milesjreding/Seshat_db · Datasets at Hugging Face

896

kz_oghuz_state

766

1,055

Oghuz Yabgu State

kz_oghuz_state

OTHER_TAG

null

Oghuz Turks

null

2024-07-03T14:38:17.555313Z

2024-07-03T14:38:17.555327Z

null

13

Turkestan

Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

297

KzOirat

1,368

1,630

Oirats

kz_oirat

LEGACY

“During this time the power of the Oirat rulers in the western part of the Mongolian steppe was growing. The Oirats had sworn fealty to Chinggis Khan shortly after his rise to power. Their nobility had been appointed to senior positions in the empire and diplomatic marriages between the Oirat aristocracy and the Chinggisid imperial house had continued since that time. At the end of the fourteenth century Oirat rulers began to challenge the power of the fractious Chinggisid emperors of the northern Yuan. They came to play the role of king makers, installing compliant emperors and taking the title taishi (grand preceptor). With the Ming still doggedly hostile to the northern Yuan, the Oirats became increasingly powerful. The Oirat ruler, Esen, who had succeeded his father as taishi, attacked the Ming, subjugating parts of Manchuria and the Hami region in Turkestan. He invaded northern China and captured the Ming emperor. When attacked in 1452 by his nominal overlord, the emperor Togoo-Bukha, Esen defeated him and took the title of Great Khan of the Yuan for himself. But Esen’s reign as Yuan emperor was short, one of his generals turned against him in 1454 and he was killed as he fled. The Yuan throne was recaptured by the house of Qubilai once more, and the Chinggisids had some success against the Ming in the Ordos. The Oirat descendants of Esen remained powerful in the west, and Oirats continued to hold the powerful position of taishi, but around 1480 a vigorous new ruler appeared to unite the Chinggisid noble houses.”§REF§(Sneath 2010: 395) Sneath, David. 2010. “Introduction,” in The History of Mongolia: Volume II, Yuan and Late Medieval Period, vol. 2, 3 vols. Kent: Global Oriental. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FBJBCKMT§REF§ “In this period, Mongolian lands were divided into three parts: the ‘central’ division, comprising East Mongolia; the West, or Oirat, Mongolia; and the South-Western part, the Uriankhai frontier… In comparison with East Mongolia, Oirat or Western Mongolia had a good level of internal unity, at first, and was less subject to military attack. Consequently, the Oirats used their political unity and economic superiority to try to unite all the Mongols. Having been just four myangan (mingghan – units of a thousand) in the times of the Great Mongol Empire, the Oirats, who had been subjects of the Mongol emperors, had grown to four tümen (units of ten thousand). In the late fourteenth century, when East Mongolia had become a site of continuous political crisis and struggle, Ugechi Khasakha the lord of the Khoit, re-established the League of the Four Oirats, that had been dissolved a century before, and became its khan, organizing the Oirat into the Baatuud, Barga, Buriad, Khori, Tümed and Choros divisions. Breaking away from East Mongolian rule, Ugechi Khasakha began to challenge the political authority of members of the Golden Lineage. At that time a Taiyu (Teivei) [from the Chinese taiwei – senior military official] named Khuukhai served as the representative of the Four Oirats in the court of the Mongol Great Khaan (emperor), Elbeg the Compassionate, who ruled from 1393 to 1399.”§REF§(Jamsran 2010: 497-498) Jamsran, L. 2010. “The Crisis of the Forty and the Four,” in The History of Mongolia: Volume II, Yuan and Late Medieval Period, ed. David Sneath, vol. 2, 3 vols. Kent: Global Oriental. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/D8IE2XAD§REF§ “The Oirats largely disappeared from China’s frontier history following Esen’s death in the mid- fifteenth century, when the Eastern Mongols became dominant in southern Mongolia. However, Esen’s failure did not lead to an immediate breakup of the Ojirat confederation outside of this area. The Oirats continued to occupy northern Mongolia and Esen’s son recouped some of his confederation’s losses by attacking the Kazakhs in the west to bring the strategic Ili Valley under Oirat control. From here the Oirats dominated the oasis cities in eastern Turkestan and controlled trade through that region. This more remote but fairly stable empire, which lasted for about a century, ruled northern Mongolia unt, after suffering a number of defeats at the hands of the Eastern Mongols, they lost Karakorum to Altan Khan in 1552. This forced an Oirat withdrawal into the Tarbaghatai region which had been their homeland. The movement of retreating tribes led to a breakdown of the confederation and its reorganization.”§REF§(Barfield 1989: 277) Barfield, Thomas J. 1989. The Perilous Frontier: Nomadic Empires and China 221 B.C. to AD 1757 Cambridge: Wiley-Blackwell. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/D2MQHV94§REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

13

Turkestan

Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

61

GrCrOPa

-1,900

-1,700

Old Palace Crete

gr_crete_old_palace

LEGACY

Crete is a large island in the Eastern Mediterranean. Here we consider the phase of its history best known as the Old Palace or Protopalatial Era. This period began around 1900 §REF§ (Shelmerdine 2008, 4) Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. 2008. ‘Background, sources, and methods,’ in The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age, edited by Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ , and ended around 1700, with a series of conflagration across the entire island, possibly caused by earthquake, possibly by inter-island wars §REF§ (La Rosa 1999, 81-89) V. La Rosa. 1999. "Πολιτική εξουσία και σεισμικές καταστροφές στη Μινωική Κρήτη: η περίπτωση της Φαιστού" in Κρήτες Θαλασσοδρόμοι, edited by A. Karetou. Heraklion §REF§ §REF§ (Cadogan 2014, 43-54) G. Cadogan. 2014. "War in the Cretan Bronze Age: the realism of Stylianos Alexiou". Kritika Chronika 34: 43-54. §REF§ . Population and Political Organization The Old Palace period is marked by the appearance of regional states, and, in each of these, political, religious, ideological and/or economic authorities governed from “palaces”, that is, monumental court-centered building compounds such as the ones at Knossos, Malia, Phaistos and Petras §REF§ (Manning 2008, 119) S.W. Manning. 2008. ‘: Protopalatial Crete. 5A: Formation of the palaces,’ in The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age, edited by Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ . However, evidence for administration is limited and consists mostly of clay archival documents. §REF§ (Weingarten 2010, 317-318) J. Weingarten. 2010. ‘Minoan seals and sealings,’ in The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean (ca. 3000-1000 BC), edited by E.H. Cline. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ . According to Renfrew, each regional state had a population of 215,000 §REF§ (Renfrew 1972, 249) Colin Renfrew. 1972. The Emergence of Civilisation. Oxford: Oxbow. §REF§ .

null

2024-09-26T09:23:10.739873Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

4

Crete

Southeastern Europe

25.1442

35.3387

Heraklion

GR

Greece

Europe

19

Southeastern Europe

Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

853

ch_swiss_conf_1

1,315

1,515

Old Swiss Confederacy

ch_swiss_conf_1

OTHER_TAG

null

Swiss Confederation

null

2024-04-10T10:15:47.687389Z

2024-04-10T10:15:47.687401Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

15

Central Europe

Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

366

OmImamat

1,160

1,660

Oman Imamate

om_nabhani_imamate

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

44

Arabia

Arabian Peninsula

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

756

om_yaruba_imamate

1,160

1,660

Oman Imamate Yaruba Period

om_yaruba_imamate

OTHER_TAG

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

44

Arabia

Arabian Peninsula

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

357

OmAzd

632

702

Omani Azd Tribe

om_azd

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

44

Arabia

Arabian Peninsula

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

29

USOneot

1,400

1,650

Oneota

us_oneota

LEGACY

'Oneota' is the modern name given to a group of late prehistoric or protohistoric cultures, known solely from their material remains and centred on modern-day Iowa, Minnesota and Wisconsin in the Midwestern United States. §REF§ (Hall 1997, 142) Hall, Robert L. 1997. An Archaeology of the Soul: North American Indian Belief and Ritual. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8KH357GV" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/8KH357GV</a>. §REF§ Oneota migrations can be traced archaeologically: for instance, some groups using Oneota-style material culture began appearing alongside Mississippian populations in the American Bottom region (modern southwestern Illinois) during the Sand Prairie phase (c. 1275-1400 CE). §REF§ (Pauketat 1994, 47) Pauketat, Timothy R. 1994. The Ascent of Chiefs: Cahokia and Mississippian Politics in Native North America. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NJHPTUJ8" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NJHPTUJ8</a>. §REF§ We are concerned here with the period of Oneota activity between c. 1400 and 1650 CE, but it should be noted that the roots of the tradition are to be found before 1400. Small quantities of European trade goods appear in the Illinois archaeological record around the beginning of the 17th century CE, marking the beginning of the 'protohistoric' period in this region. §REF§ (Emerson and Brown 1992, 102) Emerson, Thomas E., and James A. Brown. 1992. "The Late Prehistory and Protohistory of Illinois." In Calumet and Fleur-De-Lys: French and Indian Interaction in the Midcontinent, edited by J. Walthall and T. Emerson, 77-125. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/C877T4HD" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/C877T4HD</a>. §REF§ Population and political organization Oneota society was relatively egalitarian, more so than the preceding Mississippian cultures: there is a lack of evidence from Oneota settlements or funerary contexts for inherited status or class distinctions. §REF§ (Gibbon 2001, 390-91) Gibbon, Guy E. 2001. "Oneota." In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 6: North America, edited by Peter N. Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 389-407. New York: Springer Science+Business Media. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QU7PNRMC" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QU7PNRMC</a>. §REF§ It has been suggested that political leadership was provided by 'big men', who relied on informal support from village populations and could not pass on their positions to their children. §REF§ (Gibbon 2001, 390-91) Gibbon, Guy E. 2001. "Oneota." In Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 6: North America, edited by Peter N. Peregrine and Melvin Ember, 389-407. New York: Springer Science+Business Media. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QU7PNRMC" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QU7PNRMC</a>. §REF§ Reliable estimates for the size of the Oneota population between 1400 and 1650 CE are lacking. §REF§ (Hart 1990, 570-71) Hart, John P. 1990. "Modeling Oneota Agricultural Production: A Cross-Cultural Evaluation." Current Anthropology 31 (5): 569-77. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MJKQA3W5" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/MJKQA3W5</a>. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

28

Cahokia

Mississippi Basin

-90.062035

38.658938

St. Louis

USMO

United States

North America

24

Mississippi Basin

From the Great Lakes to Louisiana

{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}

446

PgOrokL

1,884

1,942

Orokaiva - Colonial

pg_orokaiva_colonial

LEGACY

The Northern Province of Papua New Guinea has long been inhabited by the Orokaiva. This is an umbrella term used to describe a number of culturally similar groups, including the Aiga, Binandele, Hunjara, Mambare, and Wasida. §REF§ (Reay 1953, 110) Reay, Marie. 1953. “Social Control amongst the Orokaiva.” Oceania 24 (2): 110-18. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FQKM3Z7S" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FQKM3Z7S</a>. §REF§ Though these groups did not have an inclusive name for themselves until Westerners coined the label 'Orokaiva', they distinguished among themselves as the river (umo-ke), saltwater (eva'embo), and inland (periho) peoples. §REF§ (Latham and Beierle 2004) Christopher S. Latham and John Beierle. 2004. Culture Summary: Orokaiva. New Haven: HRAF. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000</a>. §REF§ The Orokaiva were primarily subsistence farmers in the period under consideration (1884-1942 CE). §REF§ (Latham and Beierle 2004) Latham, Christopher S., and John Beierle. 2004. “Culture Summary: Orokaiva.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7</a>. §REF§ The first known contact with Europeans occurred in the 18th century, but the Orokaiva formally became part of a wider polity in 1888, when the British annexed the island. §REF§ (Latham and Beierle 2004) Latham, Christopher S., and John Beierle. 2004. “Culture Summary: Orokaiva.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7</a>. §REF§ Population and political organization The Orokaiva lacked central authority and hereditary leadership. The closest thing they had to leaders were big men (embo dambo) and elders, who commanded the respect of their neighbours due to their personal qualities, including their ability to make wise decisions and their skill in organizing ceremonies. However, they still lacked authorities with the power to issue sanctions. §REF§ (Latham and Beierle 2004) Latham, Christopher S., and John Beierle. 2004. “Culture Summary: Orokaiva.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7</a>. §REF§ The number of Orokaiva at the time of Western contact is unknown. §REF§ (Latham and Beierle 2004) Latham, Christopher S., and John Beierle. 2004. “Culture Summary: Orokaiva.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7</a>. §REF§ In the early 20th century, the anthropologist Francis Edgar Williams estimated that the Orokaiva numbered around 20,000 people. §REF§ (Williams and Murray 1930, 7) Williams, Francis Edgar. 1930. Orokaiva Society. London: Humphrey Milford on behalf of Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KUPJA2X4" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KUPJA2X4</a>. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

35

Oro PNG

New Guinea

148.193783

-8.590711

Oro

NG

Papua New Guinea

Oceania-Australia

29

New Guinea

{'id': 8, 'name': 'Oceania-Australia'}

445

PgOrokE

1,734

1,883

Orokaiva - Pre-Colonial

pg_orokaiva_pre_colonial

LEGACY

The Northern Province of Papua New Guinea has long been inhabited by the Orokaiva. This is an umbrella term used to describe a number of culturally similar groups, including the Aiga, Binandele, Hunjara, Mambare, and Wasida. §REF§ (Reay 1953, 110) Reay, Marie. 1953. “Social Control amongst the Orokaiva.” Oceania 24 (2): 110-18. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FQKM3Z7S" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FQKM3Z7S</a>. §REF§ Though these groups did not have an inclusive name for themselves until Westerners coined the label 'Orokaiva', they distinguished among themselves as the river (umo-ke), saltwater (eva'embo), and inland (periho) peoples. §REF§ (Latham and Beierle 2004) Christopher S. Latham and John Beierle. 2004. Culture Summary: Orokaiva. New Haven: HRAF. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000</a>. §REF§ The Orokaiva were primarily subsistence farmers in the period under consideration (1734-1883 CE). §REF§ (Latham and Beierle 2004) Latham, Christopher S., and John Beierle. 2004. “Culture Summary: Orokaiva.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7</a>. §REF§ The first known contact with Europeans occurred in the 18th century, but the Orokaiva formally became part of a wider polity in 1888, when the British annexed the island. §REF§ (Latham and Beierle 2004) Latham, Christopher S., and John Beierle. 2004. “Culture Summary: Orokaiva.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7</a>. §REF§ Population and political organization The Orokaiva lacked central authority and hereditary leadership. The closest thing they had to leaders were big men (embo dambo) and elders, who commanded the respect of their neighbours due to their personal qualities, including their ability to make wise decisions and their skill in organizing ceremonies. However, they still lacked authorities with the power to issue sanctions. §REF§ (Latham and Beierle 2004) Latham, Christopher S., and John Beierle. 2004. “Culture Summary: Orokaiva.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7</a>. §REF§ The number of Orokaiva at the time of Western contact is unknown. §REF§ (Latham and Beierle 2004) Latham, Christopher S., and John Beierle. 2004. “Culture Summary: Orokaiva.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=oj23-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V2AK2FR7</a>. §REF§ In the early 20th century, the anthropologist Francis Edgar Williams estimated that the Orokaiva numbered around 20,000 people. §REF§ (Williams and Murray 1930, 7) Williams, Francis Edgar. 1930. Orokaiva Society. London: Humphrey Milford on behalf of Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KUPJA2X4" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KUPJA2X4</a>. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

