sur le site, cette période pourrait avoir été celle d’une population semi-sédentaire, peut-être assez nombreuse, qui se serait installée à Koktepe avec du bétail. §REF§ (Rapin and Isamiddinov 2013, 126) §REF§ transition period: starting in the late 2nd millennium BCE/early 1st millennium BCE no more painted ceramic thick organic layer found stratigraphically on the whole site: semi-sedentary population, living on Koktepe with their animals. Edward Turner's interpretation of pre-Achaemenid Sogdiana (Koktepe in particular): 'The essential tension was the sedentary population needed (their irrigated) fields for growing crops, nomads needed land for grazing. so the "strongly fortified courtyards" is a manifestation of this tension. another reason for fortification would be that wave/s of invasion/destruction had happened before: "By 1600 BCE, peoples carrying the Andronovo cultural package had displaced, if not destroyed, the Bactrian/Margiana towns". then the Yaz I replaced the Andronovo - UzKok01. (destruction then as well?) if the inhabitants within the UzKok02 courtyards were Scythians they had probably invaded then settled c750 BCE, presumably causing some destruction of the previous culture. an important line of evidence for invade/destroy/replace also is that it is likely that about 800 BCE the nomadic tribes around Central Asia began to use armies of horseback archers. the fact the sedentarized Scythians built fortifications must reflect the increased danger from the Steppe. their identity lasted until either the Achaemenid or until another wave of Scythians destroyed their culture c550 BCE'.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

23

Sogdiana

Turkestan

66.93817

39.631284

Samarkand

UZ

Uzbekistan

Central Eurasia

13

Turkestan

Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

466

UzKok02

-750

-550

Koktepe II

uz_koktepe_2

LEGACY

Rapin and Isamiddinov say that beginning in the 7th or 6th century BCE, we see a 'proto-urbaine' (proto-urban) structure developing at Koktepe, represented by two large fortified areas on platforms. They assign an economic-political function to area A and a sacred one to area B, §REF§ (Rapin and Isamiddinov 2013, 126) Claude Rapin and Muhammadjon Isamiddinov. 2013. 'Entre sédentaires et nomades: les recherches de la Mission archéologique franco-ouzbèke (MAFOuz) de Sogdiane sur le site de Koktepe'. Cahiers d'Asie centrale 21/22: 113-133. Available online at <a class="external free" href="http://asiecentrale.revues.org/1736" rel="nofollow">http://asiecentrale.revues.org/1736</a>. §REF§ and speculate that they could be the work of sedentary Scythians. §REF§ (Rapin and Isamiddinov 2013, 127) Claude Rapin and Muhammadjon Isamiddinov. 2013. 'Entre sédentaires et nomades: les recherches de la Mission archéologique franco-ouzbèke (MAFOuz) de Sogdiane sur le site de Koktepe'. Cahiers d'Asie centrale 21/22: 113-133. Available online at <a class="external free" href="http://asiecentrale.revues.org/1736" rel="nofollow">http://asiecentrale.revues.org/1736</a>. §REF§ The cultural context of Koktepe during this period differs from that of eastern Central Asia, as represented by the citadel of Ulug Depe. §REF§ (Rapin and Isamiddinov 2013, 127) Claude Rapin and Muhammadjon Isamiddinov. 2013. 'Entre sédentaires et nomades: les recherches de la Mission archéologique franco-ouzbèke (MAFOuz) de Sogdiane sur le site de Koktepe'. Cahiers d'Asie centrale 21/22: 113-133. Available online at <a class="external free" href="http://asiecentrale.revues.org/1736" rel="nofollow">http://asiecentrale.revues.org/1736</a>. §REF§ There may be a case, based on similarities in architectural construction, for treating the areas around Samarkand and Padajatak-tepa (near modern-day Shahr-i Sabz) as part of this polity during this period. In an article on Samarkand, Grenet comments: 'C'est donc avec une totale surprise que, en 1991, la fouille mettait en évidence, partout sous les remparts achéménides tant de l'acropole que du plateau, un premier mur épais de 6 mètres relevant d'une tradition défensive et d'une technique différente: non à galerie intérieure, mais massif; bâti non en briques crues rectangulaires de gabarit régulier, mais en briques ovales plus grossières, "plano-convexes". Il apparaît maintenant que ce type de maçonnerie caractérise sur d'autres sites aussi la toute première phase de la construction urbaine dans les plaines de Sogdiane (Koktepe à 30 km au nord de Samarkand; Padajatak-tepa, la Nautaca des campagnes d'Alexandre, en Sogdiane méridionale près de Shahr-i Sabz) et dans leur appendice ferghanien (Ejlatan, Dalverzin-tepe)' [It was thus a total surprise when, in 1991, the excavation revealed, throughout the site beneath the Achaemenid ramparts of the acropolis as well as the plateau, a thick earlier wall of 6 metres, related to a different defensive tradition and a different technique: not with an interior gallery, but solid; built not with adobe bricks of a regular size, but of rougher oval-shaped, "plano-convex" bricks. It now appears that this type of masonry also characterizes the very first phase of urban construction at other sites of the Sogdian plain (Koktepe, 30 km north of Samarkand; Padajatak-tepa, the Nautaca of Alexander's campaigns, in southern Sogdiana near Shahr-i Sabz) and its Ferganian neighbour (Ejlatan, Dalverzin-tepe)]. §REF§ (Grenet 2004, 1052-53) Frantz Grenet. 2004. 'Maracanda/Samarkand, une métropole pré-mongole: Sources écrites et archéologie'. Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales, 59e Année, No. 5/6, Asie centrale: 1043-67. §REF§ "The transition between the period of the painted pottery (Koktepe I) and the period of the monumental courtyards (Koktepe II) needs further research, as the differences betwen the north-eastern and south-western trends of the early Iron Age cultures still need explanation." §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 35) Rapin, Claude. "Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period." in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ With regard to the transition between Koktepe I and II, Rapin and Isamiddinov say that the first centuries of the 1st millennium BCE are represented throughout the site by an 'épaisse couche organique' [thick organic layer], suggesting that 'cette période pourrait avoir été celle d'une population semi-sédentaire, peut-être assez nombreuse, qui se serait installée à Koktepe avec du bétail' [this period could have been one of a semi-sedentary population, perhaps quite numerous, which would have been established at Koktepe with cattle]. §REF§ (Rapin and Isamiddinov 2013, 126) Claude Rapin and Muhammadjon Isamiddinov. 2013. 'Entre sédentaires et nomades: les recherches de la Mission archéologique franco-ouzbèke (MAFOuz) de Sogdiane sur le site de Koktepe'. Cahiers d'Asie centrale 21/22: 113-133. Available online at <a class="external free" href="http://asiecentrale.revues.org/1736" rel="nofollow">http://asiecentrale.revues.org/1736</a>. §REF§ According to Claude Rapin, for "the complex question relating to the Early Iron Age in Central Asia" read this (and another 2001 work) Francfort, H. -P. 1989. Fouilles de Shortugai. Recherches sur l'Asie central protohistorique, Memoires de la Mission archeologique francaise en Asie centrale 2, Paris. JR: Much of the literature on Iron Age Koktepe is in Russian. See the bibliography compiled by Claude Rapin here (pp. 6-7): §REF§ <a class="external free" href="http://claude.rapin.free.fr/1BibliographiesPDF/1BiblioMafouz1.pdf" rel="nofollow">http://claude.rapin.free.fr/1BibliographiesPDF/1BiblioMafouz1.pdf</a>. §REF§ ??? - 1000 BCE Koktepe I 1000 - 750 BCE Chronological gap 750 - 550 BCE Koktepe II "sacred courtyard area" "strongly fortified courtyards" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. "Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period." in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ 550 - ??? BCE Scythians? "nomadic establishment" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. "Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period." in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ ??? - ??? BCE Koktepe IIIa "totally different expression of monumental urbanism" §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. "Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period." in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ - could be Archaemenid "not impossible that the nomad layers ... and the platforms of Koktepe ... could correspond to the period of the Persian invasion and the organization of the eastern part of the empire by Darius I." §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 37) Rapin, Claude. "Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period." in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ Koktepe IIIa "The next period is represented at Koktepe by the construction of two platforms with religious and political functions ... and by a huge fortification wall built in the plain around the site." §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. "Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period." in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ "this rampart seems to have been built at the same time as the fortification that surrounds the plateau of Afrasiab ... Both walls not only protected monumental buildings, but also encircled a large open area, probably for the surrounding population to shelter with their cattle when necessary. This conception is characteristic of Central Asian urbanism near the steppe areas (Francfor 2001), and is also apparent in later cities, such as Ai Khanum or Taxila-Sirkap." §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. "Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period." in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ "The sacred function of the monument, probably related to early Zoroastrianism (or at least to a local cult affiliated to the Indo-Iranian complex), is confirmed by the evidence of a ritual of foundation performed just before its construction." §REF§ (Rapin 2007, 37) Rapin, Claude. "Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period." in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy. §REF§ "Pre-Achaemenid period. Before the arrival of Iranian peoples in Central Asia, Sogdiana had already experienced at least two urban phases. The first was at Sarazm (4th-3rd m. BCE), a town of some 100 hectares has been excavated, where both irrigation agriculture and metallurgy were practiced (Isakov). It has been possible to demonstrate the magnitude of links with the civilization of the Oxus as well as with more distant regions, such as Baluchistan. The second phase began in at least the 15th century BCE at Kok Tepe, on the Bulungur canal north of the Zarafsan River, where the earliest archeological material appears to go back to the Bronze Age, and which persisted throughout the Iron Age, until the arrival from the north of the Iranian-speaking populations that were to become the Sogdian group. It declined with the rise of Samarkand (Rapin, 2007). Pre-Achaemenid Sogdiana is recalled in the Younger Avesta (chap. 1 of the Vidēvdād, q.v.) under the name Gava and said to be inhabited by the Sogdians. §REF§ (De la Vaissière, Encyclopedia Iranica online, <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology</a>) §REF§ Edward Turner's interpretation of pre-Achaemenid Sogdiana (Koktepe in particular): 'The essential tension was the sedentary population needed (their irrigated) fields for growing crops, nomads needed land for grazing. so the "strongly fortified courtyards" is a manifestation of this tension. another reason for fortification would be that wave/s of invasion/destruction had happened before: "By 1600 BCE, peoples carrying the Andronovo cultural package had displaced, if not destroyed, the Bactrian/Margiana towns". then the Yaz I replaced the Andronovo - UzKok01. (destruction then as well?) if the inhabitants within the UzKok02 courtyards were Scythians they had probably invaded then settled c750 BCE, presumably causing some destruction of the previous culture. an important line of evidence for invade/destroy/replace also is that it is likely that about 800 BCE the nomadic tribes around Central Asia began to use armies of horseback archers. the fact the sedentarized Scythians built fortifications must reflect the increased danger from the Steppe. their identity lasted until either the Achaemenid or until another wave of Scythians destroyed their culture c550 BCE'.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

23

Sogdiana

Turkestan

66.93817

39.631284

Samarkand

UZ

Uzbekistan

Central Eurasia

13

Turkestan

Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

156

TrNeoCR

-7,000

-6,600

Konya Plain - Ceramic Neolithic

tr_konya_mnl

LEGACY

null

2024-10-07T10:37:56.555403Z

{'id': 88, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

11

Konya Plain

Anatolia-Caucasus

32.521164

37.877845

Konya

TR

Turkey

Southwest Asia

43

Anatolia-Caucasus

Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

160

TrBrzER

-3,000

-2,000

Konya Plain - Early Bronze Age

tr_konya_eba

LEGACY

The Early Bronze Age period in Anatolia is complicated and complex topic. This period begins with controversy, because the transition from Late Chalcolithic to Early Bronze Age is not clear. Some scholars argue that beginning of Early Bronze age should be dated to around 3000 BCE. This is clearly visible at the monumental graves, known as Royal Tombs at Alaca Höyük site. These tombs yielded over 700 items that we can grouped into 12 typological categories. A multiplicity of materials were used in those grave goods - from metals (copper, bronze, silver, gold, electrum, iron, lead, haematite), stones (carnelian, rock crystal, chalcedony, flint, lapis lazuli), frit, faience, pottery, to bone and textiles. The most spectacular findings were anthropomorphic figurines, which were made by the combination more than one metal in a single object. In these Royal Tombs we can find also remains of ceremonial funerary feasts. Some animals were slaughtered, the oxen being the most common. Many sites of this period were well fortified. Proof of wooden palisades and stone walls was found in Karataş-Semayük, and just stone walls in for example Taurus and Demircihöyük. At Alişar Hüyük, complex fortifications were excavated - a well constructed stronghold wall, and 10 meters of fortification on the terrace. One of these walls was set behind the other, and onto it rectangular-shaped bastions were constructed. A lot of handheld weapons were also found in Central Anatolia Plateau, for example: swords, daggers, pikes, halberds, spears, battle axes and warclubs. At the Demircihöyük and Karataş-Semayük sites, there were extramural Early Bronze Age cemeteries - altogether there were about 900 pithoi burials, and the majority of bodies was facing Southeast. The pottery of Anatolian Early Bronze Age was distinctive by red monochrome wares. In terms of animal remains, it can be concluded that Sheep and goats were most dominant (at Acemhöyük), representing 63-68 percent of the faunal remains, followed by cattle and pigs. Wood or rather wooden planks were used in Royal Tombs at Alaca Höyük. "The burials consisted of a rectangular pit roofed with wooden planks." §REF§ Sagona A. and P. Zimanksy, "Ancient Turkey", USA 2009, p. 214. §REF§ Flint/Obsidian present §REF§ Knitter D. "Concepts of Centrality and Models of Exchange in Prehistoric Western Anatolia" In: "Landscape Archaeology. Proceedings of the International Conference Held in Berlin, 6th - 8th June 2012", p. 363. §REF§ §REF§ Sagona A. and P. Zimanksy, "Ancient Turkey", USA 2009, p. 214. §REF§ Building stone present Building stone was used e.g. in Royal Tombs at Alaca Höyük. "The lower parts of these shafts consisted of rectangular stone-lined pits in wchich a single person was normally buried" §REF§ Düring B. S., "The Prehistory of Asia Minor. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies.", Cambridge 2011, p. 291. §REF§ "The most numerous examples of the megaron plan are found in the Early Bronze Age village at Karataş (Troy I-II period), where stone foundations of over thirty such structures have been uncovered in recent excavations." §REF§ Warner J., "The Megaron and Apsidal House in Early Bronze Age Western Anatolia: New Evidence from Karataş", In: "American Journal of Archaeology", Vol. 83, No. 2 (Apr., 1979), p. 138. §REF§ Copper present E.g. grave goods §REF§ Düring B. S., "The Prehistory of Asia Minor. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies.", Cambridge 2011, p. 291. §REF§ Tin/Arsenic present Kestel §REF§ Yener K. A., "An Early Bronze Age Tin Production Site at Göltepe, Turkey.", In: "The Oriental Institute News and Notes", Vol. 140 (1994) §REF§ "The Kestel-Göltepe complex is vast. The mine itself comprises a network of eight galleries, extending in various directions. Some 4500 cubic meters of ore were extracted, often through precariously narrow tunnels, using fire and large ground stone hammers to shatter the ore. Even if the ore mined in antiquity were low grade, containing only 1 % of tin like some the nodules found in the excavations, the size of the galleries point to the produciotn of some 115 tons of tin." §REF§ Sagona A. and P. Zimansky, "Ancient Turkey", USA 2009, pp. 200-2001. §REF§ Iron present E.g. grave goods §REF§ Düring B. S., "The Prehistory of Asia Minor. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies.", Cambridge 2011, p. 291. §REF§ . Iron Dagger §REF§ Düring B. S., "The Prehistory of Asia Minor. From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies.", Cambridge 2011, p. 292. §REF§ Material to make ornaments gold, silver, carnelian, jade, rock crystal "In terms of jewellery, we should note the ability of the craftsmen to combine gold and silver with precious stones (carnelian, jade, and rock crystal), a technique especially favored for pins, and at the same time the conspicious absence of filigree and granulation." §REF§ Sagona A. and P. Zimansky, "Ancient Turkey", USA 2009, pp. 208-209. §REF§ Lead present Most of all as grave goods §REF§ Sagona A. and P. Zimansky, "Ancient Turkey", USA 2009, pp. 214-217 §REF§ Agropastoral with pastoral dominating Sheep and goats were the dominant component of the animal economy at Acemhöyük III and II, representing 63-68 percent of the faunal remains, followed by cattle and pigs. This is similar to the situation observed at contemporary sites on the central plateau including Kaman Kalehhöyük, Küultepe, and Çadır Höyük. §REF§ Arbuckle B., "Pastoralism, Provisioning, and Power at Bronze Age Acemhöyük, Turkey", In: "American Anthropologist", Vol. 114 (2012), Issue 3, p. 466. §REF§ Iron present Pieces of iron object found in Tomb L in Alacahöyük §REF§ Yalçin Ü. and H. G., "Reassessing Antropomorphic Metal Figurines of Alacahöyük, Anatolia", In: "Near Eastern Archeology" Vol. 76:1 (2013), p. 41. §REF§ . Metals present §REF§ Efe T., "The Theories of the 'Great Caravan Route' between Cilicia and Troy: The Early Bronze Age III Period in Inland Western Anatolia" In: "Anatolian Studies", Vol. 57, Transanatolia: Bridging the Gap between East and West inthe Archaeology of Ancient Anatolia (2007), p. 49 §REF§ Raw materials present Melian Obsidian in Beycesultan §REF§ Knitter D. "Concepts of Centrality and Models of Exchange in Prehistoric Western Anatolia" In: "Landscape Archaeology. Proceedings of the International Conference Held in Berlin, 6th - 8th June 2012", p. 363. §REF§ Pottery present Trojan depas vessel, two-handled tankards, wheelmade plain plates and bowls §REF§ Ancient Anatolia, 10,000-323 B.C.E, S.R. Steadman, G.McMahon, Oxford University Press, 2011. Chapter 10 §REF§ Coppersmith present §REF§ Yakar T., "Regional and Local Schools of Metalwork in Early Bronze Age Anatolia: Part I", In: "Anatolian Studies", Vol. 34 (1984), p. 75. §REF§ Pottery present §REF§ Sagona A. and P. Zimansky, "Ancient Turkey", USA 2009, p. 197. §REF§ Butcher present §REF§ Arbuckle B., "Pastoralism, Provisioning, and Power at Bronze Age Acemhöyük, Turkey", In: "American Anthropologist", Vol. 114 (2012), Issue 3, p. 468. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

11

Konya Plain

Anatolia-Caucasus

32.521164

37.877845

Konya

TR

Turkey

Southwest Asia

43

Anatolia-Caucasus

Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

158

TrClcER

-6,000

-5,500

Konya Plain - Early Chalcolithic

tr_konya_eca

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

11

Konya Plain

Anatolia-Caucasus

32.521164

37.877845

Konya

TR

Turkey

Southwest Asia

43

Anatolia-Caucasus

Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

155

TrNeoER

-9,600

-7,000

Konya Plain - Early Neolithic

tr_konya_enl

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

11

Konya Plain

Anatolia-Caucasus

32.521164

37.877845

Konya

TR

Turkey

Southwest Asia

43

Anatolia-Caucasus

Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

163

TrBrzL2

-1,500

-1,400

Konya Plain - Late Bronze Age II

tr_konya_lba

LEGACY

The period of 1500-1400 BCE was an 'intermediate period' for the Hittite people that is sometimes referred to as the Middle Kingdom, which existed before the Empire period of the New Kingdom. §REF§ (Gurney 1952, 25) O R Gurney. 1952.The Hittites. Penguin. §REF§ According to McEvedy and Jones (1978) the population of the whole of Turkey was about 1.5 million by the Chalcolithic era (2500 BC) and reached 3 million "during the course of the full Bronze age". §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 133) Colin McEvedy. Richard Jones. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd. London. §REF§ However, the area corresponding to Hittite control at this time was just a fraction of the 750,000 km2 of Anatolia, so it is unlikely there were more than a million Hittites, possibly much less. As a time of troubles, not much is known about the Middle Kingdom of the Hittites, but by around 1450 CE Hantili II is noted for building achievements being "responsible for the first extensive fortification of the capital" Hattusa. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 30) Bryce T. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World, New York: Oxford University Press. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