35

Oro PNG

New Guinea

148.193783

-8.590711

Oro

NG

Papua New Guinea

Oceania-Australia

29

New Guinea

{'id': 8, 'name': 'Oceania-Australia'}

186

ItOstrg

489

554

Ostrogothic Kingdom

it_ostrogoth_k

LEGACY

Beginning with the Emperor Honorius (r. 393-423 CE), the Western Empire experienced a continuous decline and a series of invasions at the hands of Germanic, Vandal, Alan, and Hun forces throughout the 5th century. In 476 CE, a Roman military officer of likely Germanic decent (though his exact ancestry is not certain) named Odoacer led a revolt against the western emperor Romulus Augustus (r. 475-476 CE), a child whose rule was overseen by his father, a high-ranking general named Orestes. Odoacer and his fellow soldiers killed Orestes and effectively deposed Romulus Augustus, and Odoacer's authority was recognized by the Eastern Roman emperor at the time, Zeno, although he was not proclaimed Emperor in the West. In 480 CE, after the death of Julius Nepos, whom Zeno recognized as the legitimate Western Emperor, Zeno abolished the co-emperorship, claiming to rule over both halves of the Empire, although much of the Western Empire had already been lost and Italy itself remained under the control of Odoacer, who ruled as king. §REF§ (Cameron 1993) Averil Cameron. 1993. The Later Roman Empire, A.D. 284-430. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Burns 1991, 74) Thomas S. Burns. 1991. A History of the Ostrogoths. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. §REF§ In 488 CE, the Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno convinced Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths (r. 475-526), to invade Italy and remove Odoacer from power. §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 21) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Theodoric and his Ostrogoths were successful, expelling Odoacer from Italy and establishing an Ostrogothic Kingdom over most of Italy, which lasted from 489 to 554 CE. Theodoric's agreement with Zeno, which may have been written down but no longer exists, §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 20) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ led Theodoric's rule to be officially recognized by the Eastern Empire in Constantinople. §REF§ (Stearns, ed. 2001, 169) Peter N. Stearns, ed. 2001. The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. 6th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. §REF§ The period ends with Ostrogothic Italy's defeat at the hands of the Byzantine/Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I in 455 CE. Justinian managed to reassert Roman rule and institutions over much of Italy, though this quickly evaporated in the face of invasions by Salvic, Turkic, and Germanic tribes. Only central and some parts of southern Italy remained under Byzantine authority into the later half of the 5th century CE. §REF§ (Burns 1991, 215) Thomas S. Burns. 1991. A History of the Ostrogoths. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. §REF§ Population and political organization The Ostrogothic Kingdom was essentially split between three separate power centres: Constantinople, Ravenna and Rome. The Ostrogothic king, traditionally elected by a Gothic military elite, §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 21) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ but made hereditary after Theodoric, made high-level administrative appointments to a court based in Ravenna and to the northern Italian cities of Pavia and Verona. §REF§ (Barnish 2007, 327) Sam J. Barnish. 2007. 'Cuncta Italiae Membra Componere: Political Relations in Ostrogothic Italy', in The Ostrogoths from the Migration Period to the Sixth Century: An Ethnographic Perspective, edited by Sam J. Barnish and Federico Marazzi, 317-37. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. §REF§ The Ostrogothic King was, however, in principle under the authority of the Byzantine/Eastern Roman Empire in Constantinople, on whose invitation Theodoric had invaded Odoacer's Italy. The emperors in Constantinople retained the right to name senators, consuls, and other high-ranking officials for the West, §REF§ (Wolfram and Dunlap 1990, 287-88) H. Wolfram and T. J. Dunlap. 1990. History of the Goths. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ while Rome remained an influential symbolic, economic, and ecclesiastical centre. §REF§ (Barnish 2007, 327) Sam J. Barnish. 2007. 'Cuncta Italiae Membra Componere: Political Relations in Ostrogothic Italy', in The Ostrogoths from the Migration Period to the Sixth Century: An Ethnographic Perspective, edited by Sam J. Barnish and Federico Marazzi, 317-37. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. §REF§ The Roman Senate at Rome functioned as a local governing centre; §REF§ (Arnold, Bjornlie and Sessa 2016, 8) Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa. 2016. 'Introduction', in A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 1-13. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ many wealthy Romans found traditional positions of authority and prestige in the administration at Ravenna. §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 25) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ §REF§ (Arnold, Bjornlie and Sessa 2016, 8) Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa. 2016. 'Introduction', in A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 1-13. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ Ostrogothic kings kept the existing late Roman governmental structure relatively unchanged, §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 59) Shane M Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration.' in A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy edited by Jonathan J Arnold, Shane M Bjornlie, Kristina Sessa. Leiden: BRILL. §REF§ but reduced in size §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 53) Shane M. Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration', in A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 47-72. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ and more tightly centred on the royal court. §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 26) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The king's administrative and advisory council was made up of both Gothic and Roman officials. §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 58) Shane M. Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration', in A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 47-72. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ §REF§ (Barnish 2007, 322) Sam J. Barnish. 2007. 'Cuncta Italiae Membra Componere: Political Relations in Ostrogothic Italy', in The Ostrogoths from the Migration Period to the Sixth Century: An Ethnographic Perspective, edited by Sam J. Barnish and Federico Marazzi, 317-37. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. §REF§ This period also saw a 'blurring of the boundaries between civil and military functions'. §REF§ (Heydemann 2016, 26) Gerda Heydemann. 2016. 'The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions', in A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 15-46. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The praetorian prefect was the most powerful individual in the kingdom below the king; he was responsible for enforcing the king's laws, had some power to issue his own edicts and set taxation rates, received the taxes from all provinces, paid military and administrative salaries, made personnel recommendations to the king and had the right of dismissal. §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 61) Shane M. Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration', in A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 47-72. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ He also commanded the largest branches of the bureaucracy, was responsible for the public food supply, and was the final judge of appeal. §REF§ (Bjornlie 2016, 61) Shane M. Bjornlie. 2016. 'Governmental Administration', in A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy, edited by Jonathan J. Arnold, Shane M. Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa, 47-72. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ The Ostrogothic Kingdom reached a population of approximately 5.5 million people and witnessed a revival in economic fortunes for the region of Italy. Apart from the many Roman institutions, the Roman aristocracy and their privileges that were maintained, tax receipts were spent on public services §REF§ (Wolfram and Dunlap 1990, 296) H. Wolfram and T. J. Dunlap. 1990. History of the Goths. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ and Theodoric commanded that money be set aside for the restoration of walls and monuments in several Roman cities. §REF§ (Purton 2009, 14) Peter Purton. 2009. A History of the Early Medieval Siege, c. 450-1220. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. §REF§ Theodoric also oversaw the construction of baths and an amphitheatre, and restored aqueducts from Ravenna to Rome - the latter had seen its population fall to around 100,000-200,000 inhabitants - and built churches such as the Arian Saint Theodor, the palatial San Apollinare Nuovo, and the San Andrea dei Gothi. §REF§ (Burns 1991, 129) Thomas S. Burns. 1991. A History of the Ostrogoths. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. §REF§

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1

Latium

Southern Europe

12.486948

41.890407

Rome

IT

Italy

Europe

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

173

TrOttm1

1,299

1,402

Ottoman Emirate

tr_ottoman_emirate

LEGACY

The polity of the Ottomans was originally one of many small Turkish principalities on the border of the Byzantine realm §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 429) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ against whom their ghazi chieftain launched raids for territory and plunder. Through both warfare and diplomacy with farmers, townspeople and Christian nobles, they eventually forced the submission of the western Balkans and then annexed their rival Turkish principalities in western Anatolia. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 429) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ The massive expansion of the Ottoman polity (18,000 km2 in 1320 CE to 690,000 km2 by 1400 CE) came to an abrupt halt with the invasion of Timur in 1402 CE who conquered the Ottomans and made its ruler a vassal. There was then a civil war for control of the Ottoman state which ends the first period (1290-1402 CE). As the polity rapidly expanded, the Ottoman government was run out of a succession of capitals: Sogut (1299-1325 CE), Bursa (1326-1364 CE), and Adrianople (1364-1413 CE) all provided a base for a period. The title of Sultan was introduced in 1383 CE by Murat I (1362-1389 CE). His government was an extension of his court and the top officials were directly appointed, and increasingly powerful through the period. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 148) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ An Imperial Council (divan) §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ issued his decrees and made less important and administrative policy decisions. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ Viziers in the government were able to make some appointments in the name of the Sultan at the very least by the fifteenth century. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 156) Imber, Colin. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ The date when the Grand Vizier became the most powerful official in the state is disputed; some scholars believe this occurred c1360 CE §REF§ (Shaw 1976, 22) Stanford J Shaw. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey: Volume 1, Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1280-1808. Cambridge University Press. §REF§ while Ottoman tradition has it when Mehmed II stopped attending meetings in early 15th century. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 156) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ Provinces with governors probably did not exist until the 1380s CE. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 177) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ The rapid increase in size of the Ottoman state meant that the winner of the Ottoman civil war would gain control of territory that held 5 million people.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

11

Konya Plain

Anatolia-Caucasus

32.521164

37.877845

Konya

TR

Turkey

Southwest Asia

43

Anatolia-Caucasus

Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

174

TrOttm2

1,402

1,517

Ottoman Empire I

tr_ottoman_emp_1

LEGACY

During the fifteenth century the Ottomans reconstructed the state following the damaging civil war (which ended 1412 CE) and the devastating Mongol invasion under Timur (in 1402 CE). The period ends with the Ottoman conquest of Mamluk Egypt and Syria, which began a "stronger Islamisation of the Empire." §REF§ Personal communication. Johannes Preiser-Kapeller. 2016. Institute for Medieval Research. Division of Byzantine Research. Austrian Academy of Sciences. §REF§ Ottoman government had an elaborate set of institutions but was ultimately highly autocratic, run out of the court of the Sultan §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 437) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ who would frequently execute men of high rank in rituals of death that "symbolised the absolute power of the sultan within his own household, and the abject status of even his most powerful counsellors." §REF§ (Imber 2002, 156) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ The court often "by-passed formal structures of government such as in diplomatic negotiations" and Colin Imber notes that there was an informal aspect to policy making that depended a great deal on the personality of the Sultan "and the individuals or factions who had his ear." §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ The main institution of government was the Imperial Council (divan) which was under the presidency of the Grand Vizier. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ In the regions provinces were run by governors (beylerbeyi). §REF§ (Imber 2002, 177-178) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ The Ottoman army was financed by land grants: between 1400-1590 CE army officers were assigned timar holdings from which they could raise revenue as a form of salary. Numbering 27,500 in 1527 CE they "formed the most important element in the Ottoman army." §REF§ (Imber 2002, 256-257) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 440) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ At this time the Ottoman Empire was very heterogeneous in language and culture and while Islam predominated as the state religion the Greek and Armenian Orthodox Churches retained some influence within the Ottoman government and served large concentrations of Christians. After their expulsion from Spain in 1492 CE there were also many Jews, in addition to Maronites and Druzes. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 1-2) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650. The Structure of Power. PalgraveMacmillan. Basingstoke. §REF§ After the final conquest of Byzantine Constantinople in 1453 CE, the city became the Ottoman capital, now called Istanbul, and boomed in size again from about 50,000 to perhaps as many as 400,000 residents.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

11

Konya Plain

Anatolia-Caucasus

32.521164

37.877845

Konya

TR

Turkey

Southwest Asia

43

Anatolia-Caucasus

Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

175

TrOttm3

1,517

1,683

Ottoman Empire II

tr_ottoman_emp_2

LEGACY

In the 15th century CE, the Turkic Ottoman Sultan Mehmet II conquered Constantinople, took from the last vestiges of the defeated Roman Empire the famous title 'caesar', and added to it the grandiose title 'ruler of the two continents and the two seas'. §REF§ (Inalcik and Quataert 1997, 18) Halil Inalcik and Donald Quataert. 1997. 'General Introduction', in An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, Volume One: 1300-1600, edited by Halil Inalcik with Donald Quataert, 1-8. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ However, it was Suleiman I (1520-1566 CE) who earned his sobriquets 'the Magnificent' and 'the Lawgiver' when he reformed the Ottoman system of government, codified Ottoman secular law, and extended the Ottoman Empire into Europe as far as Vienna. Population and political organization The Ottoman Empire was a hereditary dynasty under the rule of an Ottoman Sultan. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 87) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The Ottoman 'slave-elite' differed from that of the Mamluk Sultanate in that the Ottoman slaves could never achieve the position of sultan, which remained the hereditary property of the Osman dynasty. With its capital in Istanbul, the main organ of state power was the 'elaborate court, palace, and household government'. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 437) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Policy-making was weakly institutionalized: in theory, all decisions were made by the sultan himself, and so Ottoman policies were shaped by the sultan's personal character and by the 'individuals or factions who had his ear'. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The sultans appointed their own staff and paid them with a wage or (increasingly after 1600 CE) a fief. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 171) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ State funding came in large part from money raised by fief holders until Grand Vizier Ibrahim Pasha Kulliyesi (in office from 1718 CE) introduced a property tax. §REF§ (Palmer 1992, 33-34) Alan Palmer. 1992. The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire. London: John Murray. §REF§ The administrative and military officials around the sultan were slaves educated in palace schools. §REF§ (Nicolle 1983, 10) David Nicolle. 1983. Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300-1774. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. §REF§ The source of this non-Turkish administrative class was the devsirme tribute, which began in 1438 CE; by the 16th century about 1,000 boys were taken per year per recruiting province in the Balkans and non-Muslim communities in Anatolia. The system divided these slaves into those who would serve the bureaucracy and those who would form the elite military corps known as janissaries. In 1582 CE, recruits of non-devsirme origin, including free Muslims, were permitted to join the janissaries and after 1648 CE the devsirme system was no longer used to recruit for the janissaries. §REF§ (Nicolle 1983, 9-11, 20) David Nicolle. 1983. Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300-1774. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. §REF§ The imperial household together with its armies and administrative officials was truly vast, numbering about 100,000 people by the 17th century. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 437) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The renowned Ottoman architect Sinan was a tribute slave; he notably designed the Sehzade and Süleyman külliyes (complexes of buildings including mosques and mausoleums) and the Selim Mosque at Edirne (1569-1575 CE), with its four 83-metre-high minarets. §REF§ (TheOttomans.org 2002) TheOttomans.org. 2002. 'Architecture'. <a class="external free" href="http://www.theottomans.org/english/art_culture/architec.asp" rel="nofollow">http://www.theottomans.org/english/art_culture/architec.asp</a>, accessed 3 April 2017. §REF§ §REF§ (Freely 2011, 15, 29, 215, 269) John Freely. 2011. A History of Ottoman Architecture. Southampton: WIT Press. §REF§ Ottoman sultans issued decrees through an imperial council (divan) §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ and the chief executive power below the sultan, the grand vizier. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 156) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Although certain regions (Egypt, for example) may have differed slightly in their governing structure, Ottoman regional government typically involved governors (beylerbeyi) §REF§ (Imber 2002, 177-78) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ whose provinces were split into districts (sanjaks) under district governors (sanjak beyi). §REF§ (Imber 2002, 184) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The sanjak beyi also was a military commander. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 189) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Fief-holding soldiers were responsible for local law and order within their districts. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 194) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ By the late 16th century, the lowest level of this system had transformed into a system of tax farms or fiefs given to non-military administrators. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 209, 215) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ In 1695 CE, these tax farms were 'sold as life tenures (malikane)', and later shares in tax farms were sold to the public. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 473) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Ottoman law was divided into religious - Islamic sharia - and secular kanun law. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 244) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Kanun law essentially served to fill the gaps left by the religious legal tradition, regulating 'areas where the provisions of the sacred law were either missing or too much at at odds with reality to be applicable'. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 244) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ In the Ottoman Empire, this included aspects of criminal law, land tenure and taxation; kanun law drew its legitimacy from precedent and custom. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 244) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Military judges (kadi'asker) were the heads of the empire's judiciary and heard cases brought before the imperial council. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 157) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Ottoman Anatolia further enhanced many aspects of Byzantine culture. In 1331, in an attempt to spread Islam to new territories, Iranian and Egyptian scholars were brought to Iznik in northwestern Anatolia to teach at the first Ottoman college. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 440) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Palace schools were created to train the next generation of Ottoman officials. During the 15th and 16th centuries CE, about 500 libraries were built by sultans and high Ottoman dignitaries. These were maintained by waqf religious foundations; the majority in Istanbul, Bursa and Erdine. Initially, these were madrassa libraries and specialist libraries, but the first independent Ottoman waqf libraries were founded by the Koprulu family in 1678 CE. §REF§ (Agoston and Masters 2009, 333-34) Gabor Agoston and Bruce Masters. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ The Ottoman postal system (ulak) structured around postal stations (similar to the Mongol yam) §REF§ (Królikowska 2013, 59) Natalia Królikowska. 2013. 'Sovereignty and Subordination in Crimean-Ottoman Relations (Sixteenth-Eighteenth Centuries)', in The European Tributary States of the Ottoman Empire in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, edited by Gábor Kármán and Lovro Kunčević, 43-66. Leiden: Brill. §REF§ spanned an empire of 5.2 million square kilometres at its greatest extent, §REF§ (Turchin, Adams and Hall 2006) Peter Turchin, Jonathan M. Adams and Thomas D. Hall. 2006. 'East-West Orientation of Historical Empires'. Journal of World-Systems Research 12 (2): 219-29. §REF§ with a population of approximately 28 million people in 1600 CE. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 137) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. London: Allen Lane. §REF§ Istanbul likely had a population of at least 650,000 in 1600 CE. §REF§ (Bairoch 1988, 378) Paul Bairoch. 1988. Cities and Economic Development: From the Dawn of History to the Present. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

11

Konya Plain

Anatolia-Caucasus

32.521164

37.877845

Konya

TR

Turkey

Southwest Asia

43

Anatolia-Caucasus

Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

176

TrOttm4

1,683

1,839

Ottoman Empire III

tr_ottoman_emp_3

LEGACY

The Ottoman Empire during the period between 1683 and 1839 CE was at its most powerful, but was frequently beset by revolts that threatened to break it apart, particularly in Egypt. However, the dynasts in Istanbul successfully retained power behind a protective veil of elite slaves, acquired by tribute from conquered provinces and raised and educated to run the government and military. The Ottoman 'slave-elite' differed from that of the Mamluk Sultanate in that the Ottoman slaves could never achieve the position of sultan, which remained the hereditary property of the Osman dynasty. Although this failed to prevent palace intrigues or succession crises, the sultans of this period made progress toward greater unification of the empire's dense patchwork of languages and ethnicities. Trading on their successful military conquests, the Ottoman sultans claimed the title of 'caliph of all the Muslims in the world'. §REF§ (Inalcik and Quataert 1997, 20) Halil Inalcik and Donald Quataert. 1997. 'General Introduction', in An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, Volume One: 1300-1600, edited by Halil Inalcik with Donald Quataert, 1-8. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Population and political organization The Ottoman Empire was a hereditary dynasty under the rule of an Ottoman Sultan. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 87) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The Ottoman 'slave-elite' differed from that of the Mamluk Sultanate in that the Ottoman slaves could never achieve the position of sultan, which remained the hereditary property of the Osman dynasty. With its capital in Istanbul, the main organ of state power was the 'elaborate court, palace, and household government'. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 437) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Policy-making was weakly institutionalized: in theory, all decisions were made by the sultan himself, and so Ottoman policies were shaped by the sultan's personal character and by the 'individuals or factions who had his ear'. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The sultans appointed their own staff and paid them with a wage or (increasingly after 1600 CE) a fief. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 171) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ State funding came in large part from money raised by fief holders until Grand Vizier Ibrahim Pasha Kulliyesi introduced a property tax around 1718 CE. §REF§ (Palmer 1992) Alan Palmer. 1992. The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire. London: John Murray. §REF§ The administrative and military officials around the sultan were slaves educated in palace schools. §REF§ (Nicolle 1983, 10) David Nicolle. 1983. Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300-1774. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. §REF§ The source of this non-Turkish administrative class was the devsirme tribute, which began in 1438 CE; by the 16th century about 1,000 boys were taken per year per recruiting province in the Balkans and non-Muslim communities in Anatolia. The system divided these slaves into those who would serve the bureaucracy and those who would form the elite military corps known as janissaries. In 1582 CE, recruits of non-devsirme origin, including free Muslims, were permitted to join the janissaries and after 1648 CE the devsirme system was no longer used to recruit for the janissaries. §REF§ (Nicolle 1983, 9-11, 20) David Nicolle. 1983. Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300-1774. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. §REF§ The imperial household together with its armies and administrative officials was truly vast, numbering about 100,000 people by the 17th century. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 437) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Ottoman sultans issued decrees to their approximately 24 million subjects through an imperial council (divan) §REF§ (Imber 2002, 154) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ and the chief executive power below the sultan, the grand vizier. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 156) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Although certain regions (Egypt, for example) may have differed slightly in their governing structure, Ottoman regional government typically involved governors (beylerbeyi) §REF§ (Imber 2002, 177-78) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ whose provinces were split into districts (sanjaks) under district governors (sanjak beyi). §REF§ (Imber 2002, 184) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The sanjak beyi also was a military commander. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 189) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Fief-holding soldiers were responsible for local law and order within their districts. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 194) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ By the late 16th century, the lowest level of this system had transformed into a system of tax farms or fiefs given to non-military administrators. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 209, 215) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ In 1695 CE, these tax farms were 'sold as life tenures (malikane)', and later shares in tax farms were sold to the public. §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 473) Ira M. Lapidus. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Ottoman law was divided into religious - Islamic sharia - and secular kanun law. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 244) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Kanun law essentially served to fill the gaps left by the religious legal tradition, regulating 'areas where the provisions of the sacred law were either missing or too much at at odds with reality to be applicable'. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 244) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ In the Ottoman Empire, this included aspects of criminal law, land tenure and taxation; kanun law drew its legitimacy from precedent and custom. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 244) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Military judges (kadi'asker) were the heads of the empire's judiciary and heard cases brought before the imperial council. §REF§ (Imber 2002, 157) Colin Imber. 2002. The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