11

Konya Plain

Anatolia-Caucasus

32.521164

37.877845

Konya

TR

Turkey

Southwest Asia

43

Anatolia-Caucasus

Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

159

TrClcLT

-5,500

-3,000

Konya Plain - Late Chalcolithic

tr_konya_lca

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

11

Konya Plain

Anatolia-Caucasus

32.521164

37.877845

Konya

TR

Turkey

Southwest Asia

43

Anatolia-Caucasus

Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

157

TrNeoLT

-6,600

-6,000

Konya Plain - Late Neolithic

tr_konya_lnl

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

11

Konya Plain

Anatolia-Caucasus

32.521164

37.877845

Konya

TR

Turkey

Southwest Asia

43

Anatolia-Caucasus

Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

127

AfKushn

35

319

Kushan Empire

af_kushan_emp

LEGACY

The Kushan Empire was a confederated state headed by an absolute or near absolute military monarchy. Little is known of its early history due to the scarcity of written records, but it appears to have been founded in Bactria, Central Asia in the mid-1st century CE when Kujula Kadphises united the five tribes of the Yuezhi confederation. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2005, 335-37) Sinopoli, Carla M. 2005. “Imperial Landscapes of South Asia.” In Archaeology of Asia, edited by Miriam T. Stark, 324-49. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JZ73UGSF" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JZ73UGSF</a>. §REF§ The Kushan state, as chronicled by the Hou Hanshu (a Chinese text), expanded from Bactria and Sogdiana into Gandhara (in modern-day Pakistan) and northern India. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2005, 335-37) Sinopoli, Carla M. 2005. “Imperial Landscapes of South Asia.” In Archaeology of Asia, edited by Miriam T. Stark, 324-49. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JZ73UGSF" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JZ73UGSF</a>. §REF§ Kushan coins recovered from excavations across this region are a key source of evidence for the expansion of the empire and reveal that Kushan monarchs took a syncretistic approach to religion and culture, utilizing Buddhist, Iranian, Hellenistic and Indian iconography. §REF§ (Neelis n.d.) Neelis, Jason. nd. “The Kushan Empire.” University of Washington: Silk Road Seattle. <a class="external free" href="https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/exhibit/kushans/essay.html" rel="nofollow">https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/exhibit/kushans/essay.html</a>. §REF§ Population and political organization Historians are uncertain exactly how the Kushan Empire was governed. According to Rafi-us Samad, the Kushans were 'great conquerors but poor administrators' and the stable administration of the capital was to a large degree reliant on the Buddhist establishment. §REF§ (Samad 2011, 90-91) Samad, Rafi-us. 2011. The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. New York: Algora Pub. <a class="external free" href="http://public.eblib.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=777134" rel="nofollow">http://public.eblib.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=777134</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EI23K8AX" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/EI23K8AX</a>. §REF§ Nevertheless, the historian B. N. Puri has described the Kushan king's powers as 'unfettered' by any kind of advisory body comparable to those found in the Mauryan period in northern India. §REF§ (Puri 1994, 254) Puri, B. N. 1994. “The Kushans.” In History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol. II: The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civilizations, 700 B.C. to A.D. 250, edited by János Harmatta, B. N. Puri, and G. F. Etemadi, 239-55. Paris: UNESCO. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CW6B4KVV" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CW6B4KVV</a>. §REF§ The state chancery used both the Bactrian language, written using the Greek alphabet, and Gandhari, written in the Kharosthi script. §REF§ (Grenet 2012, 1-2) Grenet, Frantz. 2012. “The Nomadic Element in the Kushan Empire (1st-3rd Century AD).” Journal of Central Eurasian Studies, no. 3: 1-22. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TMRCJ9QP" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TMRCJ9QP</a>. §REF§ One theory holds that the political structure of the empire was characterized by 'hierarchical organization in a feudatory system'. Another view suggests the Kushan state included a mixture of both bureaucratic and feudal elements. The further south into the Indian subcontinent and the further from the capitals one went, the more independent the outer satraps became. §REF§ (Mukherjee 1998, 448) Mukherjee, Bratindra Nath. 1988. The Rise and Fall of the Kushānạ Empire. Calcutta: Firma KLM. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/97W9PEID" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/97W9PEID</a>. §REF§ The literature does not provide reliable estimates for the population of the Kushan Empire.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

23

Sogdiana

Turkestan

66.93817

39.631284

Samarkand

UZ

Uzbekistan

Central Eurasia

8

Afghanistan

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

658

ni_kwararafa

596

1,820

Kwararafa

ni_kwararafa

POL_AFR_WEST

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

7

West Africa

From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

53

PaLaMul

-1,300

200

La Mula-Sarigua

pa_la_mula_sarigua

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

21

Caribbean

Caribbean islands, Panama, coastal Columbia-Venezuela

{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}

453

FrTeneA

-475

-325

La Tene A-B1

fr_la_tene_a_b1

LEGACY

La Tene (A-B1) was an early Iron Age culture in Europe named after an archaeological site at Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland. §REF§ (Collis 2003, 172, 217-218) §REF§ The territory centered on ancient Gaul and at its height spanned areas in modern day France, Belgium, Switzerland, Austria, Southern Germany, Czechia, parts of Northern Italy, Slovenia, Hungary, and adjacent parts of the Netherlands, Slovakia, Croatia, western Romania, and western Ukraine. Settlements during this period included larger towns (indicating a degree of centralization), villages and farmsteads spread throughout their territories. §REF§ (Wells 1999, 45-47) §REF§ Population figures are difficult to trace, but according to our expert some estimates put the largest settlement areas during the beginning of this period at 5,000-7,000 people.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

2

Paris Basin

Western Europe

2.312458

48.866111

Paris

FR

France

Europe

20

Western Europe

British Isles, France, Low Countries

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

454

FrTeneB

-325

-175

La Tene B2-C1

fr_la_tene_b2_c1

LEGACY

La Tene (B2-C1) was an Iron Age culture in Europe named after an archaeological site at Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland. The territory centred on ancient Gaul and at its height spanned areas in modern day France, Belgium, Switzerland, Austria, Southern Germany, Czechia, parts of Northern Italy, Slovenia, Hungary, and adjacent parts of the Netherlands, Slovakia, Croatia, western Romania, and western Ukraine. Settlements during this period included larger towns, villages and farmsteads spread throughout their territories. §REF§ (Wells 1999, 45-47) §REF§ During this period tribes became urbanised and more centralized but although they formed alliances with other tribes, they did not join together within a unified centralized polity. §REF§ (Kruta 2004, 105) §REF§ Each tribe had their own fortified urban settlements and there was no capital city. The population is estimated at around 70,000-80,000, and much of the information we have about the populations comes from the time of Caesar’s invasion of Gaul.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

2

Paris Basin

Western Europe

2.312458

48.866111

Paris

FR

France

Europe

20

Western Europe

British Isles, France, Low Countries

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

455

FrTeneC

-175

-27

La Tene C2-D

fr_la_tene_c2_d

LEGACY

La Tene (C2-D) was an Iron Age culture in Europe named after an archaeological site at Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland that ran from approximately 175-27 BCE. §REF§ (Collis 2003, 172, 217-218) §REF§ The territory centered on ancient Gaul and at its height spanned areas in modern day France, Belgium, Switzerland, Austria, Southern Germany, Czechia, parts of Northern Italy, Slovenia, Hungary, and adjacent parts of the Netherlands, Slovakia, Croatia, western Romania, and western Ukraine. Settlements during this period included fortified urban settlements, larger towns, villages and farmsteads spread throughout their territories. §REF§ (Wells 1999, 45-47) §REF§ During this period tribes became urbanised and more centralized but although they formed alliances with other tribes, they did not join together within a unified centralized polity. §REF§ (Kruta 2004, 105) §REF§ Each tribe had their own fortified urban settlements and there was no capital city. Production of goods at many of the larger sites included glass jewellery, leather-working, bronze-casting and coin minting. §REF§ (Wells 1999, 49-54 §REF§ The population is estimated at around 70,000-80,000, and much of the information we have about the population (and other aspects of La Tene life during this period) comes from the time of Caesar’s invasion of Gaul. §REF§ (Wells 1984:171) §REF§ §REF§ (Patterson 1995, 136) §REF§

null

2024-04-25T10:44:14.782463Z

{'id': 23, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

2

Paris Basin

Western Europe

2.312458

48.866111

Paris

FR

France

Europe

20

Western Europe

British Isles, France, Low Countries

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

355

IqLakhm

400

611

Lakhmid Kigdom

iq_lakhmid_k

LEGACY

null

2023-10-30T18:04:07.987962Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

44

Arabia

Arabian Peninsula

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

381

LaLanXang

1,354

1,707

Lan Xang Kingdom

la_lan_xang_k

LEGACY

null

2024-01-24T10:09:11.654734Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

41

Mainland Southeast Asia

Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam

{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}

112

InGaroL

1,867

1,956

Late A'chik

in_achik_2

LEGACY

The Garo Hills, located in Meghalaya in northeast India, have long been inhabited by the A’chik. The term 'Garo' is of unclear origin, but is believed to have originated with the neighbouring Boro people. §REF§ (Sangma 1995, 37) Sangma, Mihir N., and Milton S. Sangma. 1995. “The Garos: The Name, Meanings, and Its Origin.” In Hill Societies, Their Modernisation: A Study of North East with Special Reference to Garo Hills, 32-41. New Delhi: Omsons Publications. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M5IS3SBN" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M5IS3SBN</a>. §REF§ The Garo people refer to themselves as the A'chik ('hill') or A'chik Manderang ('hill people'). §REF§ (Sangma 1995, 33) Sangma, Mihir N., and Milton S. Sangma. 1995. “The Garos: The Name, Meanings, and Its Origin.” In Hill Societies, Their Modernisation: A Study of North East with Special Reference to Garo Hills, 32-41. New Delhi: Omsons Publications. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M5IS3SBN" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/M5IS3SBN</a>. §REF§ It is unknown precisely when the A’chik settled in their present location, but it is believed that they migrated to the hills from Tibet. §REF§ (Roy 1999, 2) Roy, Sankar Kumar. 1999. “Culture Summary: Garo.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ar05-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ar05-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TXQNUE8P" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TXQNUE8P</a>. §REF§ The A’chik had little contact with their neighbours before 1775, when local zamindars (Indian land-owning nobility) led expeditions into the Garo Hills. §REF§ (Roy 1999, 2) Roy, Sankar Kumar. 1999. “Culture Summary: Garo.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ar05-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ar05-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TXQNUE8P" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TXQNUE8P</a>. §REF§ 1788 saw the first contact with the British, who began to occupy the district in 1867. §REF§ (Roy 1999, 2) Roy, Sankar Kumar. 1999. “Culture Summary: Garo.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ar05-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ar05-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TXQNUE8P" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TXQNUE8P</a>. §REF§ Despite their initial resistance, the A’chik were overmatched by British firearms, and the British established full administrative control of the region around 1873. §REF§ (Majumdar 1978, 30) Majumdar, Dhirendra Narayan. 1978. Culture Change in Two Garo Villages. Calcutta: Anthropological Survey of India, Govt. of India. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TZXMWMN5" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TZXMWMN5</a>. §REF§ The region remained a part of British India until Indian independence in 1947. Population and political organization During the precolonial period, the A’chik lacked elaborate political organization. The most important social unit was the matrilineal clan, the machong. §REF§ (Roy 1999, 6) Roy, Sankar Kumar. 1999. “Culture Summary: Garo.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ar05-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=ar05-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TXQNUE8P" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TXQNUE8P</a>. §REF§ The chief (nokma) had relatively little power beyond religious functions and resolving minor disputes under the guidance of the village elders. §REF§ (Majumdar 1978, 22) Majumdar, Dhirendra Narayan. 1978. Culture Change in Two Garo Villages. Calcutta: Anthropological Survey of India, Govt. of India. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TZXMWMN5" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TZXMWMN5</a>. §REF§ Once the region was under British control, executive offices were simply superimposed onto A’chik structures. The British created the office of laskar, with limited power over about ten villages. §REF§ (Marak 1997, 52) Marak, Kumie R. 1997. Traditions and Modernity in Matrilineal Tribal Society. New Delhi: Inter-India Publications. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CS3PXEIH" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CS3PXEIH</a>. §REF§ The A’chik were still left to settle their own disputes through the nokma, but they gained the right to appeal the nokma's decisions to the court of laskars. §REF§ (Marak 1997, 52) Marak, Kumie R. 1997. Traditions and Modernity in Matrilineal Tribal Society. New Delhi: Inter-India Publications. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CS3PXEIH" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CS3PXEIH</a>. §REF§ Population estimates are unavailable for the precolonial period. The British colonial official and statistician W. W. Hunter estimated that the population of the Garo Hills was 80,000 in 1872. §REF§ (Kar 1995, 54) Kar, Biman. 1995. “Changing A’chik-Mande: Need for Further Research.” In Hill Societies, Their Modernisation: A Study of North East with Special Reference to Garo Hills, edited by Milton S. Sangma, 52-58. New Delhi: Omsons Publications. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/W7PJ27C6" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/W7PJ27C6</a>. §REF§

null

2024-05-30T14:03:33.228031Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

16

Garo Hills

Eastern India

90.518539

25.444444

Tura

ASM

India

South Asia

37

Eastern South Asia

Bangladesh + Indian states of West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and Sikkim

{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}

42

KhAngkL

1,220

1,432

Late Angkor

kh_angkor_3

LEGACY

The Khmer Empire was established in 802 CE, when a ruler known as Jayavarman II had himself proclaimed a 'universal monarch' in a ceremony performed by Sanskrit-speaking priests on a mountain close to the Tonlé Sap lake. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ By bringing previously independent polities under their control, Jayavarman II and his successors expanded their realm across mainland Southeast Asia, including parts of modern-day Cambodia, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam. §REF§ (Fletcher 2012, 300) Roland Fletcher. 2012. 'Low-Density, Agrarian-Based Urbanism: Scale, Power, and Ecology', in The Comparative Archaeology of Complex Societies, edited by M. Smith, 285-320. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Our Late Angkor period begins with the death of King Jayavarman VII around 1200 CE. §REF§ (Vickery 1986, 103) Michael Vickery. 1986. 'Some Remarks on Early State Formation in Cambodia', in Southeast Asia in the 9th to 14th Centuries, edited by David G. Marr and A. C. Milner, 95-115. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. §REF§ In contrast to the burgeoning growth of the Khmer Empire during the Classic period, the Late Angkor period was characterized by political and economic decline, culminating in the sack of the city of Angkor by the Thai Kingdom of Ayutthaya in 1431. §REF§ (Stark 2006, 146, 164) Miriam T. Stark. 2006. 'From Funan to Angkor: Collapse and Regeneration in Ancient Cambodia', in After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and John J. Nichols, 144-67. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ The reign of Jayavarman VII marked the high point of Angkorean monument-building, and subsequent rulers did not carry out major construction projects at the ancient capital. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 390) Charles Higham. 2014. Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§ Chinese diplomat Zhou Daguan visited Angkor in the late 13th century and saw temples capped in gold and copper, sumptuous religious festivals, thousands of slaves and servants, and a lively trade in Chinese goods. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 390-91) Charles Higham. 2014. Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§ §REF§ (Higham 2001, 135-56) Charles Higham. 2001. The Civilization of Angkor. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ However, this grandeur concealed the fundamental instability of the state, and the Khmer administrative system with its centre at Angkor eventually disintegrated in the mid-15th century CE. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 391) Charles Higham. 2014. Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§ Warfare became 'endemic', §REF§ (Higham 2001, 140) Charles Higham. 2001. The Civilization of Angkor. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ and after the Ayyuthaya attacks in 1431, the rulers of Angkor moved to south-eastern Cambodia and founded a new capital at Phnom Penh. §REF§ (Higham 2014, 391) Charles Higham. 2014. Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§ §REF§ (Buckley et al. 2010, 6750) Brendan M. Buckley, Kevin J. Anchukaitisa, Daniel Penny, Roland Fletcher, Edward R. Cook, Masaki Sano, Le Canh Nam, Aroonrut Wichienkeeo, Ton That Minh and Truong Mai Hong. 2010. 'Climate as a Contributing Factor in the Demise of Angkor, Cambodia'. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107 (15): 6748-51. §REF§ Population and political organization Numerous small kingdoms formed in the lower Mekong Basin in the mid-1st millennium CE, but until the conquests of Jayavarman II, most failed to outlive their founders. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Jayavarman II managed to unify previously warring local lords under his aegis, turning independent polities into provinces and laying the foundations for over six centuries of Khmer rule centred on the Siem Reap plain. §REF§ (Higham 2012, 185) Charles Higham. 2012. 'Khmer Civilization and the Empire of Angkor', in The Oxford Companion to Archaeology, edited by Brian M. Fagan, 183-86. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Like many polities in Southeast Asia at the turn of the 1st millennium CE, the new kingdom, with its growing urban centre on the north shore of the Tonlé Sap, borrowed from Indian religious practices, concepts of divine kingship, language, writing and iconography in order to legitimize royal power. §REF§ (Higham 2001, 8) Charles Higham. 2001. The Civilization of Angkor. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Kulke 1986, 14-15) Hermann Kulke. 1986. 'The Early and the Imperial Kingdom in Southeast Asian History', in Southeast Asia in the 9th to 14th Centuries, edited by David G. Marr and A. C. Milner, 1-22. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. §REF§ Its kings patronized both Hindu and Buddhist institutions, building monasteries and sanctuaries dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and the Buddha that doubled as outposts of royal power throughout the realm. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 160) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lieberman 2003, 33) Victor Lieberman. 2003. Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800‒1830, Vol. 1: Integration on the Mainland. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ However, the Late Angkor period saw a decline in the importance of the Hindu devaraja (god-king) cult, while Theravada Buddhism gained an increasingly stronger foothold among both the people and their rulers. §REF§ (Hall 2011, 197) Kenneth R. Hall. 2011. A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Social Development, 100-1500. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. §REF§ §REF§ (Stark 2006, 164) Miriam T. Stark. 2006. 'From Funan to Angkor: Collapse and Regeneration in Ancient Cambodia', in After Collapse: The Regeneration of Complex Societies, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and John J. Nichols, 144-67. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. §REF§ This is reflected in the scarcity of Sanskrit inscriptions referencing Hindu gods ‒ the last known Angkor inscription to use this language dates to 1327 §REF§ (Higham 2001, 140) Charles Higham. 2001. The Civilization of Angkor. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ ‒ and the increasing importance of Pali scriptures. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 162-63) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ While some scholars suggest that this religious shift contributed to the loosening of centralized Khmer power, §REF§ (Higham 2014, 391) Charles Higham. 2014. Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§ the causes for imperial decline during this period remain a topic of intense scholarly debate. §REF§ (Evans 2016, 165) Damian Evans. 2016. 'Airborne Laser Scanning as a Method for Exploring Long-Term Socio-Ecological Dynamics in Cambodia'. Journal of Archaeological Science 74: 164-75. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2016.05.009. §REF§ The riches of Angkor at the height of its power had always flowed from wet-rice agriculture, §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 159) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ and an institutionalized hierarchy of officials developed to funnel surplus rice produced in villages, as well as other goods like honey, spices, cloth and gold, to the royal centre. §REF§ (Higham 2012, 185) Charles Higham. 2012. 'Khmer Civilization and the Empire of Angkor', in The Oxford Companion to Archaeology, edited by Brian M. Fagan, 183-86. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Coe 2003, 141) Michael D. Coe. 2003. Angkor and the Khmer Civilization. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ Angkor kings also used corvée labour to build temples, irrigation infrastructure and other public works. §REF§ (Coe 2003, 141) Michael D. Coe. 2003. Angkor and the Khmer Civilization. New York: Thames & Hudson. §REF§ §REF§ (Higham 2014, 368-70) Charles Higham. 2014. Early Mainland Southeast Asia: From First Humans to Angkor. Bangkok: River Books. §REF§ In this period, however, rice agriculture decreased in importance in favour of trade and commerce, potentially undermining the traditional power base of the Angkor kings. §REF§ (Taylor 1992, 163) Keith W. Taylor. 1992. 'The Early Kingdoms', in The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. I: From Early Times to c. 1800, edited by Nicholas Tarling, 137-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The Khmer Empire is famous for its sprawling but low-density urban sites. §REF§ (Fletcher 2012, 300) Roland Fletcher. 2012. 'Low-Density, Agrarian-Based Urbanism: Scale, Power, and Ecology', in The Comparative Archaeology of Complex Societies, edited by M. Smith, 285-320. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ It has been claimed that Angkor itself was the 'largest settlement complex of the preindustrial world': §REF§ (Evans et al. 2013, 12595) Damian H. Evans, Roland J. Fletcher, Christophe Pottier, Jean-Baptiste Chevance, Dominique Soutif, Boun Suy Tan, Sokrithy Im, Darith Ea, Tina Tin, Samnang Kim, Christopher Cromarty, Stéphane De Greef, Kasper Hanus, Pierre Bâty, Robert Kuszinger, Ichita Shimoda, and Glenn Boornazian. 2013. 'Uncovering Archaeological Landscapes at Angkor Using Lidar'. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110 (31): 12595-600. §REF§ at its peak in the 12th century (before this period) it covered 1000 square kilometres and may have housed over 750,000 people. §REF§ (Penny et al. 2014, 1) Dan Penny, Jean-Baptiste Chevance, David Tang, and Stéphane De Greef. 2014. 'The Environmental Impact of Cambodia's Ancient City of Mahendraparvata (Phnom Kulen)'. PLoS ONE 9 (1): e84252. §REF§ However, the total population of the empire in this period is still unclear.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