11

Konya Plain

Anatolia-Caucasus

32.521164

37.877845

Konya

TR

Turkey

Southwest Asia

43

Anatolia-Caucasus

Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

177

TrOttm5

1,839

1,922

Ottoman Empire IV

tr_ottoman_emp_4

LEGACY

null

2023-11-20T10:36:18.319606Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

11

Konya Plain

Anatolia-Caucasus

32.521164

37.877845

Konya

TR

Turkey

Southwest Asia

43

Anatolia-Caucasus

Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

542

YeOttoL

1,873

1,920

Ottoman Empire Late Period

tr_ottoman_emp_4_copy

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

43

Anatolia-Caucasus

Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

663

ni_oyo_emp_1

1,300

1,535

Oyo

ni_oyo_emp_1

POL_AFR_WEST

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

7

West Africa

From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

396

InPala

750

1,174

Pala Empire

in_pala_emp

LEGACY

null

2025-04-08T15:47:28.395933Z

{'id': 147, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

null

37

Eastern South Asia

Bangladesh + Indian states of West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and Sikkim

{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}

697

in_pandya_emp_2

590

915

Pandya Dynasty

in_pandya_emp_2

POL_SA_SI

The Pandya dynasty revived its political power in 590 CE when Maravarman Avanishulamani ended Kalabhra rule. §REF§ (Singh 2008, 558) Singh, Upinder. 2008. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Delhi: Pearson Longman. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UJG2G6MJ/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/UJG2G6MJ/collection</a> §REF§ The Pandya dynasty thus established its capital in Madurai with its main ports at Kanyakumari, Kottalam, and Sunchindram. §REF§ (Middleton 2015, 716) 2015. ‘Pandya Dynasty’ In World Monarchies and Dynasties: Vol 1-3. Edited by John Middleton. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/BISZJCDB/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/BISZJCDB/collection</a> §REF§ §REF§ (Kamlesh 2010, 596) Kamlesh, Kapur. 2010. ‘Pandya Dynasty’ In Portraits of a Nation: History of Ancient India. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/3TS5DCT6/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/3TS5DCT6/collection</a> §REF§ The Pandya dynasty, as in earlier periods, continued their support of education and the building of schools and knowledge centres. §REF§ (Kamlesh 2010, 600) Kamlesh, Kapur. 2010. ‘Pandya Dynasty’ In Portraits of a Nation: History of Ancient India. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/3TS5DCT6/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/3TS5DCT6/collection</a> §REF§ The Pandyan dynasty was likewise supporters of Shaivist Hindu religion and patrons of different temples. §REF§ (Pal 1988, 259) Pal, Pratapadiya. 1988. Indian Sculpture: 700-1800 Vol. 2. Berkeley: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/GI668E2K/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/GI668E2K/collection</a> §REF§ §REF§ (Kamlesh 2010, 600) Kamlesh, Kapur. 2010. ‘Pandya Dynasty’ In Portraits of a Nation: History of Ancient India. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/3TS5DCT6/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/3TS5DCT6/collection</a> §REF§ The Pandya dynasty was also a naval superpower in the region and made many campaigns against Ceylon. §REF§ (Kamlesh 2010, 599) Kamlesh, Kapur. 2010. ‘Pandya Dynasty’ In Portraits of a Nation: History of Ancient India. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/3TS5DCT6/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/3TS5DCT6/collection</a> §REF§ In 915 CE the Cholas invaded the Pandya region and ruled over the territory for the next thirty years. §REF§ (Middleton 2015, 717) 2015. ‘Pandya Dynasty’ In World Monarchies and Dynasties: Vol 1-3. Edited by John Middleton. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/BISZJCDB/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/BISZJCDB/collection</a> §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

40

Southern India

Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana

{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}

627

in_pandya_emp_3

1,216

1,323

Pandya Empire

in_pandya_emp_3

POL_SA_SI

“The Pandyan dynasty and the goddess Minakshi serve as excellent examples of the Dravidian model of kingship and of the Sankritization process. The royal Pandyan dynasty is mentioned in texts dating from the fourth century BCE and the dynastic title lasted, in one form or another through a series of families, for about 1,500 years. They were based in the dry upland interior of the Tamil-speaking region. While the Pandyans did not customarily build dams, they developed a distinctive technology of two specific types of piston valves to control water flow from the reservoir sluices.” §REF§ (Fisher 2018, 74) Fisher, Michael H. 2018. An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/MIEG8XAK/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/MIEG8XAK/collection</a> §REF§

null

2024-07-03T08:02:32.122965Z

{'id': 55, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

null

40

Southern India

Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana

{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}

192

ItPapM1

1,527

1,648

Papal States - Early Modern Period I

it_papal_state_3

LEGACY

The polity period begins with the imperial sack of Rome (1527). This devastating sack at the hands of largely Protestant mercenaries-theoretically in the service of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V-marks an absolute nadir of papal fortunes for the early modern period. The sack provoked the papacy to reform itself, take the Protestant revolt seriously, and initiate the Counter-Reformation (aka the Catholic Reformation). §REF§ (Martin 2002, 39-42) John M Marino, ed. 2002. Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ The age of the Council of Trent (1543-1563) dramatically altered the Catholic Church, enhancing the papacy's power within the Church and enhancing its ability to police the laity, with institutions such as the Roman Inquisition being established in 1542 by Paul III. §REF§ (Martin 2002, 42) John M Marino, ed. 2002. Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ The index of banned books was established, tighter clerical control over canonization imposed, and in general the Catholic Church ratcheted down on orthodoxy in the face of the Protestant threat. §REF§ (Schutte 2002, 126-127) John M Marino, ed. 2002. Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ The sack of Rome was compounded by malaria epidemics and food shortages, to drastically reduce the population of Rome to perhaps 10,000 in 1527-28. §REF§ (Black 2001, 9) Christopher F Black. 2001. Early modern Italy. A social history. London: Routledge. §REF§ Despite this, the city soon recovered and boomed in the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries as the capital of a more or less stable Papal State, under Spanish protection. By the turn of the century, Rome's population may have been around 100,000. §REF§ (Goldthwaite 2009, 173) Richard A Goldthwaite. 2009. The economy of renaissance Florence. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins UP, 2009. §REF§ Marino has characterized the early modern city's economy as parasitic, consuming and not producing wealth §REF§ (Marino 2002, 66) John M Marino, ed. 2002. Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ ; Goldthwaite, similarly, describes late medieval and early modern Rome thus: "Rome, however, was a city that consumed but did not produce; in contrast to Avignon, it was not a regional export market of any importance." §REF§ (Goldthwaite 2009, 173) Richard A Goldthwaite. 2009. The economy of renaissance Florence. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins UP, 2009. §REF§ A major part of this consumption was cultural: "Rome...exploded [in the sixteenth century] into an enormous market for luxury goods...." §REF§ (Goldthwaite 2009, 173) Richard A Goldthwaite. 2009. The economy of renaissance Florence. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins UP, 2009. §REF§ Despite the sack, the most important papal building project of the early modern period, St. Peter's Basilica, was completed in 1626. Spanish financial and military support was crucial to the survival of the Papal State; a famous letter of Charles V, written to his son Philip II between 1545 and 1558, declared that "'the states of the church are in the center of Italy, but [they are] surrounded by ours in such a way that one can say that they form one kingdom.'" §REF§ (Dandelet 2003, 221) Thomas Dandelet. 2003. "The Spanish Foundations of Late Renaissance and Baroque Rome." In Beyond Florence. The Contours of Medieval and Early Modern Italy.Paula Findlen, Michelle M. Fontaine, and Duane J. Osheim eds. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP. pp. 219-232 §REF§ De facto Spanish hegemony over the Papal State would not be seriously challenged between the mid-16th century and the pontificate of Urban VIII (1623-44). §REF§ (Dandelet 2003, 221) Thomas Dandelet. 2003. "The Spanish Foundations of Late Renaissance and Baroque Rome." In Beyond Florence. The Contours of Medieval and Early Modern Italy.Paula Findlen, Michelle M. Fontaine, and Duane J. Osheim eds. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP. pp. 219-232 §REF§ By the sixteenth century, the papacy was firmly in control of the Papal State, and the polity was at peace after the end of the Great Italian Wars (1559). The Spanish alliance remained a cornerstone of papal policy into the early 18th century. §REF§ (Dandelet 2002, 29) John M Marino, ed. 2002. Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ The papacy ruled Rome and the State through a sophisticated bureaucracy based on patronage, cronyism, and the purchase of offices. §REF§ (Dandelet 2002, 20) John M Marino, ed. 2002. Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 696-698) Fernand Braudel. 1973. The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II. Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§ The feudal barons and nobles were subject to clerical officials appointed by the Papacy. §REF§ (Symcox 2002, 114) John M Marino, ed. 2002. Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ Although this bureaucracy was usually able to meet the basic requirements of government-collecting taxes, administering justice, and protecting subjects-this does not mean that the Papal State was free of violence, famine, and so forth. Banditry remained a major problem during the period and would straight through to the late nineteenth century. §REF§ (Symcox 2002, 110) John M Marino, ed. 2002. Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 745-746) Fernand Braudel. 1973. The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II. Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§ After the end of the Wars, military action involving the papacy shifted to the Mediterranean. The Ottomans had begun raiding papal possessions on the Adriatic littoral from the mid-15th century, following the fall of Constantinople. These raids were not preludes to conquest, but were a serious disruption to trade and daily life in le Marche; in 1518, Selim I's forces had torched Porto Recanati, the port for Loreto, site of a major shrine to the Virgin. This imminent threat, compounded with the papacy's traditional role as organizer and propagandist of the crusade, resulted in deep papal involvement in the struggle against the Ottomans. Initially, these efforts were not successful. The major Turkish victory at Prevesa (1538) opened the Central Mediterranean to Turkish raiding and piracy; the Ottomans' alliance with the French even allowed the Turkish fleet to winter in Toulon. §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 906) Fernand Braudel. 1973. The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II. Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§ This ability of the Turks to winter in the western Mediterranean exposed the coast of Lazio to Turkish piracy; for example, Andrea Doria, leading a mixed papal-Genoese fleet, was defeated by Turks and North Africans off Terracina in 1552. §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 924) Fernand Braudel. 1973. The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II. Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§ Confronted with this Turkish menace, the papacy was crucial in organizing Christian campaigns against the Turks in North Africa and Greece, and in funding coastal defences for Lazio and the Kingdoms of Sicily & Naples. Pius V (1566-1572) was of particular importance in this effort, laying the groundwork for a papal fleet. §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 1083) Fernand Braudel. 1973. The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II. Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§ Pius granted major sources of ecclesiastical revenue to the Spanish Philip II, and was instrumental in organizing the councils and diplomatic wrangling that led to the creation of the Holy League in 1570, in particular convincing the Spanish to come to the aid of the Ventians. §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 1029) Fernand Braudel. 1973. The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II. Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§ The Holy League consisted of the Papacy, Spain, and Venice; by the final agreement, each party agreed to contributions for 3 years, for an annual expedition consisting of 200 galleys, 100 roundships, 50,000 infantry and 4,500 light infantry. §REF§ (Braudel 1973, 1091) Fernand Braudel. 1973. The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II. Trans. Sian Reynolds. New York: Harper Colophon Books. §REF§ The Christian fleet met and decisively defeated a comparable Turkish squadron at Lepanto, off the Greek Ionian littoral, on 7 October 1571. It was the greatest battle in the Mediterranean in the 16th century, and it marked a substantive end to Turkish raiding on the papal lands and, more importantly, led to the division of the Mediterranean into a Turkish east and a Christian west. The papacy's international prestige rose to new heights with the victory, as well, but declined during the seventeenth century due to the grasping annexation of the duchy of Urbino and Urban VIII's foolish war of Castro in the early 1640s. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 9-10) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London & New York: Longman. §REF§ Italy enjoyed several decades of peace following the peace of Cateau-Cambresis of 1559 between France and Spain. Yet economically and demographically, the 1590s and the first half of the seventeenth century were a period of general crisis in Italy. The "decline of Italy" is a venerable aspect of early modern historiography, but depends on a particular view of what counts in assessing quality of life: see Black, (2001, 32), for an approving echo of Braudel's comments to the contrary §REF§ (Black 2001, 32) Christopher F Black. 2001. Early modern Italy. A social history. London: Routledge. §REF§ Papal revenues were aided by the popes' ability to draw on Spanish ecclesiastical revenues. §REF§ (Dandelet 2003, 219-232) Thomas Dandelet. 2003. "The Spanish Foundations of Late Renaissance and Baroque Rome." In Beyond Florence. The Contours of Medieval and Early Modern Italy.Paula Findlen, Michelle M. Fontaine, and Duane J. Osheim eds. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP. pp. 219-232 §REF§ Demographically, the first half of the seventeenth century was a succession of plagues and famines in many parts of the peninsula. §REF§ (Black 2001, 23) Christopher F Black. 2001. Early modern Italy. A social history. London: Routledge. §REF§ A particularly virulent plague cycle hit Rome in 1656, §REF§ (Cipolla 1981, 90) Carlo M Cipolla. 1981. Fighting the plague in Seventeenth-century Italy. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. §REF§ dropping its population from 120,000 to 100,000. §REF§ (Black 2001, 23) Christopher F Black. 2001. Early modern Italy. A social history. London: Routledge. §REF§