17

Cambodian Basin

Siam

103.8667

13.4125

Angkor Wat

KH

Cambodia

Southeast Asia

41

Mainland Southeast Asia

Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam

{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}

170

TrCappL

-330

16

Late Cappadocia

tr_cappadocia_2

LEGACY

The Cappaodican kingdom began and ended in the hands of other more powerful polities in Asia Minor. The kingdom grew out of suzerainty to the Achaemenid Empire when Alexander the Great toppled the Achaemenids and largely bypassed Cappadocia §REF§ (Ansen 1988, 471) E M Ansen. 1988. Antigonus, the Satrap of Phrygia. Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Bd. 37, H. 4 (4th Qtr.), pp. 471-477. §REF§ , but the kingdom eventually returned to being a province under the next greatest power, Rome, in the early first century CE. Even during the peak reign of Cappadocian kings, the polity was fought over and used by the kings of its neighbouring polities to strengthen their positions of power or to buffer their state against the ambitions of another. This happened to such an extent that Mithridates VI Eupator, king of Pontus, placed both his nephew and son on the Cappadocian throne, only to kill the first to reinforce the claim of the latter, much to the antagonism of Nicomedes III, king of Bithynia at the time, who claimed his own right to a puppet on the Cappadocian throne. The incident resulted in the intervention of Rome who declared the ‘freedom’ of Cappadocia from monarchs (in theory) so that neither the kingdoms of Pontus or Bithynia could use Cappadocia for their own gains. The kingdom was then ruled by kings favoured by the Roman Senate until the death of Archelaus who was the last king of Cappadocia, places there by Antony. As a result of Cappadocia’s relatively minor position during this time, very little textual (or other) direct evidence from the kingdom has survived. Numismatic evidence does give some detailed information about the chronology of kings, but even this is debated §REF§ (Simonetta 1977) B Simonetta. 1977. The Coins of the Cappadocian Kings. Fribourg: Office du Livre. §REF§ §REF§ (Dimitriev 2006, 286) S Dmitriev. 2006. Cappadocian Dynastic Rearrangements on the Eve of the First Mithridatic War. Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Bd. 55, H. 3, pp. 285-297. §REF§ . Instead, much of what is known about the kingdom of Cappadocia comes from accounts of the foreign policy of its neighbours, particularly Rome at the time. The main historian who discussed Cappadocia was Strabo, and his accounts lack the detailed information on Cappadocia which other polities have §REF§ (Rostovtzeff 1941, 838) M Rostovtzeff. 1941. The Social and Economic History of the Hellenistic World, Volume 2. Oxford: Clarendon Press. §REF§ .

null

2024-11-19T13:28:49.010396Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

11

Konya Plain

Anatolia-Caucasus

32.521164

37.877845

Konya

TR

Turkey

Southwest Asia

43

Anatolia-Caucasus

Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

591

gt_tikal_late_classic

555

869

Late Classic Tikal

gt_tikal_late_classic

LEGACY

“Tikal is located in the Petén district, Guatemala, on top of an escarpment (250 m asl) surrounded by swampy areas to the west and east, earthworks to the north and south ( Jones et al. 1981), and large tracts of fertile land (Fedick and Ford 1990).1 It is one of the best-known and largest Maya centers (Figure 6.1). Since it is not near lakes or rivers, its inhabitants relied on several complex reservoir systems to offset seasonal water shortages (Scarborough and Gallopin 1991), which are found next to temples and royal palaces. The central core (9 km2) consists of a densely built landscape of public and private monumental and nonmonumental architecture (ca. 235 structures/km2)… Tikal was ruled by a “holy” or “divine” king (k’ul ahaw), who implemented tribute demands. Tikal has inscriptions, its own emblem glyph, water symbolism, palaces, royal funerary temples, large ball courts, and tall temples facing large and open plazas (e.g., Temple IV is 65 m tall). Its monumental complexes are connected via sacbeob (causeways). The earliest inscribed stela in the southern Maya lowlands (Stela 29, ad 292) is found at Tikal, and it has one of the longest dynastic histories in the Maya area (last known inscribed date: ad 869).”§REF§(Lucero 2006: 162) Lucero, Lisa J. 2006. Water and Ritual: The Rise and Fall of Classic Maya Rulers. Austin: University of Texas Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NSX2SNWU§REF§ “No sight gives a better impression of the past glories of Maya civilisation than the towering ruins of Tikal. At its 8th-century peak a score of red-painted pyramids dominated the heart of a dispersed metropolis housing as many as 60,000 people. It claimed a dynastic succession of at leasr 33 rulers, spanning as long as 800 years… A survivor of the Preclassic collapse, Tikal became a crucible of the new lowland Classic tradition, with a dynasty in place as early as the 1st century AD. Towards the end of the 4th century it fell, like many other pans of Mesoamerica at the time, under the sway of the Mexican superpower Teotihuacan. If anything. the fused Mexican-Maya dynasty that resulted only consolidated Tikal's leading position in the region. But an erosion of its strength in the 6th century led to its defeat and conquest and a resulting 'dark age' of troubles lasting 130 years. Its fortunes were restored late in the 7th century and it resumed a key position in the Maya world until the general unravelling of Classic civilization 150 years later.”§REF§(Martin and Grube 2000: 25) Martin, Simon and Grube, Nikolai. 2000. Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya. London; New York: Thames & Hudson. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5WIIDVRJ§REF§ “By the end of the 9th century Tikal had experienced a fate shared with its peers across the Maya realm. With all vestiges of royal power gone and deserted by the bulk of its population, its elite quarters were taken over by squatters and simple thatched homes sprang up on its ceremonial plazas. These late inhabitants pursued their own, often elaborate, ritual activities, moving and reusing earlier monuments for purposes quite estranged from those of the fallen nobility. By Tikal’s last days, any regard for the sanctity of the old order had long since dissolved and the North Acropolis was mined in search of its terms and their jade riches. The more accessible were discovered and ransacked. Finally abandoned in the 10th or 11th century, the forest completed its takeover of the city, choking it with root and vine for the next Millennium.”§REF§(Martin and Grube 2000: 53) Martin, Simon and Grube, Nikolai. 2000. Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya. London; New York: Thames & Hudson. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5WIIDVRJ§REF§

null

2023-10-18T14:26:19.121691Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

23

Mexico

{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}

743

nl_dutch_emp_2

1,815

1,940

Late Dutch Empire

nl_dutch_emp_2

OTHER_TAG

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

772

tz_east_africa_ia_2

800

1,150

Late East Africa Iron Age

tz_east_africa_ia_2

OTHER_TAG

null

2023-10-31T10:47:10.015477Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

2

East Africa

Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

10

MxFormL

-400

-101

Late Formative Basin of Mexico

mx_basin_of_mexico_5

LEGACY

The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Late Formative period (c. 400-101 BCE). In this period, polities throughout Mesoamerica experienced increases in wealth, influence, and hierarchical complexity. §REF§ (Evans 2012: 120) Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AN5IUQ7X</a>. §REF§ In the Basin of Mexico, Cuicuilco, Tlapacoya, and Cholula all became major regional centers with monumental architecture. §REF§ (Sugiyama 2012: 216) Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZJWB86UI" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZJWB86UI</a>. §REF§ No estimates could be found for the population of the average autonomous political unit at the time. The largest known settlement, Cuicuilco, may have had a population of at least 20,000 acrross 400 ha. §REF§ (Cowgill 2015: 42) Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JRFZPUXU" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JRFZPUXU</a>. §REF§ Political power was inherently theocratic; §REF§ Barba de Piña Chán, Beatriz. (1980). Tlapacoya: Los Principios de la Teocracia en la Cuenca de Mexico. Biblioteca Enciclopedica del Estado de Mexico, p.13-42, 95-142. §REF§ §REF§ Plunket, Patricia and Gabriela Uruñuela. (2012). "Where East Meets West: The Formative in Mexico's Central Highlands." Journal of Archaeological 20(1): 1-51 §REF§ §REF§ Carballo, David M. (2016). Urbanization and Religion in Ancient Central Mexico. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p.73-215. §REF§ beyond that, the exact administrative mechanisms prevalent at the time remain unclear.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