null

2024-10-16T08:49:41.821749Z

{'id': 38, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

1

Latium

Southern Europe

12.486948

41.890407

Rome

IT

Italy

Europe

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

193

ItPapM2

1,648

1,809

Papal States - Early Modern Period II

it_papal_state_4

LEGACY

The papacy was victorious in the Second War of Castro (1649). This was only the denouement of a minor episode, however, and in general the Papal State was a political fossil, undertaking no reforms in the spirit of the Enlightenment, and increasingly irrelevant to European affairs. §REF§ (Symcox 2002, 118) John M Marino, ed. 2002. Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ The first part of this period marked the definitive eclipse of the papacy as a power of any reckoning in international relations. Pope Urban VIII had annexed the Duchy of Urbino to the Papal States in 1631, thereby alienating the papacy from the other Italian powers. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 9-10) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London & New York: Longman. §REF§ The first war of Castro broke out in 1641 when Urban declared war on the Farnese, the ruling family of Parma, over the poor finances of Castro, a small fiefdom held by the Farnese just north of Rome. Tuscany, Modena and Venice joined the Farnese to resist the papacy, and inflicted humiliating defeats on the papal armies. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 10) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London & New York: Longman. §REF§ In 1644, the French imposed a peace settlement. Although Pope Innocent X's troops took Castro and razed it to the ground in 1649, the papacy was now isolated internationally and increasingly irrelevant. The papacy took no part in the Peace of Westphalia, and it was also not consulted in the Franco-Spanish Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659). §REF§ (Sella 1997, 11) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London & New York: Longman. §REF§ The papacy took no part in European wars for the rest of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The papacy's irrelevance internationally can be seen as part of the decline of the Spanish empire, as had benefited from Spanish protection during the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. §REF§ (Dandelet 2003, 219-232) Thomas Dandelet. 2003. "The Spanish Foundations of Late Renaissance and Baroque Rome." In Beyond Florence. The Contours of Medieval and Early Modern Italy.Paula Findlen, Michelle M. Fontaine, and Duane J. Osheim eds. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP. pp. 219-232 §REF§ The French came to dominate European affairs during the reign of Louis XIV, but the struggle for power in Europe did not seriously affect the Papal State until the turn of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Warfare ravaged the peninsula in the early eighteenth century, as the (Austrian) Habsburgs and French Bourbons battled to fill the vacuum created by Spain's gradual eclipse. §REF§ (Woolf 1979, 29) S J Woolf. 1979. A History of Italy 1700-1860: The Social Constraints of Political Change. 2nd Ed. London: Methuen. §REF§ These wars were external events imposed on the Italian states, and they took as little part as possible. Spanish attempts to recruit troops at Rome in the 1730s were met by serious riots, for example. §REF§ (Woolf 1979, 35) S J Woolf. 1979. A History of Italy 1700-1860: The Social Constraints of Political Change. 2nd Ed. London: Methuen. §REF§ The War of the Austrian Succession devastated areas of the Marches and Romagna, but the papacy, it seems, was powerless to prevent foreign armies' depredations. §REF§ (Woolf 1979, 35) S J Woolf. 1979. A History of Italy 1700-1860: The Social Constraints of Political Change. 2nd Ed. London: Methuen. §REF§ As the eighteenth century progressed, this weakness, even impotence, became ever more marked. Clement XI in 1720 and Clement XII called for an Italian league to expel northern rulers, but these appeals were meaningless because the papacy controlled no armies worth speaking of. §REF§ (Woolf 1979, 37) S J Woolf. 1979. A History of Italy 1700-1860: The Social Constraints of Political Change. 2nd Ed. London: Methuen. §REF§ Thus, international relations between the papacy and the European powers during the later 18th century consisted of papal resistance to European states' attempts to restrain the power of the Church. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 68) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ This took its characteristic form in the French and Spanish expulsion of the Jesuit Order from their domains; in 1773, Pope Clement XIV suppressed the order. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 40) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ As a reward, the French restored Avignon and the Spanish Benevento to the papacy. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 42) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ The papacy opposed the French Revolution from the beginning, and by 1792, there was a schism in France between Catholics who supported the Church sanctioned by the Revolutionary regime, and those who remained faithful to Rome. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 80) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ Pius VI sympathized with the Habsburgs and the revolutionary regime's enemies, and his successor was powerless in the face of Bonaparte's 1796 invasion of the peninsula. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 80-81) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ Indeed, the papal ambassador Zelada's reply to British requests for papal approval of the war against the French was the following: §REF§ (Hay 1975, 98) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ "'It is true that there was a time when the voice of the Roman Pontiff was heard, respected, and obeyed; now...it is scarcely listened ever listened to, and never has any effect.'" Although the British fleet had briefly protected the Papal States' coasts from the French, by 1796 the British had withdrawn. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 98) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ Napoleon did not initially invade the Papal States proper, only the Legation cities of Ravenna, Bologna, and Ferrara; in the following peace treaty, the French annexed Ravenna, Bologna, Ancona, and the right of entry to all papal ports. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 99) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ The papacy furthermore had to pay Napoleon 21 million crowns. War recommenced in 1797, and Bonaparte marched almost unopposed down the eastern coast of the peninsula, stealing whatever the papal government had not yet removed of the treasury at Loreto and forcing terms on the papacy at Tolentino in mid-February. §REF§ (Hay 1975, 101) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§ Refusing to acquiesce in French domination, Pius VI was arrested in February 1798 and bundled off to prison in Valence, France. The second half the 1600s was marked by a renewal of "Christianization" efforts, i.e., to educate the laity and ensure a stricter adherence to post-Tridentine Catholicism. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 106-115) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London & New York: Longman. §REF§ The wars, famines, and epidemics between 1610 and the mid-1650s had disrupted these efforts, but there was a "Tridentine revival" in the second half of the century resulting in Jesuit missions to the Kingdom of Naples, and more frequent pastoral visits by bishops. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 107) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London & New York: Longman. §REF§ The Inquisition, which had been institutionalized as the Roman Inquisition in the sixteenth century, was still active, although it may not have burnt as many heretics and witches as authorities north of the Alps. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 160) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London & New York: Longman. §REF§ The Inquisition censored books, although it was not necessarily successful at preventing their spread. §REF§ (Sella 1997, 160) Dominc Sella. 1997. Italy in the Seventeeth Century. London & New York: Longman. §REF§ Pilgrimage remained popular, especially in Jubilee years (in this period, 1725, 1750, and 1775), and confraternities showed remarkable staying power, especially in the duchy of Benevento and the kingdom of Naples. Baptism and the Mass remained little changed, although parish records became a standard part of the Church's institutional machinery. The seventeenth century was a period of major demographic and economic contraction, but by the mid-18th century, recovery had begun. §REF§ (Carpanetto and Recuperati 1987, 47) Dino Carpanetto. Giuseppe Ricuperati. 1987. Italy in the Age of Reason, 1685-1789. Trans. Caroline Higgit. London/New York: Oxford UP. §REF§ Gross has estimated that in 1684, the Papal States' trade and payment deficit was five million scudi; in 1786, the Papal States' imports exceeded their exports by three times. §REF§ (Gross 1990, 88) Gross, Hanns. Rome in the Age of Enlightenment: The post-Tridentine syndrome and the ancien regime. Cambridge, CUP. §REF§ Rome remained what it had long been, a parasitic drain on the Agro Romano. §REF§ (Carpanetto and Recuperati 1987, 15) Dino Carpanetto. Giuseppe Ricuperati. 1987. Italy in the Age of Reason, 1685-1789. Trans. Caroline Higgit. London/New York: Oxford UP. §REF§ The city consisted of a small plutocracy and a vast mass of artisans, courtiers, workers, and a major substratum of the permanently indigent; pilgrims added to the city's population and its coffers periodically. Ancona, on the other hand, experienced revived prosperity in the mid-18th century following Clement XII's decree making it a free port. §REF§ (Carpanetto and Recuperati 1987, 16) Dino Carpanetto. Giuseppe Ricuperati. 1987. Italy in the Age of Reason, 1685-1789. Trans. Caroline Higgit. London/New York: Oxford UP. §REF§ Bologna's economy was in decline due to the implosion of the textile trade. §REF§ (Carpanetto and Recuperati 1987, 16) Dino Carpanetto. Giuseppe Ricuperati. 1987. Italy in the Age of Reason, 1685-1789. Trans. Caroline Higgit. London/New York: Oxford UP. §REF§ An important contribution to the future demographic and economic health of Lazio was the draining of the Pontine Marshes, carried out under Popes Benedict XIV, Clement XIII, and Pius VI. §REF§ (Carpanetto and Recuperati 1987, 48) Dino Carpanetto. Giuseppe Ricuperati. 1987. Italy in the Age of Reason, 1685-1789. Trans. Caroline Higgit. London/New York: Oxford UP. §REF§

null

2024-10-16T08:52:32.181633Z

{'id': 39, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

1

Latium

Southern Europe

12.486948

41.890407

Rome

IT

Italy

Europe

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

190

ItPapHM

1,198

1,309

Papal States - High Medieval Period

it_papal_state_1

LEGACY

In the 1198-1309 CE period the Papacy, from Innocent III, extended its power over the temporal realm, and over Christendom. The period ends with the Angevin exile from 1309 CE. The term Christendom (Christianitas) reflects the supranational scope of the Papacy, which being also an international religion, had a degree of control beyond the territorial borders of the Papal State. §REF§ (Madigan 2015) K Madigan. 2015. Medieval Christianity: A New History. Yale University Press. New Haven. §REF§ Whilst in previous times Rome was dominated by France and then German monarchs, under the rule of Pope Innocent III (r. 1198-1216 CE), 'the king maker of Christendom', papal authority, particularly in influence around Europe, was at its medieval height. He initiated several crusades and presided over the Fourth Lateran Council §REF§ (Vauchez 2010, 356) André Vauchez ed. Roma Medievale. Rome: Editori Laterza, 2010 [2001]. §REF§ that defined an important Catholic ritual, the Eucharist. Innocent III "viewed himself explicitly as the vicar of Christ, priest and king, who possessed unrivaled temporal and religious authority" §REF§ (Madigan 2015, 291) K Madigan. 2015. Medieval Christianity: A New History. Yale University Press. New Haven. §REF§ and this combined with a "general acceptance that the pope was the vicar of Christ and the growing sense of Christians, nourished by the reforms of the eleventh century, that they were part of a supranational entity, Christendom (Christianitas), and that their primary loyalty was to that body and to the pope as head of Christendom, rather than to any local, regional, or even national entity." §REF§ (Madigan 2015, 291) K Madigan. 2015. Medieval Christianity: A New History. Yale University Press. New Haven. §REF§ Armies of the Papal States were a conglomeration of international allies, friendly towns and nobles, volunteer crusaders, and the forces directly raised by the pope. §REF§ (Waley 1957, 1-30) D P Waley. January 1957. Papal Armies of the Thirteen Century, Vol. 72, No. 282, The English Historical Review. pp. 1-30 §REF§ The papal state formed many alliances with during this period, held the nominal allegiance of some polities (the Norman duchies to the south are just one good example of both of these), and held vassals of its own (albeit ones that were notoriously difficult to control). War with the Holy Roman Empire characterised the Papal State's international relations. Based at the Lateran Palace in Rome, the Papal bureaucracy consisted of scribes, archivists, tax collectors, papal messengers, and administrators charged with the upkeep of the city §REF§ Carocci and Vendittelli, 74-75 §REF§ which at this time was no greater than the size of a large town, with about 35,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Brentano 1991, 13) Robert Brentano. 1991. Rome Before Avignon: A Social History of Thirteenth-Century Rome. Berkeley: University of California Press. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

1

Latium

Southern Europe

12.486948

41.890407

Rome

IT

Italy

Europe

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

191

ItPapRn

1,378

1,527

Papal States - Renaissance Period

it_papal_state_2

LEGACY

The 1378-1527 CE period of the Papal States is known for 'Renaissance popes' who "concentrated their efforts on protecting their Italian domain and in lavishly reconstructing the city of Rome." §REF§ (Madigan 2015, 386) K Madigan. 2015. Medieval Christianity: A New History. Yale University Press. New Haven. §REF§ The Sistine Chapel, a popular symbol of the renaissance, was built between 1475-1481 CE commissioned by Sixtus IV. Goldthwaite has argued that the papacy's return to Rome in 1378 inaugurated a phase of economic growth for the Rome and its hinterland, reflecting Rome's dependence on the papacy, and not Lazio's productivity, to stimulate the economy. §REF§ (Goldthwaite 2010, 172) Richard Goldthwaite. 2010. The Economy of Renaissance Florence. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University. §REF§ Before the sack of Rome in 1527 CE §REF§ (Bairoch et al 1988, 47) Paul Bairoch. Jean Batou. Pierre Chèvre. 1988. The Population of European Cities from 800 to 1850. Geneva: Droz. §REF§ the population had finally begun to grow again, from about 30,000 early in the 14th century to 55,000. The Renaissance Popes attempted to systematize and unify the financial administration of the Papal State. This meant ending financial and judicial immunities, and rolling back the power of locally powerful bishops and abbots. §REF§ Partner, 385-87; Braudel, 697 §REF§ However, the vast bureaucracy the Pope oversaw was a fundamentally corrupt one, by the late 14th century founded on bribery, the sale of offices, and patronage politics. §REF§ (Martin 2002, 34) John M Marino, ed. Early Modern Italy, 1550-1796. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ During the fifteenth century, the sale of offices within the curia became routinized; and Peterson has estimated that under Pope Leo X (1513-1521), two thousand offices were for sale in the city of Rome alone. §REF§ (Peterson 2010, 74) John M Najemy, ed. 2010. Italy in the Age of the Renaissance: 1300-1500. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ The papacy's ability to control the regions of the Papal States fluctuated dramatically during this period, especially during the Great Schism (1378-1417 CE). During the Schism, numerous ecclesiastical territories in the Papal State were seized by or alienated to secular lords. §REF§ (Partner 1972, 385) Peter Partner. 1972. The lands of Saint Peter. The Papal State in the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance. Berkeley: University of California Press. §REF§ The 1380s and 1390s were characterized by a long and futile struggle between the Roman and Avignon popes for control of territory and finances in central and southern Italy, with the long-term result being the destabilization of central Italy and the intensified decentralization of power in the Papal State, especially in the Romagna and le Marche. §REF§ (Partner 1972, 371) Peter Partner. 1972. The lands of Saint Peter. The Papal State in the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance. Berkeley: University of California Press. §REF§ In general, the various lords, cities, and feudatories of the papal states were ready and willing to rebel when possible, for example, in 1375 CE. §REF§ (Partner 1972, 366-367) Peter Partner. 1972. The lands of Saint Peter. The Papal State in the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance. Berkeley: University of California Press. §REF§ Furthermore, the lords of the petty Lords known as the Romagna were de facto independent for much of the late 14th and early 15th centuries. §REF§ For these petty lordships, see Larner §REF§ During the mid-15th century, King Ferrante of Naples deliberately contracted with Roman barons for them to raise mercenary bands for his service, undercutting these barons' feudal ties to the papacy. §REF§ (Mallett and Shaw 2012, 10) Michael Mallett and Christine Shaw. 2012 The Italian Wars, 1494-1559: War, state and society in early modern Europe. Harlow, England: Pearson. §REF§ As distinct from the previous centuries, up until 1494 CE the Papal States was usually free from influence of German emperors or Spanish kings, §REF§ (Najemy 2010) John M Najemy, ed. 2010. Italy in the Age of the Renaissance: 1300-1500. Oxford: Oxford UP. §REF§ but the drastically changed situation between 1494-1527 CE, following the French king Charles VIII's invasion of Italy. §REF§ (Ady 1975, 343-367) Denys Hay ed. 1975. The New Cambridge Modern History, I: The Renaissance, 1493-1520. Cambridge: Cambridge UP §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

1

Latium

Southern Europe

12.486948

41.890407

Rome

IT

Italy

Europe

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

402

InParam

974

1,235

Paramara Dynasty

in_paramara_dyn

LEGACY

null

2023-11-14T13:52:35.590267Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

40

Southern India

Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana

{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}

125

IrPart1

-247

40

Parthian Empire I

ir_parthian_emp_1

LEGACY

The first ruler of the Parthian dynasty was Arsaces who lived at about 240 BCE §REF§ (Neusner 2008, 16) JAcob Neusner. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene. §REF§ but the founder of the Parthian Empire (171 BCE - 40 CE period) was Mithridates I, who initiated the Parthian conquest of Persia and Babylonia from the Seleucids. §REF§ (Neusner 2008, 16) Jacob Neusner. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene. §REF§ The Parthians were essentially "a military aristocracy" §REF§ (Dabrowa 2012, 180) Edward Dabrowa. The Arcasid Empire. in Daryaee, Touraj ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. §REF§ that ruled the many different peoples (e.g. Persians, Greeks, Jews, Babylonians) who lived in Persia and Babylonia. Parchments and ostra found at Dura-Europas show the Parthians had "an extensive and developed bureaucracy". §REF§ (Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) G A Koshelenko. V N Pilipko. in Ahmad Hasan Dani. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. §REF§ The Parthians, who were originally a nomadic tribe (the Parni) from northeastern Iran §REF§ (Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) G A Koshelenko. V N Pilipko. in Ahmad Hasan Dani. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. §REF§ , conquered Seleucid territory that already possessed municipal, provincial (satrapal) and central government. The Parthians had some centralized institutions but these were not based at a capital city but "moved from city to city along with their administration." §REF§ Khodadad Rezakhani. 2016. Arsacid Society and Culture. Accessed 06.09.2016: <a class="external free" href="https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/" rel="nofollow">https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/</a> §REF§ The Parthian nobility was inserted into the regional governance structures they inherited §REF§ (Neusner 2008, 18) Neusner, Jacob. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene. §REF§ as satraps appointed by the king, while much of the rest of the territory consisted of directly granted personal fiefs §REF§ (Neusner 2008, 18) Jacob Neusner. 2008. A History of the Jews in Babylonia. 1. The Parthian Period. Wipf & Stock. Eugene. §REF§ or vassal kingdoms. §REF§ (Koshelenko and Pilipko 1994, 141) G A Koshelenko. V N Pilipko. Parthia. in Janos Harmatta. B N Puri. G F Etemadi. eds. 1994. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizatins 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. UNESCO Publishing. §REF§ In terms of central government the Parthian Arsacids retained the Achaemenid model (as had the Seleucids) which had departments called diwans "responsible for record-keeping, communication, budgeting, and taxation." The departments were run by individuals called dibirs who were themselves responsible to a first-minister. §REF§ Khodadad Rezakhani. 2016. Arsacid Society and Culture. Accessed 06.09.2016: <a class="external free" href="https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/" rel="nofollow">https://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-arsacid-empire/arsacid-society-and-culture/</a> §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

9

Susiana

Levant-Mesopotamia

48.235564

32.382851

Susa (Shush)

IR

Iran

Southwest Asia

45

Iran

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

483

IrPart2

41

226

Parthian Empire II

iq_parthian_emp_2

LEGACY

Originally the Parthian were a nomadic tribe, called the Parni, from northeastern Iran. The date of their invasion of ‘Parthia’ is usually given as 247 BCE. The campaigns of Mithridates I (171-138 BCE) spread the authority of the Parthian kings. In 113 BCE Mithridates II took the title of ‘King of Kings’. For 300 years from 92 BC, the Parthian Empire was seen as the main foe of the Roman Empire. Parthian power derived from their military successes and control of commerce. Trade flourished as Parthia was an intermediary between Rome and Far East and became part of the network of Silk Roads. "There was an extensive and developed bureaucracy, as attested by ostraca from Nisa and by the Parthian parchments and ostraca from Dura-Europos." §REF§ (Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) Koshelenko, G A. Pilipko, V N. in Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. §REF§ The provinces and cities outside the Parthia heartlands paid tribute or allegiance to the ‘king of kings’, but regional lords retained their own power. Although the Parthians themselves were Zoroastrian, the empire was multi-ethnic and multi-religious and revolts against the Parthian King were common. There were also challenges form within the Parthian elites. Parthian Kings were chosen from the Arascid clan, but they were 'appointed' by nobles rather than automatically succeeding to rule. After 40 BCE Parthian military power was weakening and they could not mount offensive operations into Roman territory. They suffered a series of military defeats to the Romans and a smallpox epidemic between 161 CE and 217 CE. However it was invasion by the Sassanians from Iran that ended their rule. Bureaucracy characteristics. “It was status as an agnate [kin group or clan] in one of the noble groups that alone gave access to appointment to any state or court official of importance. Certain offices even became, with the passing of time, hereditary in a particular group”. The groups had "preferential right" to hold the office. §REF§ Perikhanian, A., ‘Iranian Society and Law’, in The Cambridge history of Iran: the Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods. Part 2, ed. by Ehsan Yar-Shater (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), vol.3, P.645 §REF§ Law. There were law courts in the main town of the districts and in every rural district §REF§ Perikhanian, A., ‘Iranian Society and Law’, in The Cambridge history of Iran: the Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods. Part 2, ed. by Ehsan Yar-Shater (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983),vol. III, p.676. §REF§ Military Technologies. Our information on Parthian armies comes mainly from their enemies, especially Roman sources. Like many central Asian armies, horses were central to their war fighting, foot solders less so. Parthian cavalry was divided into heavy and light forces. The 'Parthian shot' became infamous to the Romans: Plutarch describes their tactic at the battle of Carrhae in 53 BC. Parthian cavalry pretended to flee, then turned in the saddle and fired their bow and arrows. §REF§ Ted Kaizer, ‘The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires c.247 BC - AD 300’, in Thomas Harrison (ed.), The Great Empires of the Ancient World (London: Thames & Hudson, 2009), P.187 §REF§ Cassius Dio [c. CE 155 - 235] in Roman History: “The Parthians make no use of a shield, but their forces consist of mounted archers and pikemen, mostly in full armour. Their infantry is small, made up of the weaker men; but even these are all archers. They practise from boyhood, and the climate and the land combine to aid both horsemanship and archery... They are really formidable in warfare, but nevertheless they have a reputation greater than their achievements, because in spite of their not having gained anything from the Romans, and having besides, given up certain portions of their own domain, they have not yet been enslaved, but even to this day hold their own in the wars they wage against us.” §REF§ quoted in Ted Kaizer, ‘The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires c.247 BC - AD 300’, in Thomas Harrison (ed.), The Great Empires of the Ancient World (London: Thames & Hudson, 2009), p.186 §REF§ "The standard turn-out would have included helmets of bronze or iron, sometimes with a neck guard and/or an aventail of lamellar, scale or mail, sometimes sporting a small plume of horsehair, either dyed or left natural; and a corselet of lamellar, mail or scale for the torso. Arm guards were also worn, and some wore guantlets too. The feet were often protected by armour over mail 'socks', and mail was often used to bridge defences at limb joints. A small fabric tabard and/or cloak might be worn, and this was very likely to be made of a rich material such as silk brocade." §REF§ (Penrose 2008, 223) Penrose, Jane. 2008. Rome and Her Enemies: An Empire Created and Destroyed by War. Osprey Publishing. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

8

Southern Mesopotamia

Levant-Mesopotamia

44.42

32.47

Babylon (Hillah)

IQ

Iraq

Southwest Asia

45

Iran

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

543

CnPeili

-7,000

-5,001

Peiligang

cn_peiligang

LEGACY

The Peiligang culture existed from 7000 to 5000 BC in the Yi-Luo river basin of the Middle Yellow River Valley (modern Henan Province, China). There have been over 100 sites along river banks identified with this Neolithic culture. §REF§ (Liu, 2005. 25)Li Liu. 2005. The Chinese Neolithic: Trajectories to Early States. Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Archaeologists have found bone and stone tools and ceramics from the period as well as weapons including harpoons with bone points, stone spears, and arrows which suggests evidence of the use of bows during this time. The people of the Peiligang culture hunted deer and wild boar and fished using nets. Animal husbandry was also practiced, with pigs, dogs and possibly chickens being reared. §REF§ (Liu, 2005. 25)Li Liu. 2005. The Chinese Neolithic: Trajectories to Early States. Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Stone tools were used for harvesting millet. Pottery that has been unearthed – some of the oldest pottery found in China - was using for cooking and food storage. Little is known about the settlements and hierarchies during this period, but archaeologists generally agree that it was an egalitarian society with little to no political organisation and that settlements were small and self-sufficient. §REF§ (Liu, 2005. 25)Li Liu. 2005. The Chinese Neolithic: Trajectories to Early States. Cambridge University Press. §REF§

null

2024-01-04T15:27:50.070756Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

20

Middle Yellow River Valley

North China

112.517587

34.701825

Luoyang

CN

China

East Asia

58

North China

North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang

{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}

737

cn_chinese_peoples_rep

1,950

2,024

People's Republic of China

cn_chinese_peoples_rep

OTHER_TAG

null

2024-11-13T14:14:35.500221Z

{'id': 102, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

null

58

North China

North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang

{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}

349

TrPergm

-282

-133

Pergamon Kingdom

tr_pergamon_k

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

43

Anatolia-Caucasus

Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

104

LbAcPho

-1,200

-332

Phoenician Empire

lb_phoenician_emp

LEGACY

The term 'Phoenicia' refers to a group of allied cities - rather than a politically centralized state - located in the southern Levant, in present-day Lebanon and northern Israel. It is difficult to assign exact dates to this quasi-polity, §REF§ (Röllig 1983) Röllig, Wolfgang. 1983. “The Phoenician Language: Remarks on the Present State of Research.” In Atti Del I. Congresso Internazionale Di Studi Fenici E Punici: Roma, 5-10 Novembre 1979, 375-85. Rome: Istituto per la Civiltà Fenicia e Punica. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KKX2FPFB" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KKX2FPFB</a>. §REF§ but here we focus on the period between c. 1200 BCE and 332 BCE, when the Phoenician city of Tyre fell to Alexander the Great. §REF§ (Briant 2010, 9) Briant, Pierre. 2010. Alexander the Great and His Empire: A Short Introduction. Translated by Amélie Kuhrt. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2BWW9KRM" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2BWW9KRM</a>. §REF§ The Phoenicians were skilled traders and seafarers. §REF§ (Kaufman 2014, 3-4) Kaufman, Bret. 2014. “Empire without a Voice: Phoenician Iron Metallurgy and Imperial Strategy at Carthage.” PhD Dissertation, Los Angeles, CA: UCLA. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6HWAI37J" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/6HWAI37J</a>. §REF§ Population and political organization The ruler of a Phoenician city was somewhere between human and divine. He was not a god, but was the highest priest with a privileged relationship to the city's patron deity. §REF§ (Bonnet 2004, 102) Bonnet, Corinne. 2004. I Fenici. Rome: Carocci. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CHKFPEHR" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/CHKFPEHR</a>. §REF§ However, his power was not unlimited: merchant families also wielded considerable influence in public affairs and, at least in Byblos, Sidon, and possibly Tyre, the king was assisted by a council of elders. In Tyre, between 605 and 561 BCE, the monarchy was replaced with a republic, in which the government was led by a series of judges known as suffetes, who ruled for only short terms. §REF§ (Etheredge 2011, 122) Etheredge, Laura. 2011. Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B8B3HGFK" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/B8B3HGFK</a>. §REF§ Reliable population figures for the Phoenician cities are lacking.

null

2023-10-23T16:23:53.991090Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

10

Galilee

Levant-Mesopotamia

35.3035

32.6996

Nazareth

IL

Israel

Southwest Asia

61

Levant

Israel/Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

166

TrPhryg

-900

-695

Phrygian Kingdom

tr_phrygian_k

LEGACY

The Phrygian Kingdom (c900-695 BCE) came into existence after the migration of a people to Anatolia in the early Iron Age, after the fall of the Hittite Empire. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 39-40) T Bryce. 2002. ‘’Life and Society in the Hittite World’’. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The name the people called themselves is unknown because there are no Phrygian sources telling us about it. 'Phrygian' is a Greek name while Assyrian texts refer to a Muški kingdom §REF§ (Roller 2011, 563) L Roller. 2011. "Phrygian and the Phrygians" Oxford Handbook of Ancien Anatolia §REF§ "a fierce, aggressive, tribal people" who could be a separate people or a people who formed a union with the Phrygians in the 8th century. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 40) §REF§ The kingdom's most developed phase occurred under king Midas who ruled from the city of Gordium in the late 8th century. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 41) T Bryce. 2002. ‘’Life and Society in the Hittite World’’. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ We cannot say much about the organization of Phrygia at its peak development except that it was a monarchy that ruled from Gordium, a town of perhaps 20,000 inhabitants. The capital of Midas's hypothesized Mushki-Phrygian union is assumed to have been named after Midas's father. Earlier names in the dynasty are unknown. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 41) T Bryce. 2002. ‘’Life and Society in the Hittite World’’. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Archaeologist know of three political documents but have not been able to decipher them. The Phrygian language is not known, and its similarity to Greek languages has only allowed for fragments of texts to be understood. While we nothing about a central (palace based?) administration that may have been present archaeologists believe that other cities in Phrygia had their own governments §REF§ (Atasoy 1982, 158) Buluç E A Atasoy. 1982. "Metallurgical and Archaeological Examination of Phrygian Objects". Anatolian Studies. Vol. 32. §REF§ and a great deal of autonomy. §REF§ (Atasoy 1982, 158) Buluç E A Atasoy. 1982. "Metallurgical and Archaeological Examination of Phrygian Objects". Anatolian Studies. Vol. 32. §REF§ The biggest cities had governors. §REF§ (Atasoy 1982, 158) Buluç E A Atasoy. 1982. "Metallurgical and Archaeological Examination of Phrygian Objects". Anatolian Studies. Vol. 32. §REF§ The beginning date for the Phrygian period is somewhat arbitrary, based on archaeological records. The end of the Phrygian period, however, is clearly marked by a conquest - it is the year when the Phrygian Kingdom was conquered by the Lydian Kingdom, which de facto put an end to the existence of the Phrygian period.

null

2023-03-17T15:33:57.137751Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

11

Konya Plain

Anatolia-Caucasus

32.521164

37.877845

Konya

TR

Turkey

Southwest Asia

43

Anatolia-Caucasus

Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

579

gb_england_plantagenet

1,154

1,485

Plantagenet England

gb_england_plantagenet

LEGACY

The Plantagenet Dynasty originated from a powerful aristocratic family from Anjou in France. Geoffrey, count of Anjou (from 1129) and duke of Normandy (from 1144), was the patrilineal ancestor of the Plantagenet kings through his marriage to Empress Matilda, the daughter of King Henry I of England. The nickname ‘plantagenet’ allegedly comes from the yellow flower planta genista that Geoffrey wore in his hat. Though the monarch still had ultimate power in the kingdom, the period of Plantagenet England saw a move away from absolute monarchy. A series of conflicts with the powerful barons and the church led to the signing of the Magna Carta by King John in 1215; a treaty between the king and the barons with compromises on both sides, neither of which were adhered to, which led to a series of civil wars known as the Barons’ Wars in the thirteenth century. The Hundred Years’ War with France (1337-1453) originated from a dispute over the French throne between the Plantagenets and the French House of Valois. There were three phases of the war separated by truces, but ultimately the Plantagenets were defeated and reneged their claim. During this period a distinct English identity was shaped, which is still recognisable today. This was partly due to ongoing conflicts with their surrounding neighbours on the isle, the Scots, Welsh and Irish, but also with their distancing from relations with France. The English language was solidified and became the primary language of the country, eschewing the French and Latin languages which had also commonly been used. Through military campaigns, Wales was brought under English rule. The basis of English law and government administration also has its roots in this period. Despite the economic and demographic expansion of England in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, famines and the Black Death of the early fourteenth century curbed England’s growth. The rivalry between the two main cadet branches of the Plantagenet dynasty – Lancaster and York – led to the War of the Roses (1455-1487). Elite in-fighting, civil war and succession struggles resulted in the male lines of both dynasties becoming almost extinct. This left open an opportunity for Henry Tudor (of the Beaufort family branch) to push his tenuous claim to the throne by defeating and killing Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485. He assumed the throne as Henry VII and married Elizabeth of York (the daughter of former king, Edward IV). Through this marriage alliance the Plantagenet dynasty ended, and the period of Tudor England began. §REF§(Prestwich 2005) Prestwich, Michael. 2005. Plantagenet England 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XTBKFDCI§REF§ §REF§(Ormrod 2000) Ormrod, W. ‘England: Edward II and Edward III’, in The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 6: C.1300–c.1415, ed. Michael Jones, vol. 6, The New Cambridge Medieval History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 271–96, https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521362900.014. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Y46E5QCH§REF§

null

2024-05-16T13:38:35.411192Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

20

Western Europe

British Isles, France, Low Countries

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

334

PlPoLit

1,386

1,569

Poland-Lithuania Kingdom

pl_jagiellonian_dyn

LEGACY

null

2024-03-12T09:43:17.211764Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

15

Central Europe

Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

317

PlPoliK

963

1,138

Polish Kingdom - Piast Dynasty

pl_piast_dyn_1

LEGACY

The Kingdom of Poland, was a significant medieval polity in Central Europe, primarily encompassing the territory of modern-day Poland. Initially a fragmented region, Poland began to coalesce into a more unified entity under the Piast dynasty, which emerged in the late 10th century. Mieszko I, recognized as the first ruler of Poland, adopted Christianity in 966, aligning the kingdom more closely with Western Europe.§REF§Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland: In Two Volumes, Rev. ed. (Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LUJ3NYJU" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: LUJ3NYJU</a>§REF§ Under the Piast dynasty, Poland experienced periods of expansion and consolidation, extending its influence over neighboring Slavic tribes and territories. The reign of Bolesław I the Brave (992-1025) was notable for its military campaigns and the establishment of Poland's first archbishopric in Gniezno, affirming Poland's status within Christendom.§REF§Eduard Mühle, Die Piasten: Polen im Mittelalter, Bsr 2709 (München: Verlag C.H. Beck, 2011).<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EVZQ25XL" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: EVZQ25XL</a>§REF§The kingdom faced challenges, including internal divisions, succession disputes, and external threats from the Holy Roman Empire, the Kievan Rus', and later, the Teutonic Knights. Despite these challenges, the Piast rulers managed to maintain a degree of autonomy.§REF§Eduard Mühle, Die Piasten: Polen im Mittelalter, Bsr 2709 (München: Verlag C.H. Beck, 2011).<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EVZQ25XL" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: EVZQ25XL</a>§REF§ The fragmentation period (1138-1320) saw Poland divided into several duchies, weakening central authority and leading to increased German influence in some regions. This period was characterized by internal strife and the gradual erosion of the Piast dynasty's power.

null

2024-04-05T10:45:51.367873Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

15

Central Europe

Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

809

pl_piast_dyn_2

1,139

1,382

Polish Kingdom - Piast Dynasty Fragmented Period

pl_piast_dyn_2

OTHER_TAG

When Bolesław III Wrymouth died on 28 October 1138, he was aware of the potential for conflict among his sons and devised a testament aiming to prevent the fragmentation of the kingdom. His will, known as the Testament of Bolesław III Wrymouth§REF§Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland: In Two Volumes, Rev. ed. (Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LUJ3NYJU" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: LUJ3NYJU</a>§REF§, divided Poland among his sons, granting them hereditary duchies while trying to maintain some level of unity under the senioral principle. This principle established that the eldest member of the dynasty, holding the Seniorate Province with Kraków as its capital, would have a primacy over the other dukes and the right to be called the High Duke of Poland. The "Senioral Principle" was soon broken, leading to a period of nearly 200 years of disintegration known as feudal fragmentation which divided the Polish state into several semi-independent principalities without a single ruler governed by various branches of the Piast dynasty.§REF§Eduard Mühle, Die Piasten: Polen im Mittelalter, Bsr 2709 (München: Verlag C.H. Beck, 2011).<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EVZQ25XL" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: EVZQ25XL</a>§REF§ The reunification of Poland under Władysław I in 14th century marked the end of fragmentation. His son, Casimir III the Great (1333-1370) strengthened royal authority. Casimir's reign, devoid of major external conflicts, allowed for significant internal development, including the founding of the University of Krakow in 1364, one of the oldest universities in Europe.§REF§Eduard Mühle, Die Piasten: Polen im Mittelalter, Bsr 2709 (München: Verlag C.H. Beck, 2011).<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EVZQ25XL" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: EVZQ25XL</a>§REF§ The end of the Piast dynasty in 1370, with the death of Casimir III, led to the initiation of the Angevin and later Jagiellonian dynasties, under which Poland entered into a union with Lithuania.§REF§Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland: In Two Volumes, Rev. ed. (Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LUJ3NYJU" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: LUJ3NYJU</a>§REF§

null

I expanded the end date of this polity to include the last personal union between Hungary and Poland during Louis I of Hungary's reign.

2024-02-28T14:45:23.434662Z

2024-06-12T12:00:04.748967Z

{'id': 25, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

null

15

Central Europe

Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

864

pl_polish_peoples_rep

1,953

1,989

Polish People's Republic

pl_polish_peoples_rep

OTHER_TAG

null

Republic of Poland

null

2024-04-11T07:08:29.149178Z

2024-04-11T07:08:29.149190Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

15

Central Europe

Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

808

pl_poland_lithuania_commonwealth

1,570

1,791

Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

pl_poland_lithuania_commonwealth

OTHER_TAG

null

2024-02-26T15:45:42.966810Z

2024-02-26T15:45:42.966825Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

15

Central Europe

Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

630

sl_polonnaruva

1,070

1,255

Polonnaruwa

sl_polonnaruva

POL_SA_SI

“Certainly, the critical reappraisal of archaeological evidence allows us to narrow the gap between Anurādhapura and Polonnaruva. While the latter has long been archaeologically interpreted as a cosmopolitan urban centre, similar evidence from Anurādhapura has been largely undervalued but is now over- whelming. The remains of Polonnaruva, traditionally dated to between 1017 and 1293 CE have revealed Buddhist monasteries and Hindu temples with bronze sculptures of Hindu deities. This has led some scholars, rightly in our opinion, to speak of religious plurality and harmony. Excavations within the Alahana Pirivena in Polonnaruva uncovered quantities of pottery with appliqué designs, including swastika, śrīvasta and vajra or triśūla, which have now also been identified in the city’s hinterland (Figure 1.7). Bronze figurines excavated at Polonnaruva and representing deities such as Śiva and Parvati have been put forward as evidence of the presence of Hinduism in the city. And yet such evidence was not restricted to Polonnaruva.” §REF§ Coningham et al. 2017, 40) Coningham et al. 2017. ‘Archaeology and cosmopolitanism in early historic and medieval Sri Lanka.’ Sri Lanka at the Crossroads of History. Edited by Zoltán Biedermann and Alan Strathern. London: UCL Press. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/DCQMW8E3/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/DCQMW8E3/collection</a> §REF§

null

2025-04-15T09:40:32.455725Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

63

Sri Lanka

{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}

709

pt_portuguese_emp_2

1,640

1,806

Portuguese Empire - Early Modern

pt_portuguese_emp_2

OTHER_TAG

null

2023-10-25T13:59:24.938475Z

2023-10-25T13:59:24.938487Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

708

pt_portuguese_emp_1

1,495

1,579

Portuguese Empire - Renaissance Period

pt_portuguese_emp_1

OTHER_TAG

null

2023-10-25T13:49:59.636980Z

2024-04-10T08:42:10.711578Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

88

InDecKg

-205

-101

Post-Mauryan Kingdoms

in_post_mauryan_k

LEGACY

Here we look at Southern India in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE, that is, between the collapse of the Mauryan Empire and the rise of the Satavahana Dynasty. Unfortunately, this appears to be a very poorly understood period in this region. Population and political organization No population estimates could be found in the literature. Information relating to political organization within our region of interest--roughly corresponding to the Bellary district in the modern-day Indian state of Karnataka--is also lacking, though sources suggest the existence of monarchies and an accompanying bureaucratic apparatus (scribes and mints, for example) in neighbouring regions. §REF§ (Shimada 2012, 118-119) Shimada, Akira. 2012. Early Buddhist Architecture in Context: The Great Stupa at Amaravati (ca. 300 BCE-300 CE). Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/AVB94HR2" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/AVB94HR2</a>. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