27

Basin of Mexico

Mexico

-99.13

19.43

Ciudad de Mexico

MX

Mexico

North America

23

Mexico

{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}

713

bo_titicaca_late_formative

100

499

Late Formative Titicaca Basin

bo_titicaca_late_formative

OTHER_TAG

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

32

Andes

From Ecuador to Chile

{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}

657

ni_formative_yoruba

650

1,049

Late Formative Yoruba

ni_formative_yoruba

POL_AFR_WEST

"As a result, a new social configuration featuring formalized association and integration of multiple households under a single leadership became necessary as a means of organizing and safeguarding land and labor. It was the beginning of a departure from the two- to three-generation households and hamlets that had been the preferred unit of social organization in the preceding centuries. The new social configuration was the House—what the Yorùbá call an ilé (literally, “house”), an emergent corporate group that has since formed the primary basis of the Yorùbá social organization. [...] Organized under a hierarchy of leadership, members and units of an ilé shared access to land and other means of production; maintained a common narrative of origin; and subscribed to the same ritual practices, deities, ancestors, taboos, and metaphysics."§REF§(Ogundiran 2020: 47-48)§REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

7

West Africa

From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

56

PaCocl3

1,000

1,515

Late Greater Coclé

pa_cocle_3

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

21

Caribbean

Caribbean islands, Panama, coastal Columbia-Venezuela

{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}

31

USIllinL

1,718

1,778

Late Illinois Confederation

us_late_illinois_confederation

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

24

Mississippi Basin

From the Great Lakes to Louisiana

{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}

443

MnMongL

1,368

1,690

Late Mongols

mn_mongol_late

LEGACY

After the Yuan dynasty collapsed in 1368, Toghon Temur, its last emperor retired with his army to Mongolia, where he established a new state, with Karakorum as its capital, that extended from Manchuria to Kyrgyzstan between the Great Wall of China and Lake Baikal. §REF§ (Ishjamts 2003, 210-211) §REF§ The new Mongolian polity was actually a loose alliance of six tribal confederations or tümens united under a common Khan, and the Khalkhas were one of these confederations. The Khalkhas were themselves divided into the Northern and Southern Khalkhas, and the Northern Khalkhas were divided into left-flank and right-flank Khalkhas For much of their history, the Khalkhas fought against the neighbouring Oirat confederation, with only a few decades' truce in the first half of the seventeenth century. In 1662, conflict flared up between the left-flank and right-flank Khalkhas, but it was the Oirats' invasion under Zungharian leadership that led to the fall of the Khalkha confederacy, as it pushed the Khalkhas to request Beijing's protection, which the Chinese emperor granted in 1691, in exchange for political submission. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 299-300) §REF§ Population and political organization Like other Mongol confederacies, the Khalkhas were organised in a confederacy ruled by its own ruler, who however deferred to the overarching khan. §REF§ (Ishjamts 2003, 213) §REF§ In the 1630s, the Khalkhas, along with the Chahars, comprised 19,580 families; §REF§ (Perdue 2005, 125) §REF§ estimating 3-8 people per family results in a figure of between 58,740 and 156,640 people, which, halved to exclude the Chahars, falls to between 30,000 and 80,000.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

24

Orkhon Valley

Mongolia

102.845486

47.200757

Karakorum

MN

Mongolia

Central Eurasia

9

Mongolia

Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

702

in_pallava_emp_2

300

890

Late Pallava Empire

in_pallava_emp_2

POL_SA_SI

The Pallava Empire originated in the early 4th century CE in the northern Tamil Nadu region§REF§ (Bush Trevino 2012, 46) Bush Travino, Macella. 2012. ‘The Pallava Dynasty’ In Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia and Africa: An Encyclopedia. Vol.4 Edited by Carolyn M. Elliot. Los Angeles: Sage. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4RPCX448/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/4RPCX448/collection</a> §REF§The Pallavan capital was at Kanchi, modern-day Kanchipuram. The Pallava rulers were major beneifactors of education and gave land grants for schools. The Pallava dynasties also contributed to art and architecture by commissioning temples and shrines, particularly in the port city of Mamallapuram. §REF§ (Kamlesh 2010, 569) Kamelsh, Kapur. 2010. ‘The Pallava Dynasty’ In History of Ancient India: Portraits of a Nation. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UETBPIDE/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UETBPIDE/collection</a> §REF§ In the late 9th century, the Pallava Empire was succeeded by the Chola Empire. §REF§ (Kamlesh 2010, 566) Kamelsh, Kapur. 2010. ‘The Pallava Dynasty’ In History of Ancient India: Portraits of a Nation. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UETBPIDE/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UETBPIDE/collection</a> §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

40

Southern India

Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana

{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}

2

CnQingL

1,796

1,912

Late Qing

cn_qing_dyn_2

LEGACY

The Qing Dynasty (or Empire of the Great Qing, Great Qing, Manchu Dynasty, Manchus, Jin, Jurchens, Ch'ing Dynasty) was China's last imperial dynasty. The founders of the Qing were descendants of Jurchen Jin rulers. The dynasty was founded by Nurhaci and then led by his son Huang Taiji, but did not become an imperial Chinese dynasty until after Huang Taiji's death. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ In 1644 CE, Qing forces captured the Ming capital at Beijing from rebels and held a funeral for the last Ming emperor to symbolize Qing inheritance of the Mandate of Heaven. §REF§ (San 2014, 338) Tan Koon San. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ The Qing faced conflict with rebels and loyalist Ming forces for the next two decades. §REF§ (San 2014, 337-38) Tan Koon San. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ Ming generals who surrendered were given power over large territories in southern China in exchange for loyalty to the Qing. In 1673 CE, leaders from three major southern feudatories led by Wu Sangui rebelled against Emperor Kangxi when he tried to reduce their power. §REF§ (San 2014, 385) Tan Koon San. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press Sdn. Bhd. §REF§ The Revolt of the Three Feudatories, as this episode is known, lasted eight years. We divide the Qing Dynasty into two, an Early period (1644-1796 CE) and a Late period (1796-1912 CE). The division is marked by a period of internal turmoil as well as foreign incursions into its territory and economic sphere. In the Early Qing period, China had been prosperous under Kangxi and Qing rule, but by the time of the Opium Wars in the Late Qing, Western technology and industry had surpassed that of China. §REF§ (Mao 2005, 8) Haijin Mao. 2005. The Qing Empire and the Opium War: The Collapse of the Heavenly Dynasty. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911 gave rise to the Republic of China. From 1850 to 1864 CE, China was racked by the fourteen-year Taiping Rebellion. The rebellion directly caused 30 million deaths and destroyed many regions in the middle and lower Yangtze. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 198) William T. Rowe. 2009. China's Last Empire: The Great Qing. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ In 1853, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace established a capital in Nanjing, but the rebellion was defeated by armies led by local governors in 1864. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. Chinaknowledge.de. <a class="external free" href="http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html" rel="nofollow">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ A number of serious uprisings followed the Taiping Rebellion, including the Nian Rebellion (1853-1868 CE). §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. Chinaknowledge.de. <a class="external free" href="http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html" rel="nofollow">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ At the same time, the Qing emperors were facing economic problems due to the actions of foreign powers. In the 1830s, British merchants began illegally importing opium to China, where high demand for the drug led to a large trade imbalance. China's economy was drained of silver §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 157) William T. Rowe. 2009. China's Last Empire: The Great Qing. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ and the value of copper coins depreciated. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. Chinaknowledge.de. <a class="external free" href="http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html" rel="nofollow">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ The First Opium War broke out in 1839 CE when a Chinese commissioner attempted to block opium trade in Guangzhou harbour. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. Chinaknowledge.de. <a class="external free" href="http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html" rel="nofollow">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ The Second Opium War of 1858 CE was a series of military actions by the British and French against the Qing. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. Chinaknowledge.de. <a class="external free" href="http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html" rel="nofollow">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ The resulting treaties allowed foreign powers to establish concessions in China, abolished taxes for French and British merchants, and forced the Qing to pay large amounts of silver in damages. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. Chinaknowledge.de. <a class="external free" href="http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html" rel="nofollow">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ The 19th century saw increasingly frequent intrusions by foreign powers. Foreign merchants exploited their tax-free status, to the detriment of local Chinese producers. China was forced to cede much of its territory in Vietnam, Burma and elsewhere. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. Chinaknowledge.de. <a class="external free" href="http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html" rel="nofollow">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ By the end of the 19th century, a range of foreign powers including Great Britain, Japan, Germany, and France claimed colonial territories in China. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. Chinaknowledge.de. <a class="external free" href="http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html" rel="nofollow">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ A peasant uprising known as the Boxer Rebellion targeted foreigners in 1900 CE. In 1860, the Qing rulers were exiled outside the Great Wall when foreign invaders burned down the Summer Palace. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 201) William T. Rowe. 2009. China's Last Empire: The Great Qing. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The court was restored by the regent Empress Dowager Cixi and Prince Gong in what is known as the Tongzhi restoration. §REF§ (Rowe 2009, 201) William T. Rowe. 2009. China's Last Empire: The Great Qing. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ However, the dynasty was finally overthrown in the Revolution of 1911 and the Republic of China was founded. Population and political organization The Late Qing maintained a traditional imperial-style Chinese government headed by an emperor and central bureaucracy. Provincial government consisted of governors who controlled a hierarchical system of officials, prefects, county chiefs, county magistrates, and clerks. §REF§ (Zhang 2011, 63) Wei-Bin Zhang. 2011. The Rise and Fall of China's Last Dynasty: The Deepening of the Chinese Servility. Hauppage, NY: Nova Science Publishers. §REF§ The Qing were deeply opposed to modernization: the scholars Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao had to flee after attempting to reform government practices in 1898 CE. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. Chinaknowledge.de. <a class="external free" href="http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html" rel="nofollow">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ Rebellions in the 19th century led to the rise of local governors and military commanders, who acted as warlords to control their local regions. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald Ulrich. 2000. 'Qing Period Event History'. Chinaknowledge.de. <a class="external free" href="http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html" rel="nofollow">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Qing/qing-event.html</a>. Accessed 21 March 2017. §REF§ The period between the mid-18th and mid-19th centuries was one of extremely rapid population growth in Late Qing China, and by 1851 the population had reached 431.9 million people. §REF§ (Banister 1987, 3-4) Judith Banister. 1987. China's Changing Population. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. §REF§ However, a number of censuses after that date could not be completed due to the rebellions.