15

Deccan

Central India

76.625407

15.386856

Kampli

DEC

India

South Asia

40

Southern India

Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana

{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}

64

GrCrPPa

-1,300

-1,200

Postpalatial Crete

gr_crete_post_palace_1

LEGACY

At the end of the Late Minoan IIIA2 period, the destruction of the "palace" at Knossos, the oldest monumental building compound of the island, marked the end of a political authority which had controlled most of Crete during the Late Minoan II and Late Minoan IIIA periods. Regional centers, once secondary capitals under the Knossian control, subsequently regained a degree of independence. Regional elites exerted their authorities over the land by adopting social instruments and ideological strategies which turned out to be very similar to those used by the previous Knossian power, possibly including the use of Linear B script for bureaucratic purposes. §REF§ (Borgna 2003, 153-183) Elisabetta Borgna. 2003. 'Regional settlement patterns in Crete at the end of LBA'. SMEA 45: 153-83. §REF§ Things changed in the eleventh century, with the fall of the great Eastern Mediterranean powers and a resulting period of instability in both the region generally and the island specifically. §REF§ (Hallager 2010, 157-158) Erik Hallager. 2010. 'Crete' in The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean, edited by E.H. Cline. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Population and political organization Firth estimated the Cretan population during Late Minoan IIIA and IIIB periods (1400-1200 BCE) at 110,000 people §REF§ (Firth 1995, 33-55) R. Firth. 1995. 'Estimating the population of Crete during LM IIIA/B'. Minos 29-30: 33-55. §REF§ As for political organization, the supreme leader of the state was the king (wanax), presided over the political, economic and religious hierarchy, though possibly lacked military and judicial authority §REF§ (Shelmerdine and Bennet 2008, 292-295) C.W. Shelmerdine and J. Bennet. 2008. 'Mycenaean states. Economy and administration,' in The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age, edited by C.W. Shelmerdine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

4

Crete

Southeastern Europe

25.1442

35.3387

Heraklion

GR

Greece

Europe

19

Southeastern Europe

Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

485

IrPrCer

-7,800

-7,200

Pre-Ceramic Period

ir_susiana_pre_ceramic

LEGACY

"The chronological position of the Chogha Bonut Aceramic period vis-a-vis the Buz Murdeh phase in Deh Luran has theoretical implications in terms of the occupation of the lowland on the eve of domestication. However, the paucity of excavated materials dating to the initial phases of the Neolithic prevents us from proposing a chronological framework without the use of radiocarbon dating. Nevertheless, comparative analyses of the pottery sequences from the early villages in Susiana and Deh Luran indicate that, at least in southwestern Iran, pottery manufacture began earlier in Susiana than it did in Deh Luran and continued to influence Deh Luran for several millennia. Moreover, the culture-specific T-shaped figurines, so characteristic of the early Neolithic sites in western southwestern Iran (Sarab, Chogha Bonut, Chogha Mish, Tappeh Ali Kosh) and northeastern Iraq (Jarmo), occur from the beginning of the occupation at Chogha Bonut but appear later in the Mohammad Jaffar phase at Tappeh Ali Kosh. Admittedly, such a conclusion is based on uncertain grounds. It is perfectly possible that Chogha Bonut and Tappeh Ali Kosh are contemporary, but given the present evidence from Chogha Bonut, it seems highly unlikely that Tappeh Ali Kosh, or any other early Neolithic sites in Iran (with the possible exception of Tappeh Asiab) would be earlier. The implication is that during the eighth millennium B.C., the environmental conditions were favorable in Iran (if not the whole Near East) to allow the establishment of early villages in a number of environmental niches suitable for the transition from collecting and hunting food to producing it." §REF§ (Alizadeh 2003, 8) §REF§ "The Aceramic Phase: Initial Colonization of Lowland Susiana. The earliest, basal levels at Čoḡā Bonut that did not produce any ceramic vessels comprise the initial Aceramic phase. In this phase, the early settlers of the Susiana plain chose to settle on top of a low natural hill surrounded by shallow marshes at an elevation where dry farming was possible. Even today, when the region is much drier than it was in early Neolithic times, dry agriculture is still practiced as supplement. The early farmers of lowland Susiana cultivated wheat, barley, and lentils and had domesticated sheep, goats, pigs, and dogs. Hunting and gathering supplemented this mixed subsistence economy. During this initial phase, the chipped stone industry and manufacture of stone vessels were highly developed. In the limited exposure of the 1996 excavations, no traces of solid architecture were found, but fragmentary pieces of straw-tempered mud bricks suggest the existence of solid architecture. Most probably, the early inhabitants of this site came from the highlands, for there is a great similarity between the chipped stone industry, clay and stone figurines, and tokens of Coga Bonut, on the one side, and those found at the early sites in the piedmonts of the Zagros Mountains, on the other." §REF§ (Alizadeh 2009, Encyclopedia Iranica Online, <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coga-bonut-archaeological-site" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coga-bonut-archaeological-site</a>) §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

9

Susiana

Levant-Mesopotamia

48.235564

32.382851

Susa (Shush)

IR

Iran

Southwest Asia

45

Iran

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

773

mw_pre_maravi

1,151

1,399

Pre-Maravi

mw_pre_maravi

OTHER_TAG

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

6

Southern Africa

Namibia, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique and south

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

616

si_pre_sape

600

1,400

Pre-Sape Sierra Leone

si_pre_sape

POL_AFR_WEST

"It is generally accepted that the Limba, Bullom, Kissi, Krim, Vai, and Themne peoples were in Sierra Leone before the 16th century. The Limba and Bullom groups are regarded as the earliest autochthonous groups. The Limba preceded every other group, including the Bullom, in settling the area. Cecil Magbaily Fyle places Limba presence in the Wara Wara Mountains of northern Sierra Leone in the 7th century, based on the research findings of the archeologist John Atherton. Atherton discovered stone tools and other artifacts in the Wara Wara hills that are dated to the 7th century. [...] After settling the Wara Wara Mountains, the Limba expanded their territory and interaction with other groups. Their cultural encounters with later arrivals, such as the Themne and Loko, would produce Limba subgroups including the Biriwa, Wara Wara, Saffroko, and Sela, who inhabit the present-day Sierra Leone districts of Bombali, Kambia, and Koinadugu. [...] While the Limba may have preceded the Bullom in Sierra Leone, Rodney notes that the Bullom were the “single dominant element along the coast” by the 12th century. He associates the Bullom with the Kissi and Krim groups, who all shared “extremely closely related” languages. Rodney points out that the Kissi occupied much of the “eastern portion of the present Republic of Guinea and the region along the present Sierra Leone–Liberia frontier, with the Krim to their south or near the coast.” The Kissi continue to be a transnational group, found in the southeastern region where the borders of Sierra Leone, Guinea, and Liberia converge."§REF§(Cole 2021) Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/WBFJ8QU5/collection.§REF§">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/GWWIKDDM/items/WBFJ8QU5/collection.§REF§</a>

null

2024-01-11T13:45:35.889752Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

7

West Africa

From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

60

GrCrPre

-3,000

-1,900

Prepalatial Crete

gr_crete_pre_palace

LEGACY

The Cretan Prepalatial era is divided in Early Minoan I (3000-2700 BCE), Early Minoan IIA (2700-2400 BCE), Early Minoan IIB (2400-2200 BCE), Early Minoan III (2200-2000 BCE) and Middle Minoan IA (2000-1900 BCE) periods. §REF§ (Shelmerdine 2008, 4) Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. 2008. 'Background, sources, and methods' in The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age, edited by Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Population and political organization Population estimates for the entire island at this time do not appear to be available in the literature. However, Whitelaw has estimated the population of Knossos, Crete's largest centre, at 2,600 to 11,000 inhabitants, that of Phaistos at 1,660 to 5,400, and that of Malia at 1,500 to 3,190. §REF§ (Whitelaw 2012, 156) Todd Whitelaw. 2012. 'The urbanization of prehistoric Crete: settlement perspectives on Minoan state formation', in Back to the Beginning: Reassessing Social and Political Complexity on Crete during the Early and Middle Bronze Age, edited by I. Schope, P. Tomkins and J. Driessen. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

4

Crete

Southeastern Europe

25.1442

35.3387

Heraklion

GR

Greece

Europe

19

Southeastern Europe

Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

849

gr_achaea_principality

1,204

1,432

Principality of Achaea

gr_achaea_principality

OTHER_TAG

null

Principality of Achaea

null

2024-04-10T09:57:12.864472Z

2024-04-10T09:57:12.864486Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

19

Southeastern Europe

Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

852

hu_hungary_principality

895

999

Principality of Hungary

hu_hungary_principality

OTHER_TAG

null

Principality of Hungary

null

2024-04-10T10:09:06.802118Z

2024-04-10T10:09:06.802130Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

15

Central Europe

Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

836

md_moldavia_principality_1

1,346

1,503

Principality of Moldavia I

md_moldavia_principality_1

OTHER_TAG

null

Principality of Moldavia

null

2024-04-10T08:12:33.349305Z

2024-04-10T08:12:33.349319Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

16

Eastern Europe

Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

837

md_moldavia_principality_2

1,504

1,710

Principality of Moldavia II

md_moldavia_principality_2

OTHER_TAG

null

Principality of Moldavia

null

2024-04-10T08:13:22.432767Z

2024-04-10T08:13:22.432779Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

16

Eastern Europe

Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

838

md_moldavia_principality_3

1,711

1,859

Principality of Moldavia III

md_moldavia_principality_3

OTHER_TAG

null

Principality of Moldavia

null

2024-04-10T08:13:59.832317Z

2024-04-10T08:13:59.832332Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

16

Eastern Europe

Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

292

RuRyazan

1,097

1,521

Principality of Ryazan

ru_ryazan_principality

LEGACY

null

2023-11-14T16:26:17.052387Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

16

Eastern Europe

Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

891

ro_transylvania_principality

1,570

1,711

Principality of Transylvania

ro_transylvania_principality

OTHER_TAG

null

Principality of Transylvania

null

2024-07-03T13:49:06.202738Z

2024-07-03T13:49:06.202754Z

null

16

Eastern Europe

Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

827

ro_wallachia_k

1,330

1,416

Principality of Wallachia I

ro_wallachia_principality_1

OTHER_TAG

null

Principality of Wallachia

became independent from Hungary in 1330. Forced to accept Ottoman suzerainty in 1417.

2024-04-09T13:15:39.453156Z

2024-07-03T13:07:33.689752Z

{'id': 69, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

null

16

Eastern Europe

Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

887

ro_wallachia_principality_2

1,417

1,714

Principality of Wallachia II

ro_wallachia_principality_2

OTHER_TAG

null

Principality of Wallachia

Forced to accept Ottoman suzerainty in 1417. 1714 marks the death of Wallachian ruler Constantin Brâncoveanu, after which Ottomans start to appoint Phanariotes (Greek-speaking officials) to govern Wallachia

2024-07-03T13:08:07.709452Z

2024-07-03T13:08:07.709468Z

null

16

Eastern Europe

Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

888

ro_wallachia_principality_3

1,715

1,858

Principality of Wallachia III

ro_wallachia_principality_3

OTHER_TAG

null

Principality of Wallachia

From Phanariote period up to union with Moldavia in 1859. A complex period, with interventions from the Ottomans, Habsburgs and Russians

2024-07-03T13:09:03.663560Z

2024-07-03T13:09:03.663575Z

null

16

Eastern Europe

Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

456

FrMervL

687

751

Proto-Carolingian

fr_merovingian_emp_3

LEGACY

This polity represents the late period of the Merovingian Kingdom, from 687 to 751 CE. Population and political organization Merovingian France was a largely decentralized kingdom based on the pre-existing Roman administrative system, in which cities were the basic units. §REF§ (Loseby 1998, 245-49) Loseby, S. T. 1998. “Gregory’s Cities: Urban Functions in Sixth-Century Gaul.” In Franks and Alamanni in the Merovingian Period: An Ethnographic Perspective, edited by I. N. Wood, 239-69. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DT5E5GNS" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DT5E5GNS</a>. §REF§ The city rulers, known as counts or grafio, who sent the king his tax revenue and carried out judicial and administrative functions, had access to both administrative officials and city archives (gesta municipalia). §REF§ (Wood 1994, 204) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Loseby 1998, 245-49) Loseby, S. T. 1998. “Gregory’s Cities: Urban Functions in Sixth-Century Gaul.” In Franks and Alamanni in the Merovingian Period: An Ethnographic Perspective, edited by I. N. Wood, 239-69. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DT5E5GNS" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/DT5E5GNS</a>. §REF§ Groups of cities and counts could be placed under a duke for military and administrative purposes. §REF§ (Bachrach 1972, 67) Bachrach, Bernard S. 1972. Merovingian Military Organization 481-751. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SG5XNFPG" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/SG5XNFPG</a>. §REF§ In contrast, there was no elaborate central administration, the highest non-royal official being a figure known as the mayor of the palace. §REF§ (Halsall 2003, 28) Halsall, Guy. 2003. Warfare and Society in the Barbarian West, 450-900. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z5EZBP2R" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Z5EZBP2R</a>. §REF§ The king's capital and main residence was at Paris, where the population may have reached 30,000 by the 8th century CE, §REF§ (Clark and Henneman, Jr. 1995, 1316) Clark, William W., and John Bell Henneman, Jr. 1995. “Paris.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1314-30. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HS8644XK" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HS8644XK</a>. §REF§ although the court was always a peripatetic institution. §REF§ (Wood 1994, 150-53) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35</a>. §REF§ The king consulted a group of magnates (obtimates) at an annual gathering around 1 March. Written references to royal edicts are known from 614 CE onwards, but earlier royal legislation has not survived. §REF§ (Fouracre 1998, 286-89) Fouracre, P. J. 1998. “The Nature of Frankish Political Institutions in the Seventh Century.” In Franks and Alamanni in the Merovingian Period: An Ethnographic Perspective, edited by Ian Wood, 285-316. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GT2AINW4" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GT2AINW4</a>. §REF§ Merovingian kings had the authority to appoint dukes and counts as well as bishops, who were often 'royal servants with no known connections with their sees'. §REF§ (Wood 1994, 78) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35</a>. §REF§ From 622 CE onwards the basic territorial divisions of the Merovingian Kingdom were Neustria (centred on the Seine and Oise rivers and associated with the Pactus Legis Salicae law code), §REF§ (Wood 1994, 112-15) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35</a>. §REF§ Burgundy (where the Liber Constitutionum was developed), and Austrasia (by the Rhine and Meuse, which came to possess its own mayor of the palace §REF§ (Fanning 1995, 157) Fanning, Steven. 1995. “Austrasia.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 156-57. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR2MKFDX" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR2MKFDX</a>. §REF§ and followed the Lex Ribvaria). §REF§ (Wood 1994, 112-15) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35</a>. §REF§ A fourth area, Aquitaine, had a special status due to its distance from the royal centres and was under less direct Merovingian control. §REF§ (Wood 1994, 100, 146) Wood, Ian. 1994. The Merovingian Kingdoms 450-751. London: Longman. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/ARUIRN35</a>. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

2

Paris Basin

Western Europe

2.312458

48.866111

Paris

FR

France

Europe

20

Western Europe

British Isles, France, Low Countries

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

457

FrCaptE

987

1,150

Proto-French Kingdom

fr_capetian_k_1

LEGACY

The Capetian period in France began with the accession of Hugh Capet to the Frankish throne in 987 CE. In the early period (987-1150 CE), the area under the control of the Capetian monarchs was relatively restricted in comparison to the late period (1150-1328 CE), which saw a massive expansion in territory and increasing urbanization. §REF§ (Turchin and Nefedov 2009, 111) Turchin, Peter, and Sergey Nefedov. 2009. Secular Cycles. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MDE5MUH</a>. §REF§ Population and political organization The Capetian monarchs ruled their kingdom via decree. Louis VI (r. 1108-1137 CE) was recognized as the legitimate ruler by his vassals and, after the early 12th century, the great lords of France generally submitted to Capetian authority. §REF§ (Bouchard 1995, 313-17) Bouchard, Constance B. 1995. “Capetian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 312-17. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNRCJVG" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNRCJVG</a>. §REF§ However, the dynasty had less power outside the region of Paris and the Counts of Bois and Troyes were arguably more powerful than the king in some respects. The Capetians drew their legitimacy from their stronger links to the Catholic church. §REF§ (Bouchard 1995, 313-17) Bouchard, Constance B. 1995. “Capetian Dynasty.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 312-17. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNRCJVG" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/2SNRCJVG</a>. §REF§ Before Philip II (r. 1180-1223 CE), government was very simple and closely linked to the king's court, which was still itinerant, moving wherever the king went. §REF§ (Clark and Henneman 1995, 1317) Clark, William W., and John Bell Henneman, Jr. 1995. “Paris.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1314-30. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HS8644XK" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HS8644XK</a>. §REF§ At the core of the French king's government were a few major officials with household titles (chancellor, seneschal, butler, chamberlain and constable). §REF§ (Bradbury 2013, 249) Bradbury, Jim. 2013. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E</a>. §REF§ From the 12th century onwards, these positions were the preserve of the aristocracy. §REF§ (Bradbury 2013, 249) Bradbury, Jim. 2013. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Pegues 1995, 1333) Pegues, Franklin J. 1995. “Parlement de Paris.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1332-33. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HHFUSQER" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HHFUSQER</a>. §REF§ The clergy of the Church provided a pool of 'educated, literature and numerate subjects' and were a vital resource for the government and administration of the Capetian Kingdom. §REF§ (Bradbury 2013, 248-49) Bradbury, Jim. 2013. Philip Augustus: King of France 1180-1223. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XSFRWX7E</a>. §REF§ Innovations in agriculture resulted in population increases during this period, especially in northern and western France, but demographic expansion would not begin in earnest until the later Capetian era. §REF§ (Percy, Jr. 1995, 1416) Percy, Jr., William A. 1995. “Population and Demography.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1415-17. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QI73FMSM" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QI73FMSM</a>. §REF§ From the 11th to the 14th century CE, the French population almost quadrupled from about 4 to 15 million. §REF§ (Percy, Jr. 1995, 1416) Percy, Jr., William A. 1995. “Population and Demography.” In Medieval France: An Encyclopedia, edited by William W. Kibler, Grover A. Zinn, Lawrence Earp, and John Bell Henneman, Jr., 1415-17. New York: Garland Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QI73FMSM" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QI73FMSM</a>. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

2

Paris Basin

Western Europe

2.312458

48.866111

Paris

FR

France

Europe

20

Western Europe

British Isles, France, Low Countries

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

100

UsIroqP

1,300

1,565

Proto-Haudenosaunee Confederacy

us_proto_haudenosaunee

LEGACY

Provide a descriptive paragraph detailing the key features of the polity, which will help understanding the codes below.

null

2023-06-27T16:20:05.802884Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

29

Finger Lakes

East Coast

-77.021375

42.70498

Seneca Falls

USNY

United States

North America

22

East Coast

East Coast of US

{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}

655

ni_proto_yoruba

301

649

Proto-Yoruba

ni_proto_yoruba

POL_AFR_WEST

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

7

West Africa

From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

664

ni_proto_yoruboid

-300

300

Proto-Yoruboid

ni_proto_yoruboid

POL_AFR_WEST

“It was an era of climatic change and ecological crisis, innovation in technology and social organization, and unprecedented scale of migration. More important, the period also marked the beginning of the splitting of proto-Yoruboid into new daughter languages and dialects. [...] The adjustment to and consequences of the ecological crisis of the Archaic period also instigated other processes of cultural change that launched the proto-Yoruboid people on the path of sociopolitical and demographic differentiation from several of their proto-Benue-Kwa peers in the confluence area. Until the beginning of the first millennium AD, the proto-Yoruboid were undifferentiated from the other confluence language communities in group size, modes of subsistence, and technology. But as the nine-month dry season became the new normal in the guinea savanna and as several water sources dried up, it became more frequent for communities, households, and individuals to branch off from the older units in search of greener pastures.”§REF§(Ogundiran 2020: 42)§REF§

null

2024-01-11T13:45:09.343232Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

7

West Africa

From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

109

EgPtol1

-305

-217

Ptolemaic Kingdom I

eg_ptolemaic_k_1

LEGACY

The Ptolemaic Kingdom (or Empire) was one of the successor states to the Macedonian Empire created by the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BCE. When Alexander died in Babylon in 323, Ptolemy, as one of his most favoured generals and bodyguards, was appointed satrap (governor) of Egypt, Libya and parts of Arabia. §REF§ (Hӧlbl 2001, 12, 14) Günther Hӧlbl. 2001. A History of the Ptolemaic Empire. London: Routledge. §REF§ §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 389) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The next few decades after 323 were characterized by incessant warfare between those who wished to maintain the unity of the Macedonian Empire, nominally still intact, §REF§ (Lloyd 2010, xl) Alan B. Lloyd. 2010. 'Chronology', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, xxxii-xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ and those who aspired to rule their own kingdoms independently. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 389) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Ptolemy was firmly on the separatist side, and in 305 BCE he successfully declared himself king of Egypt. In doing so, he became Ptolemy I Soter ('the saviour') §REF§ (Thompson 2005, 113) Dorothy J. Thompson. 2005. 'The Ptolemies and Egypt', in A Companion to the Hellenistic World, edited by Andrew Erskine, 105-20. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ , founder of a powerful dynasty (sometimes known as the Lagides, after his father Lagos) §REF§ (Myśliwiec 2000, 179) Karol Myśliwiec. 2000. The Twilight of Ancient Egypt: First Millennium B.C.E., translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ that was to rule Egypt for almost three centuries. Ptolemy I and his successors had expansionist ambitions, seeking to carve out more and more territory for their new kingdom, often at the expense of the other kingdoms that had splintered from Alexander's empire, especially the Seleucid Kingdom of the Middle East. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ At its greatest extent, the Ptolemaic Empire reached as far south as Lower Nubia (southern Egypt), west to Cyrenaica (modern-day Libya), east to Cyprus, Syria, Phoenicia and Asia Minor (Turkey), and north into the Aegean. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169-71) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ In the words of one researcher, Egypt became for the first time a true 'Mediterranean power' under its new Macedonian rulers. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ The peak of the Ptolemaic period is generally considered to correspond to the reigns of the first three Ptolemies in the 3rd century BCE. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 11) Michel Chauveau. 2000. Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ We divide the kingdom into two polities: the first begins with Ptolemy I's accession in 305 and ends with the Battle of Raphia in 217. In this battle, Ptolemy IV defeated the Seleucid king Antiochus III, who had invaded Ptolemaic-controlled lands in Palestine. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 394) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The late 3rd and early 2nd centuries saw conflict within the ruling family and revolts by the Egyptian population, representing an 'age of crisis' between two periods of relative stability. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 165-66) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Our second polity runs from 217 up to the famous suicide of Cleopatra VII, the last ruler in the Ptolemaic line, and the Roman annexation of Egypt in 30 BCE. §REF§ (Lloyd 2010, xl) Alan B. Lloyd. 2010. 'Chronology', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, xxxii-xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ §REF§ (Newman 2015) Frances Stickney Newman. 2015. 'Cleopatra VII', in Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia. Ipswich, MA: Salem Press. Accessed 22 February 2017. §REF§ Overall, the Ptolemies were a successful dynasty: in concert with their expansionist policies, they managed to transform Egypt ‒ and the new city of Alexandria in particular ‒ into the cultural and economic centre of the Hellenistic world. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 173-75) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Population and Political Organization The Ptolemies were the longest-lived foreign dynasty ever to rule Egypt. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 159) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ They presided over a 'double society', portraying themselves as Graeco-Macedonian kings to the many resident Greeks and divine pharaohs to the 'native' Egyptian population. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 33, 37) Michel Chauveau. 2000. Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 171) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Greeks and Egyptians were subject to different judicial systems and Greeks tended to dominate the highest echelons of society. §REF§ (Manning 2003, 53, 131) J. G. Manning. 2003. Land and Power in Ptolemaic Egypt: The Structure of Land Tenure. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 409) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Alexandria, built as an ideal Greek-style Hellenistic city with its magnificent library, stadium, theatre, gymnasium and lighthouse, was always set apart from the rest of the country. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 174) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 400-01) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Over time, however, and especially from 200 BCE onwards, the boundaries between 'Greek' and 'Egyptian' became blurred. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 171-73) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ The chief aim of government was to draw as much revenue ‒ in money and in wheat ‒ as possible from the population, and for this reason the burden of taxation was heavy. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 78) Michel Chauveau. 2000. Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ The Ptolemies left many Pharaonic Egyptian institutions intact, such as the temple hierarchy with its priests and scribes. However, they used state functionaries and tax farmers to divert more and more wealth from temples, agricultural estates, especially those of granted to soldiers (known as cleruchs), and ordinary peasant farmers to the royal coffers. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 404-05) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Egypt under the Ptolemies also became more outward-looking, extending commercial and political power into the Levant, the Black Sea and the shores of the Mediterranean as far west as Sicily. §REF§ (Thompson and Buraselis 2013, 2-4) Dorothy J. Thompson and Kostas Buraselis. 'Introduction', in The Ptolemies, the Sea and the Nile: Studies in Waterborne Power, edited by Kostas Buraselis, Mary Stefanou and Dorothy J. Thompson, 1-18. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The population of Egypt during the Ptolemaic period has been estimated at around 4 million people in the 3rd century BCE, of which between 5 and 10 percent were Greeks. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2011, 135-37) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2011. 'Counting the Greeks in Egypt: Immigration in the First Century of Ptolemaic Rule', in Demography in the Graeco-Roman World, edited by C. Holleran and A. Pudsey, 135-54. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The total population of the entire Ptolemaic Empire may have reached 7 million. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 149) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

5

Upper Egypt

Northeastern Africa

32.714706

25.725715

Luxor

EG

Egypt

Africa

4

Northeast Africa

Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

207

EgPtol2

-217

-30

Ptolemaic Kingdom II

eg_ptolemaic_k_2

LEGACY

The Ptolemaic Kingdom (or Empire) was one of the successor states to the Macedonian Empire created by the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BCE. When Alexander died in Babylon in 323, Ptolemy, as one of his most favoured generals and bodyguards, was appointed satrap (governor) of Egypt, Libya and parts of Arabia. §REF§ (Hӧlbl 2001, 12, 14) Günther Hӧlbl. 2001. A History of the Ptolemaic Empire. London: Routledge. §REF§ §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 389) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The next few decades after 323 were characterized by incessant warfare between those who wished to maintain the unity of the Macedonian Empire, nominally still intact, §REF§ (Lloyd 2010, xl) Alan B. Lloyd. 2010. 'Chronology', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, xxxii-xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ and those who aspired to rule their own kingdoms independently. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 389) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Ptolemy was firmly on the separatist side, and in 305 BCE he successfully declared himself king of Egypt. In doing so, he became Ptolemy I Soter ('the saviour') §REF§ (Thompson 2005, 113) Dorothy J. Thompson. 2005. 'The Ptolemies and Egypt', in A Companion to the Hellenistic World, edited by Andrew Erskine, 105-20. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. §REF§ , founder of a powerful dynasty (sometimes known as the Lagides, after his father Lagos) §REF§ (Myśliwiec 2000, 179) Karol Myśliwiec. 2000. The Twilight of Ancient Egypt: First Millennium B.C.E., translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ that was to rule Egypt for almost three centuries. Ptolemy I and his successors had expansionist ambitions, seeking to carve out more and more territory for their new kingdom, often at the expense of the other kingdoms that had splintered from Alexander's empire, especially the Seleucid Kingdom of the Middle East. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ At its greatest extent, the Ptolemaic Empire reached as far south as Lower Nubia (southern Egypt), west to Cyrenaica (modern-day Libya), east to Cyprus, Syria, Phoenicia and Asia Minor (Turkey), and north into the Aegean. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169-71) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ In the words of one researcher, Egypt became for the first time a true 'Mediterranean power' under its new Macedonian rulers. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 169) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ The peak of the Ptolemaic period is generally considered to correspond to the reigns of the first three Ptolemies in the 3rd century BCE. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 11) Michel Chauveau. 2000. Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ We divide the kingdom into two polities: the first begins with Ptolemy I's accession in 305 and ends with the Battle of Raphia in 217. In this battle, Ptolemy IV defeated the Seleucid king Antiochus III, who had invaded Ptolemaic-controlled lands in Palestine. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 394) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The late 3rd and early 2nd centuries saw conflict within the ruling family and revolts by the Egyptian population, representing an 'age of crisis' between two periods of relative stability. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 165-66) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Our second polity runs from 217 up to the famous suicide of Cleopatra VII, the last ruler in the Ptolemaic line, and the Roman annexation of Egypt in 30 BCE. §REF§ (Lloyd 2010, xl) Alan B. Lloyd. 2010. 'Chronology', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, xxxii-xliii. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ §REF§ (Newman 2015) Frances Stickney Newman. 2015. 'Cleopatra VII', in Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia. Ipswich, MA: Salem Press. Accessed 22 February 2017. §REF§ Overall, the Ptolemies were a successful dynasty: in concert with their expansionist policies, they managed to transform Egypt ‒ and the new city of Alexandria in particular ‒ into the cultural and economic centre of the Hellenistic world. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 173-75) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Population and Political Organization The Ptolemies were the longest-lived foreign dynasty ever to rule Egypt. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 159) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ They presided over a 'double society', portraying themselves as Graeco-Macedonian kings to the many resident Greeks and divine pharaohs to the 'native' Egyptian population. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 33, 37) Michel Chauveau. 2000. Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 171) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Greeks and Egyptians were subject to different judicial systems and Greeks tended to dominate the highest echelons of society. §REF§ (Manning 2003, 53, 131) J. G. Manning. 2003. Land and Power in Ptolemaic Egypt: The Structure of Land Tenure. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 409) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Alexandria, built as an ideal Greek-style Hellenistic city with its magnificent library, stadium, theatre, gymnasium and lighthouse, was always set apart from the rest of the country. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 174) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 400-01) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Over time, however, and especially from 200 BCE onwards, the boundaries between 'Greek' and 'Egyptian' became blurred. §REF§ (Vandorpe 2010, 171-73) Katelijn Vandorpe. 2010. 'The Ptolemaic Period', in A Companion to Ancient Egypt, Volume 1, edited by Alan B. Lloyd, 159-79. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ The chief aim of government was to draw as much revenue ‒ in money and in wheat ‒ as possible from the population, and for this reason the burden of taxation was heavy. §REF§ (Chauveau 2000, 78) Michel Chauveau. 2000. Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra, translated by David Lorton. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. §REF§ The Ptolemies left many Pharaonic Egyptian institutions intact, such as the temple hierarchy with its priests and scribes. However, they used state functionaries and tax farmers to divert more and more wealth from temples, agricultural estates, especially those of granted to soldiers (known as cleruchs), and ordinary peasant farmers to the royal coffers. §REF§ (Lloyd 2000, 404-05) Alan B. Lloyd. 2000. 'The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)', in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, edited by Ian Shaw, 388-413. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Egypt under the Ptolemies also became more outward-looking, extending commercial and political power into the Levant, the Black Sea and the shores of the Mediterranean as far west as Sicily. §REF§ (Thompson and Buraselis 2013, 2-4) Dorothy J. Thompson and Kostas Buraselis. 'Introduction', in The Ptolemies, the Sea and the Nile: Studies in Waterborne Power, edited by Kostas Buraselis, Mary Stefanou and Dorothy J. Thompson, 1-18. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The population of Egypt during the Ptolemaic period has been estimated at around 4 million people in the 3rd century BCE, of which between 5 and 10 percent were Greeks. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2011, 135-37) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2011. 'Counting the Greeks in Egypt: Immigration in the First Century of Ptolemaic Rule', in Demography in the Graeco-Roman World, edited by C. Holleran and A. Pudsey, 135-54. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The total population of the entire Ptolemaic Empire may have reached 7 million. §REF§ (Fischer-Bovet 2014, 149) Christelle Fischer-Bovet. 2014. Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§

null

2024-04-18T13:32:02.471239Z

{'id': 27, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

5

Upper Egypt

Northeastern Africa

32.714706

25.725715

Luxor

EG

Egypt

Africa

4

Northeast Africa

Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

509

IrQajar

1,794

1,925

Qajar Dynasty

ir_qajar_dyn

LEGACY

The Qajar Dynasty was in place in Iran from 1794-1925 CE following a 50-year struggle between Qajar tribal leaders for the throne from 1747. Eventually Aqa Mohammad Khan Qajar (c.1742-c.1797) was crowned in 1796 and founded this dynasty. §REF§ (Ghani 2000, 1) Cyrus Ghani. 2000. Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah. From Qaja Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I B Tauris. London. §REF§ By 1900 CE this polity had assumed what is now modern Iranian borders, and the territory had decreased from approximately 2 million km2 in 1800 to 1.6million km2 in 1900. The population however had increased from approximately 6 million to 10 million people by 1900 §REF§ (Martin 2005, 15) Vanessa Martin. 2005. The Qajar Pact: Bargaining, Protest and the State in Nineteenth-Century Persia. I. B. Tauris. London. §REF§ , with the largest settlement, Tehran, holding about 210,000 inhabitants.Settlement hierarchies were similar to previous polities, and included the capital city, other large regional cities, towns and villages. Although there was some centralisation of power, communication and bureaucratic reach was limited, and the Shah relied on the cooperation of many groups to keep administration running and by 1903 there was a movement calling for political reform. §REF§ (Martin 2005, 13-14) Vanessa Martin. 2005. The Qajar Pact: Bargaining, Protest and the State in Nineteenth-Century Persia. I. B. Tauris. London. §REF§ §REF§ (Ghani 2000, 7) Cyrus Ghani. 2000. Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah. From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I B Tauris. London. §REF§ In 1851 the first institution of higher education, the polytechnic institute Dar ul-Funun which offered studies in medicine, engineering, geology, and military sciences, was founded by Prime Minister Amir Kabir. §REF§ (Maranlou 2016, 144-145) Sahar Maranlou. Modernization Prospects For Legal Education In Iran. Mutaz M Qafisheh. Stephen A Rosenbaum. eds. 2016. Experimental Legal Education in a Globalized World: The Middle East and Beyond. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Newcastle upon Tyne. §REF§

null

2025-04-17T14:45:04.687011Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

9

Susiana

Levant-Mesopotamia

48.235564

32.382851

Susa (Shush)

IR

Iran

Southwest Asia

45

Iran

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

835

tr_qara_qoyunlu

1,375

1,468

Qara Qoyunlu

tr_qara_qoyunlu

OTHER_TAG

null

Qara Qoyunlu

null

2024-04-09T15:00:16.337997Z

2024-04-09T15:00:16.338010Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

43

Anatolia-Caucasus

Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

785

ye_qasimid_dyn_222222

1,637

1,805

Qasimid Dynasty XXXXXXX

ye_qasimid_dyn_222222

OTHER_TAG

null

This polity seems to have sc data already from another source. JR: yes, this polity should be merged into ye_qasimid_dyn, and then ye_qasimid_dyn_222222 can be deleted. It shouldn't take an RA too long to do this. MB: So you mean all the values coded for the _22222 polity should be associated with ye_qasimid_dyn? We will then have three different capitals.