null

2024-10-07T10:36:25.573700Z

{'id': 87, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

20

Middle Yellow River Valley

North China

112.517587

34.701825

Luoyang

CN

China

East Asia

58

North China

North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang

{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}

184

ItRomLR

-133

-31

Late Roman Republic

it_roman_rep_3

LEGACY

The last of the Roman kings, the tyrannical Lucius Tarquinius Superbus ('the Arrogant'), was expelled by a revolt of some of the leading Roman aristocrats in 509 BCE. Vowing never again to allow a single person to amass so much authority, the revolutionaries established in place of the monarchy a republican system of governance, featuring a senate composed of aristocratic men and a series of elected political and military officials. The Roman Republic was a remarkably stable and successful polity, lasting from 509 BCE until it was transformed into an imperial state under Augustus in 31 BCE (though the exact date is debated, as this was not a formal transformation). We divide the Republic into an early (509-264 BCE), a middle (264-133 BCE), and a late (133-31 BCE) period. The Late Republican period began once Rome was firmly established as the major power throughout the Mediterranean basin. By the end of the period, Romans had taken control of the entire Mediterranean region, with further territorial expansion into North Africa, Anatolia, the Levant and Egypt. Success abroad, however, was not matched by stability at home. The Roman state entered a prolonged period of crisis during the 1st century BCE. Civil wars were frequent, pitting different military leaders such as Sulla, Pompey the Great, and Julius Caesar and their supporters against each other. An underlying tension persisted between the wealthy and elite and the rest of the population. These tensions intensified in 133 BCE, when a Plebeian Tribune (an elected official charged with looking after the interests of the poorer members of society) named Tiberius Gracchus proposed legislation to redistribute land that had been taken over (legally and extra-legally) by wealthy aristocrats to landless Romans, particularly those who had served in the army. This move upset the ruling elite, leading to a riot in the streets of Rome and, ultimately, to Gracchus' death. The city's different political factions were polarized by these events, leading to a series of violent contests for power by military leaders supported either by the elites (notably Sulla and Pompey the Great) or styled as champions of the people (Marius, Caesar, and Octavian/Augustus). The period of civil war, and with it republican government at Rome, effectively ended in 31 BCE when Octavian (soon to take the title of Augustus as the first ruler of the imperial Roman state, known as the Principate) defeated Mark Antony and the Egyptian army led by the Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra at the battle of Actium. Population and political organization Rome during the Republican period possessed no written constitution, but was governed largely through the power and prestige of the Senate, with a clear respect for precedent and for maintaining Rome's traditions. §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 31) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican "Constitution"', in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ A primary goal of the early Republic was to establish clear checks on the power of any single ruler - the military office of chief commander was in fact split between two generals (consuls), while the chief priestly and legislative posts were split among different people (individuals were restricted from holding multiple offices at once) - and popular assemblies voted on new laws. Romans of this period did not distinguish between what is today termed 'secular' and 'sacred' authority; although individual magistracies had distinct functions, the same person often held both religious and political offices over the course of their lifetime, as they were thought to be part of essentially the same sphere of governance. The Republic featured a substantial array of religious offices and institutions intended to determine the will of the gods or to please them through the proper performance of rituals and the maintenance of large public temples. §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 37) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican "Constitution"', in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ These public auspices were the basis of magisterial power in the Republic. §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 37) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican "Constitution"', in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Auspices were sometimes taken by consuls and other officials, for example before important military engagements, §REF§ (Brennan 2004, 37) Corey T. Brennan. 2004. 'Power and Process under the Republican "Constitution"', in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 31-65. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ but were mainly managed by specialist elected priests and full-time priestesses (such as the Vestal Virgins) and other priestly offices supported by the state. §REF§ (Culham 2004, 131) Phyllis Culham. 2004. 'Women in the Roman Republic, in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic, edited by Harriet I. Flower, 139-59. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Despite the internal strife, Rome remained essentially unchallenged by external forces and continued to make military advances. The significant reforms of the consul Marius helped modernize the ever-expanding Roman army around 105 BCE by removing property qualifications for military service, paving the way towards a fully professional fighting force. The period also saw some extensive engineering projects that increased urbanization and economic development: roads, aqueducts, bridges, amphitheatres, theatres, public baths, as well as Roman administrative and legal institutions spread alongside the military throughout the Mediterranean. Though this time was a period of political instability, it also was the start of a 'golden age' in the cultural history of Rome, with literary figures like Cicero, Horace, Sallust, Caesar and Catullus, among others, leaving important and influential writings. The population at the dawn of empire was around 30 million people, with Italy itself supporting between 5 and 10 million, thus apparently experiencing population growth despite the repeated bouts of civil war. §REF§ (Scheidel 2008) Walter Scheidel. 2008. 'Roman Population Size: The Logic of the Debate', in People, Land, and Politics: Demographic Developments and the Transformation of Roman Italy, 300 BC-AD 14, edited by L. de Ligt and S. J. Northwood, 17-70. Leiden: Brill. §REF§

null

2024-08-13T10:21:04.829807Z

{'id': 79, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

1

Latium

Southern Europe

12.486948

41.890407

Rome

IT

Italy

Europe

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

243

CnShang

-1,250

-1,045

Late Shang

cn_late_shang_dyn

LEGACY

The Late Shang Dynasty (1250-1045 BCE) was an extension of the Erligang culture based in Yinxu, near modern Anyang. The Late Shang were the last 12 kings of the dynasty, beginning with Pan Geng. Unlike in Erligang settlements, pottery, oracle bones and other artefacts showing a fully formed writing system have been found at Late Shang sites. This system included 'pictograms, ideograms, and phonograms'. §REF§ (San 2014, 19) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§ The oldest written records uncovered from Shang contexts date back to 1200 BCE. §REF§ (San 2014, 19) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§ The civilization at Yinxu is considered to represent the golden age of the Shang Dynasty §REF§ (San 2014, 17) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§ and 11 major royal tombs have been uncovered there by archaeologists. §REF§ (San 2014, 17) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§ Pottery and bronze and jade work flourished in the Late Shang period. §REF§ (San 2014, 20) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§ The Late Shang also had a developed calendar system with 30 days in a month and 12 months (360 days) in a year. §REF§ (Encyclopedia Britannica 2017) “Shang Dynasty.” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a class="external free" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shang-dynasty" rel="nofollow">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shang-dynasty</a> Accessed May 29, 2017. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8GNFD4WH" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8GNFD4WH</a>. §REF§ Population and political organization The Late Shang were based on the North China Plain. The dynasty's territory stretched north to modern Shandong, south to Hebei, and west to Henan. §REF§ (San 2014, 16) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§ The Shang government was a feudal system in which the king and a class of military nobility ruled over the masses, who were mainly farmers. §REF§ (San 2014, 16, 21) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§ Shang kings also served as high priests. §REF§ (San 2014, 16) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>) §REF§ The Late Shang were in constant conflict with surrounding settlements and with civilizations from the steppe. §REF§ (San 2014, 21) San, Tan Koon. 2014. Dynastic China: An Elementary History. Malaysia: The Other Press. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/TB95WB7F</a>. §REF§ The population of the Late Shang Dynasty was around 5 million in 1045 BCE. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 170-72) McEvedy, Colin, and Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6U4QZXCG/q/atlas%20of%20world%20population" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6U4QZXCG/q/atlas%20of%20world%20population</a>. §REF§ The population of the Yinxu settlement in Anyang is unknown.