2023-11-03T19:42:57.118579Z

2024-04-15T14:18:19.304693Z

{'id': 9, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

null

44

Arabia

Arabian Peninsula

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

539

YeQatab

-450

-111

Qatabanian Commonwealth

ye_qatabanian_commonwealth

LEGACY

The Yemeni Coastal Plain or Plateau is the northwestern region of modern Yemen that lies between the Red Sea and the Yemeni Mountains. Beginning in the ninth and eighth centuries BCE, this region became part of a wider "Sabaean" culture region (from the name of the dominant kingdom, Saba), in which many relatively small kingdoms across south and western Arabia, as well as Ethiopia, shared the same alphabet, the same iconographic repertoire (e.g. widespread depiction of animals such as ibexes and oryxes, and use of symbols such as hands, crescents, and circles), and the same vocabulary and turns of phrases in inscriptions. §REF§ (Robin 2015: 94-96) Robin, Christian Julien. 2015. “Before Himyar: Epigraphic Evidence for the Kingdoms of South Arabia.” In Arabs and Empires before Islam, edited by Greg Fisher, 91-126. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZMFH42PE" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZMFH42PE</a>. §REF§ At this time, the largest town in the Yemeni Coastal Plain was Marib, which covered an area of 100 hectares, for a population of about 30,000-40,000. §REF§ (Edens and Wilkinson 1998: 96) Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HGK23ABQ" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HGK23ABQ</a>. §REF§ It is unclear, however, what the average population of a single kingdom would have been.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

12

Yemeni Coastal Plain

Arabia

43.315739

14.850891

Sanaa

YE

Yemen

Southwest Asia

44

Arabia

Arabian Peninsula

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

889

cn_qi_spring_autumn

-770

-489

Qi - Spring and Autumn

cn_qi_spring_autumn

OTHER_TAG

null

Qi

null

2024-07-03T13:17:40.506675Z

2024-07-03T13:17:40.506696Z

null

58

North China

North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang

{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}

890

cn_qi_warring_states

-488

-222

Qi - Warring States

cn_qi_warring_states

OTHER_TAG

null

Qi

null

2024-07-03T13:24:23.028413Z

2024-07-03T13:24:23.028432Z

null

58

North China

North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang

{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}

250

CnImQin

-338

-207

Qin Empire

cn_qin_emp

LEGACY

null

2024-11-20T15:57:47.259332Z

{'id': 144, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

null

58

North China

North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang

{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}

901

cn_qocho_k

843

1,132

Qocho Kingdom

cn_qocho_k

OTHER_TAG

null

Qocho Kingdom

null

2024-07-04T14:37:53.393983Z

2024-07-04T14:37:53.393998Z

null

58

North China

North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang

{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}

860

tr_ramadanid_emirate

1,397

1,517

Ramadanid Emirate

tr_ramadanid_emirate

OTHER_TAG

null

Ramadanid Emirate

null

2024-04-10T10:21:08.171606Z

2024-04-10T10:21:08.171621Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

43

Anatolia-Caucasus

Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

93

InRasht

753

973

Rashtrakuta Empire

in_rashtrakuta_emp

LEGACY

The Rashtrakuta Empire extended over an area roughly corresponding to the modern-day Indian states of Karnataka, Goa, and Telangana, the state of Maharashtra minus its eastern region (Nagpur), the Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh, and South Gujarat. §REF§ (Kamath 1980) Suryanath Kamath. 1980. A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ It could be said to have started in 753 CE, when Dantidurga, a rebellious provincial ruler, defeated his imperial overlords, the Chalukyas of Badami, in battle; however, Dantidurga had already begun to annex territories some time before this date. §REF§ (Basavaraja 1984, 62) K. R. Basavaraja. 1984. History and Culture of Karnataka: Early Times to Unification. Dharwad: Chalukya Publications. §REF§ The empire collapsed around 973, when, weakened by a Pallava raid and an inept king, it was unable to quash the rebellion of one of its feudatories, Tailapa II, who took the capital. Subsequently, a number of other feudatories declared independence from Rashtrakuta rule. Eventually, most of them were brought under control by the newly re-established Chalukyas. §REF§ (Basavaraja 1984, 82-83) K. R. Basavaraja. 1984. History and Culture of Karnataka: Early Times to Unification. Dharwad: Chalukya Publications. §REF§ The Rashtrakutas rapidly became undisputed rulers of the Deccan Plateau, and organized several successful expeditions in Northern India, even securing, for a time, the long-contested region of Kanauj (under Indra III). However, none of the territorial gains made during these expeditions could be held for more than a short period, and it appears that the main aim of the expeditions was not so much to extend Rashtrakuta rule as to advertise its military might and increase its prestige. §REF§ (Basavaraja 1984, 62-83) K. R. Basavaraja. 1984. History and Culture of Karnataka: Early Times to Unification. Dharwad: Chalukya Publications. §REF§ Under the long and relatively peaceful reign of Amoghavarsa I or Nrpatunga (814-878 CE), literature and the arts flourished, and the capital of Malkhed was built. §REF§ (Madan 1990, 120-22) A. P. Madan. 1990. The History of the Rashtrakutas. New Delhi: Harman. §REF§ Population and political organization The Rashtrakuta emperor was the head of the civil, military and judicial administration. §REF§ (Madan 1990, 193) A. P. Madan. 1990. The History of the Rashtrakutas. New Delhi: Harman. §REF§ However, he did not rule directly over annexed territories: rather, he subdivided his empire among his subordinates (feudatories), who in turn subdivided their own territories among their own subordinates (sub-feudatories), and feudatories and sub-feudatories enjoyed a significant degree of autonomy. §REF§ (Madan 1990, 192) A. P. Madan. 1990. The History of the Rashtrakutas. New Delhi: Harman. §REF§ No overall population estimates could be found in the literature. The capital, Malkhed or Manyakheta, may have had around 100,000 inhabitants, §REF§ Christopher Chase-Dunn 2001, personal communication. §REF§ However, estimates are made difficult by the fact that the capital was destroyed by Chola armies in the 10th century CE, and what was left was subsequently destroyed by the armies of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughals. Today, the Rashtrakuta capital is little more than a village. Not only that, but what little information exists about the city's heyday appears to be strongly influenced by Jain tradition, which may be biased, considering that Malkhed used to be a major centre for the religion. §REF§ (Mishra 1992, 208) Jayashri Mishra. 1992. Social and Economic Conditions under the Imperial Rashtrakutas. New Delhi: Commonwealth. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

15

Deccan

Central India

76.625407

15.386856

Kampli

DEC

India

South Asia

40

Southern India

Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana

{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}

368

YeRasul

1,229

1,453

Rasulid Dynasty

ye_rasulid_dyn

LEGACY

The Yemeni Coastal Plain or Plateau refers to the north-western region of modern Yemen, lying between the Red Sea and the Yemeni Mountains. During the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries CE, the region—along with the eastern portion of southern Arabia—was ruled by the Rasūlid Dynasty. Prior to this date, Yemen had formed part of the Ayyūbid Sultanate, centered in Egypt. When the last Ayyūbid ruler of Yemen, al-Mas‘ūd Yūsuf, was summoned to govern Syria in the early thirteenth century, de facto control passed to his trusted second-in-command, the Rasūlid Nūr al-Dīn ‘Umar. §REF§ (Stookey 1978, 106–07) Robert W. Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GIDWD7R3" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GIDWD7R3</a>. §REF§ The Rasūlids, a Sunnī Muslim dynasty, presided over a prosperous and largely stable period in Yemeni history, developing a centralized bureaucracy, patronizing scholarly and religious institutions, and controlling important ports of trade. §REF§ (Varisco 1993, 13–15, 21–22) Varisco, Daniel Martin. “Texts and Pretexts: The Unity of the Rasulid State under Al-Malik Al-Muzaffar.” Revue Du Monde Musulman et de La Méditerranée 67 (1993): 13–24. doi: 10.3406/remmm.1993.1584. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TV9TVUZ5" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TV9TVUZ5</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Stookey 1978, 114) Robert W. Stookey. 1978. Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GIDWD7R3" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GIDWD7R3</a>. §REF§ No population estimates for the entire polity could be found in the sources consulted, but Aden, the capital, likely had a population of c. 50,000 under the Rasūlids. §REF§ (Bidwell 1983, 14) Bidwell, Robin Leonard. 1983. The Two Yemens. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WR5RMRMQ/" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WR5RMRMQ/</a>. §REF§

null

2024-07-05T08:49:23.176435Z

{'id': 72, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

12

Yemeni Coastal Plain

Arabia

43.315739

14.850891

Sanaa

YE

Yemen

Southwest Asia

44

Arabia

Arabian Peninsula

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

45

ThRattn

1,782

1,873

Rattanakosin

th_rattanakosin

LEGACY

After the destruction of the city of Ayutthaya by the Burmese in 1767, the Chao Phraya Basin was briefly ruled by Phaya Taksin, a charismatic warrior-king of obscure origins who chose Thonburi as his capital, near Bangkok, an old Chinese trading settlement. In 1782, what remained of the old Ayutthaya aristocracy staged a coup and put their leader on the throne. This leader took the name of Rama I Chakri and moved the capital to Bangkok, known at the time as Rattanakosin or Krungthep. §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 27, 31) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. A History of Thailand. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Under Rama I, the kingdom rapidly expanded to the south (where it extended its control to the Malay peninsula), the north (where Chiang Mai became a new tributary), and the east (taking control of Vientiane and much of Cambodia). §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 27-28) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. A History of Thailand. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ It could be said to have reached its peak between 1793 and 1810, when it found new stability, regained control over important Asian trade networks, and witnessed a literary florescence, with the translation of several classics from different Asian languages. §REF§ (Wyatt 1984, 154-55) David K. Wyatt. 1984. Thailand: A Short History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§ Our 'ThRattn' polity spans the 89 years between 1782 and 1873, when Rama V began a comprehensive series of modernizing reforms. §REF§ (Wyatt 1984, 194) David K. Wyatt. 1984. Thailand: A Short History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§ Population and political organization The Rattanakosin kingdom was ruled by the Thai aristocracy. The king was simply a primus inter pares ‒ indeed, some kings, such as Rama II and Rama IV, actually retreated into a ritual role and left the administration of the kingdom entirely to the nobility. Even during the reign of more active kings, such as Rama I and Rama III, the aristocracy still monopolized the key posts in the central administration. However, the king always led the country in spiritual matters: he was seen as a bodhisattva, a spiritually superior superhuman being tasked with preserving Buddhism and aiding his subjects in their ascent toward nirvana, for example through moral laws banning sinful pursuits. §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2009, 31-32) Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2009. A History of Thailand. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Evidence for the size of this polity's population before 1911, the year of the first census, is sparse and unreliable. However, a reasonable estimate would be that, following slow growth beginning in the 1780s, the population reached just below 5 million by the middle of the 19th century. §REF§ (Dixon 2002, xxxii) Chris Dixon. 1999. The Thai Economy: Uneven Development and Internationalisation. London: Routledge. §REF§ It is not clear whether this estimate includes tributary states and cities.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

17

Cambodian Basin

Siam

103.8667

13.4125

Angkor Wat

KH

Cambodia

Southeast Asia

41

Mainland Southeast Asia

Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam

{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}

832

it_florence_rep

1,115

1,568

Republic and Duchy of Florence

it_florence_rep

OTHER_TAG

null

Republic of Florence

null

2024-04-09T14:48:56.334682Z

2024-04-09T14:48:56.334694Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

741

af_afghanistan_rep

1,974

2,020

Republic of Afghanistan

af_afghanistan_rep

OTHER_TAG

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

8

Afghanistan

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

727

ch_chile_rep_1

1,818

1,990

Republic of Chile I

ch_chile_rep_1

OTHER_TAG

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

32

Andes

From Ecuador to Chile

{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}

784

cn_chinese_rep

1,913

1,949

Republic of China

cn_chinese_rep

OTHER_TAG

null

2023-10-27T12:37:01.400913Z

2024-01-17T15:52:23.711590Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

58

North China

North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang

{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}

728

co_colombia_rep_1

1,819

1,958

Republic of Colombia I

co_colombia_rep_1

OTHER_TAG

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

21

Caribbean

Caribbean islands, Panama, coastal Columbia-Venezuela

{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}

732

cr_costa_rica_rep

1,838

2,020

Republic of Costa Rica

cr_costa_rica_rep

OTHER_TAG

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

23

Mexico

{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}

734

cu_cuba_rep_1

1,902

1,956

Republic of Cuba I

cu_cuba_rep_1

OTHER_TAG

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

21

Caribbean

Caribbean islands, Panama, coastal Columbia-Venezuela

{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}

723

eg_egypt_rep

1,959

2,024

Republic of Egypt

eg_egypt_rep

OTHER_TAG

null

2024-11-18T17:21:34.989042Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

4

Northeast Africa

Egypt and Sudan (the Nile Basin)

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

751

su_finland_rep

1,917

2,020

Republic of Finland

su_finland_rep

OTHER_TAG

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

17

Northern Europe

Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

825

it_genoa_rep_1

1,099

1,284

Republic of Genoa I

it_genoa_rep_1

OTHER_TAG

null

Republic of Genoa

JR: Majid, please change the polID to it_genoa_rep_1 (we decided to split up this polity)

2024-04-09T12:58:53.034871Z

2024-04-13T11:59:25.533761Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

830

it_genoa_rep_2

1,285

1,528

Republic of Genoa II

it_genoa_rep_2

OTHER_TAG

null

Republic of Genoa

null

2024-04-09T14:45:36.405371Z

2024-04-09T14:45:36.405383Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

831

it_genoa_rep_3

1,529

1,797

Republic of Genoa III

it_genoa_rep_3

OTHER_TAG

null

Republic of Genoa

null

2024-04-09T14:46:12.111976Z

2024-04-09T14:46:12.111990Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

763

id_indonesian_rep

1,949

2,020

Republic of Indonesia

id_indonesian_rep

OTHER_TAG

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

42

Maritime Southeast Asia

Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines

{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}

758

iq_iraq_rep

1,959

2,020

Republic of Iraq

iq_iraq_rep

OTHER_TAG

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

62

Mesopotamia

Iraq, Kuwait

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

753

ei_ireland_rep

1,922

2,024

Republic of Ireland

ei_ireland_rep

OTHER_TAG

null

extended the date to 2024

null

2024-11-18T12:02:43.737969Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

20

Western Europe

British Isles, France, Low Countries

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

736

ko_korean_rep

1,948

2,020

Republic of Korea

ko_korean_rep

OTHER_TAG

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

14

Northeast Asia

Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East

{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}

863

pl_polish_rep_1

1,919

1,939

Republic of Poland I

pl_polish_rep_1

OTHER_TAG

null

Second Polish Republic

null

2024-04-11T07:07:03.136488Z

2024-05-30T10:28:28.813314Z

{'id': 47, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

null

15

Central Europe

Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

725

rw_rwanda_rep

1,962

2,020

Republic of Rwanda

rw_rwanda_rep

OTHER_TAG

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

1

Central Africa

Angola and DRC

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

721

sa_south_africa_rep

1,920

2,020

Republic of South Africa

sa_south_africa_rep

OTHER_TAG

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

6

Southern Africa

Namibia, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique and south

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

188

ItStPet

752

904

Republic of St Peter I

it_st_peter_rep_1

LEGACY

The Papal State originated in the Patrimony of St. Peter, which initially included over four hundred estates, many of them in Sicily. These came from donations from wealthy Christians, whose philanthropy accelerated after Emperor Constantine. §REF§ (Brown 2003, 206) Brown, Peter. 2003. The Rise of Western Christendom. Triumph and Diversity, 200-1000. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, Inc. §REF§ The eighth century popes called their state "The Republic of St. Peter". The popular name "Papal States" was only used from the late middle ages. §REF§ (Noble 2011, xxi) T F X Noble. 2011. The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 680-825, University of Pennsylvania Press. §REF§ The Republic of St Peter (711-904 CE) was under nominal Byzantine suzerainty until 781 CE when the capital of the Byzantine exarchate was at Ravenna §REF§ (Partner 1972, 9) P Partner. 1972. The Lands of St. Peter: The Papal State in the Middle Ages and the Early Renaissance, University of California Press §REF§ which was connected to Rome by the thin strip of Byzantine territory running across the Appennines and through Perugia. The Pope was elected by citizens and the army - usually based on the choice of the clergy. Representatives would the certify the choice to the Exarch in Ravenna for imperial approval. The Exarch could make the choice himself in case of disagreement. §REF§ (Trevor, 1869, 113) G Trevor. 1869. Rome and Its Papal Rulers, A History of Eighteen Centuries, The Religious Tract Society, London <a class="external autonumber" href="http://archive.org/stream/cu31924029388695#page/n127/mode/2up" rel="nofollow">[1]</a> §REF§ In 781 CE Charlemagne asserted Frankish suzerainty over the region. After this time, the years of the Byzantine Emperor's reign were no longer used for dating Papal documents or on the minting of imperial coins in the mint of Rome. §REF§ (Grierson and Blackburn 2007, 259) §REF§ During the ninth century the Papacy was released from Carolingian influence as the Frankish empire began to break up. §REF§ (Barraclough 1968, 55) Geoffrey Barraclough. 1968. The Medieval Papacy Norwich: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1968. §REF§ This also meant that between the end of the ninth century and the 960s, the papacy had no powerful protectors outside Italy. Political power in Rome and Lazio lay in the hands of elite families, such as the Theophylacti and other powerful Roman baronial families. §REF§ (Stearns 2001 173) P Stearns. 2001. The Encyclopedia of World History. 6th Edition. James Clarke & Co Ltd. Cambridge. §REF§ Papal governmental administration was small-scale but effective and organized into departments, with separate heads for the chancery and archives. §REF§ (Partner 1972, 9) P Partner. 1972. The Lands of St. Peter: The Papal State in the Middle Ages and the Early Renaissance, University of California Press §REF§ Notaries were career bureaucrats with the primicerius notariorum the head of college of notaries. §REF§ (Richards 1979, 290-292) J Richards. 1979. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages, 476-752, Routledge & Kegan Paul §REF§ The governance of the wider mountainous region was characterised by small countships and marquisates centered upon a fortified rocca. The population of the polity is hard to estimate but it is likely the city of Rome lost half its population between 800 CE and 900 CE when it held a mere 40,000 people.

null

2025-01-23T15:20:52.749781Z

{'id': 127, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

1

Latium

Southern Europe

12.486948

41.890407

Rome

IT

Italy

Europe

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

722

tn_tunisia_rep

1,956

2,020

Republic of Tunisia

tn_tunisia_rep

OTHER_TAG

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

3

Maghreb

From Morocco to Libya

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

605

tr_turkey_rep

1,923

2,020

Republic of Turkey

tr_turkey_rep

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

43

Anatolia-Caucasus

Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

731

ve_venezuela_rep_1

1,830

1,983

Republic of Venezuela I

ve_venezuela_rep_1

OTHER_TAG

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

21

Caribbean

Caribbean islands, Panama, coastal Columbia-Venezuela

{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}