null

2024-01-04T15:29:41.622565Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

20

Middle Yellow River Valley

North China

112.517587

34.701825

Luoyang

CN

China

East Asia

58

North China

North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang

{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}

560

bo_tiwanaku_2

800

1,149

Late Tiwanaku

bo_tiwanaku_2

LEGACY

“The final stage of the Tiwanaku kingdom, from about 725 to 1200, saw significant territorial expansion and the development of a complex, multiethnic society. Tiwanaku conquests during this period included a large part of the Pacific Coast from central Peru to northern Chile, and highland regions extending into the Andes Mountains. Around 1200, the Tiwanaku kingdom began to decline, and by the next century it had disappeared. Experts are not sure what caused this decline and disappearance, although some attribute it to climate change and extended drought. Tiwanaku civilization is known primarily from archaeological sites and ruins. The main Tiwanaku archaeological site is located in the high Altiplano area south of Lake Titicaca in Bolivia. The site contains many stone structures, earthen mounds, stairways, plazas, and reservoirs. Building stones at the site, weighing up to 100 tons, were brought from a quarry three miles away. The site’s renowned Gateway of the Sun was cut from a 10-foot-high stone and was carved with representations of humans, the condor, and the sun god. These typical Tiwanaku symbols also appear in the region’s textile designs and pottery. Other noteworthy examples of Tiwanaku construction are the Akapana Pyramid, a large earthen platform mound or stepped pyramid faced with finegrained volcanic rock, and the Kalasasaya, a large rectangular-shaped enclosure built with alternating rectangular blocks and taller stone columns and containing many carved stone figures. The enormous amount of planning and labor required for such vast and complex construction projects suggests that the Tiwanaku civilization must have been strictly governed and regimented. It is not clear whether the area near Lake Titicaca was the center of Tiwanaku origin or the capital of the empire at its peak, but these remarkable archaeological sites do seem to point to extensive Tiwanaku cultural, and perhaps political, influence.”§REF§(Middleton 2015: 948) Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties. Volume 1-3, A-Z. London: Routledge. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7N3PNVCB§REF§ “The disintegration of Tiwanaku, around A.D. 1000, led to the formation of numerous confederations in territories that had been previously integrated by a much larger and cohesive power structure. Although the reasons for Tiwanaku’s disintegration are still poorly understood, a recurrent argument to explain Tiwanaku’s debacle has been based on the notion of an invasion by southern Aymara9 groups, around A.D. 1200 (Bouysse-Cassagne 1988; Gisbert et al. 1987; Torero 1970).”§REF§(Albarracin-Jordan 1999: 81) Albarracin-Jordan, Juan V. 1999. The Archeaology of Tiwanaku: The Myths, History, and Science of an Ancient Andean Civilization. Bolivia: Impresión P.A.P. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P7MDWPAP§REF§ “Around AD 1100/1150, the Tiwanaku State came to its end.(70) Tiwanaku, Lukurmata, and other large Tiwanaku centres were almost completely abandoned. The collapse of the complex administrative network of the Tiwanaku heartland led to the formation of hundreds of new – predominately small – settlements. Approximately a century earlier, the Tiwanaku colonists of the Moquegua Valley had rebelled, breaking free of altiplano rule. Direct Tiwanaku control may also have been resisted in the Azapa Valley, and the Central Andes saw a general waning of Tiwanaku influence. The Tiwanaku did not disappear – only the state apparatus collapsed. In art, certain aspects of the Tiwanaku style survived. However, on the whole, the following cultural period – the Late Intermediate Period (c. AD 1100– 450) – was characterised in the Titicaca Basin by social disunion and the formation of small-scale local polities.”§REF§(Korpisaari 2006: 79) Korpisaari, Antti. 2006. Death in the Bolivian High Plateau: Burials and Tiwanaku Society. Oxford: BAR Publishing. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UPGSC7BF§REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

32

Andes

From Ecuador to Chile

{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}

582

mx_mexico_2

1,921

2,020

Late United Mexican States

mx_mexico_2

LEGACY

null

2024-10-23T13:20:45.369754Z

{'id': 94, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

null

23

Mexico

{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}

274

MnXngnL

-60

100

Late Xiongnu

mn_hunnu_late

LEGACY

The Orkhon Valley lies either side of the Orkhon River, in north-central Mongolia. Between about 200 BCE and 100 CE, it was under the control of the Xiongnu Imperial Confederation. This polity comprised several nomadic peoples from the Mongolian Steppe. By the 4th century BCE, the Xiongnu began raiding northern China, §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 222) §REF§ where their mounted archery overwhelmed the heavily armed but relatively immobile Chinese infantry. §REF§ (Marsh 2012, 500-501) Kevin Marsh. Xiongnu. Xiaobing Li ed. 2012. China at War: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. Santa Barbara. §REF§ The nomads were held at bay by a combination of tribute in the form of metals, finished products, and agricultural products, and China's numerical superiority. §REF§ (Barfield 1993, 157) §REF§ §REF§ (Ying-Shih 1986) §REF§ §REF§ (Dupuy and Dupuy 2007, 133) §REF§ Several Chinese victories against the Xiongnu in the 1st century BCE and factional conflict within the confederacy led to the confederacy’s breakup, and a new group of semi-nomadic peoples from the Northeast, the Xianbei, took control of the region. §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 222) §REF§ At their height, the Xiongnu ruled over an area that included all of Mongolia, extending to the Ordos region in the south, and the boreal forests of Siberia in the north, for a total of about 4,000,000 squared kilometres. §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 220-221) §REF§ Precise estimates could not be found for the empire's population, but estimates suggest that nomads living to the north of China did not number more than 1,500,000, §REF§ (Kradin 2011, 77) §REF§ and the best studied (but not the largest) settlement, Ivolga, likely had a population of between 2,500 and 3,000. §REF§ (Kradin 2011, 85) §REF§ The empire was divided into three kingships: a central one, directly ruled by the paramount leader, and a "left" one and a "right" one, to the east and west, respectively, distributed among twenty-four regional leaders known as the "ten thousand horsemen". §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 220) §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

24

Orkhon Valley

Mongolia

102.845486

47.200757

Karakorum

MN

Mongolia

Central Eurasia

9

Mongolia

Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

257

CnLrQin

386

417

Later Qin Kingdom

cn_later_qin_dyn

LEGACY

null

2024-01-04T15:49:42.125450Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

58

North China

North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang

{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}

224

MrWagdL

1,078

1,203

Later Wagadu Empire

mr_wagadu_3

LEGACY

The Kingdom of Ghana was the first documented empire of West Africa. Its dominant people, a northern Mande group known as the Soninke, called it 'Wagadu', §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 23) David C. Conrad. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§ and Berber traders from the Sahara referred to it as 'Awkar'. §REF§ (Davidson 1998, 26) Basil Davidson. 1998. West Africa before the Colonial Era. London: Routledge. §REF§ The polity reached its peak in the mid-11th century: §REF§ (Davidson 1998, 34) Basil Davidson. 1998. West Africa before the Colonial Era. London: Routledge. §REF§ §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 33) David C. Conrad. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§ at this stage, its influence extended east and north from the Senegal River into modern Mauritania and Mali §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 19) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ and it was encroaching on the Niger Inland Delta. §REF§ (Niane 1975, n.p.) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle. Paris: Présence africaine. §REF§ §REF§ (Simonis 2010, 36) Francis Simonis. 2010. L'Afrique soudanaise au Moyen Age: Le temps des grands empires (Ghana, Mali, Songhaï). Aix-Marseille: CRDP de l'Académie d'Aix-Marseille. §REF§ However, from the late 11th century CE the Ghana Empire began to decline due to a combination of environmental, social and political factors. As the desert expanded into previously productive agricultural land, §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 39) David C. Conrad, 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§ the Sosso people took control of a large region above the Upper Niger River §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 12) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ and the city of Walata grew in influence, taking over as the main southern terminus of the trans-Saharan trade. §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 39) David C. Conrad, 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§ The empire of Ghana officially converted to Islam in 1075‒77 CE to foster political and commercial ties with Almoravid newcomers, §REF§ (Al-Zuhri c. 1130-1155 CE in Levtzion and Spaulding 2003, 24-25) Nehemia Levtzion and Jay Spaulding, eds. 2003. Medieval West Africa: Views from Arab Scholars and Merchants. Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener. §REF§ while traditional religion retained its prominence in the hinterland and among the non-elite classes. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 590) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The consensus within modern scholarship is that the relationship between the Soninke and the Almoravids was generally cordial and fruitful, that the Wagadu capital had been host to an important Muslim community in the centuries before the Almoravids arrived, and that the Wagadu conversion to Islam was in fact a gradual affair. §REF§ (El Fasi and Hrbek 1980, 100) Mohammed El Fasi and Ivan Hrbek. 1980. 'Étapes du développement de l'Islam et de sa diffusion en Afrique' in Histoire Générale de l'Afrique, Vol. 3: L'Afrique du VIIe au XIe siècle, edited by M. El Fasi, 81-116. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ Ghana recovered part of its power in the 12th century. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 12) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ Ultimately, however, the shift in the regional balance of power led many of the Soninke to relocate to more prosperous areas, §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 31) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ contributing to the spread of Islam in other areas of the Sudan. §REF§ (El Fasi and Hrbek 1980, 100) Mohammed El Fasi and Ivan Hrbek. 1980. 'Étapes du développement de l'Islam et de sa diffusion en Afrique' in Histoire Générale de l'Afrique, Vol. 3: L'Afrique du VIIe au XIe siècle, edited by M. El Fasi, 81-116. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ Population and political organization The Wagadu empire comprised four provinces administered by a central government. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 18) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ The king exerted direct authority over his kingdom; he was also head of the traditional religion and was revered as a god. §REF§ (Niane 1975, 32) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle. Paris: Présence africaine. §REF§ Wagadu society was highly hierarchical, distinguishing between the elite warrior class and the rest of the population: professional artisans including smiths, weavers, dyers and shoemakers; farmers and herders; and slaves. §REF§ (Niane 1975, 32) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle. Paris: Présence africaine. §REF§ These groups were further subdivided along clan lines. §REF§ (Niane 1975, 33) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle. Paris: Présence africaine. §REF§ This period was a prosperous one for the Sudanese region, which produced millet, maize, yam, groundnuts, cotton, indigo and other crops. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 589-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Linked into a thriving exchange sphere that stretched north to North Africa and the Mediterranean, §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 589-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ the Sudanese population exported gold, slaves, hides, and ivory and imported copper, silver beads, dried fruit and cloth. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 589-90) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ All exports and imports were taxed by the centralized state. §REF§ (Niane 1975, 33) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle. Paris: Présence africaine. §REF§ Trading outposts in Awdhagust and other Saharan towns facilitated fruitful exchange with Berbers and other groups from further afield. §REF§ (Meideros 1980, 160) Francois de Meideros. 1980. 'Les peuples du Soudan: Mouvements de populations', in Histoire Générale de l'Afrique, Vol. 3: L'Afrique du VIIe au XIe siècle, edited by M. El Fasi, 143-64. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ Population estimates are difficult to obtain for ancient Ghana. However, it is worth noting that its capital, the thriving trading city of Kumbi Saleh, covered 250 hectares and had a population of 15,000-20,000 people at its peak. §REF§ (Reader 1998, 280) John Reader. 1998. Africa: A Biography of the Continent. London: Penguin Books. §REF§ Archaeological investigations at the site have revealed two-storey stone buildings which may have contained stores on the ground floor, narrow streets with densely packed houses, a mosque, and extensive cemeteries. §REF§ (Reader 1998, 280) John Reader. 1998. Africa: A Biography of the Continent. London: Penguin Books. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

6

Niger Inland Delta

Sahel

-3.041703

16.717549

Timbuctu

ML

Mali

Africa

7

West Africa

From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

256

CnLrYan

385

409

Later Yan Kingdom

cn_later_yan_dyn

LEGACY

null

2024-01-04T15:46:48.781615Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

58

North China

North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang

{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}