milesjreding/Seshat_db · Datasets at Hugging Face

544

ItVenR3

1,204

1,563

Republic of Venice III

it_venetian_rep_3

LEGACY

null

2024-11-18T12:35:23.558179Z

{'id': 129, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

4

Crete

Southeastern Europe

25.1442

35.3387

Heraklion

GR

Greece

Europe

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

545

ItVenR4

1,564

1,797

Republic of Venice IV

it_venetian_rep_4

LEGACY

null

2023-10-23T16:21:17.461559Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

4

Crete

Southeastern Europe

25.1442

35.3387

Heraklion

GR

Greece

Europe

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

765

vt_vietnam_rep

1,955

1,975

Republic of Vietnam

vt_vietnam_rep

OTHER_TAG

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

41

Mainland Southeast Asia

Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam

{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}

762

pi_phililippines_rep

1,946

2,020

Republic of the Philippines

pi_phililippines_rep

OTHER_TAG

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

42

Maritime Southeast Asia

Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines

{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}

71

TrRomDm

285

394

Roman Empire - Dominate

tr_roman_dominate

LEGACY

The Roman Principate is generally regarded as ending during or just after the crisis of the 3rd century CE (235-284 CE). The date of 284 CE marks the accession of Diocletian §REF§ (Boatwright et al. 2012, 438) Mary T. Boatwright, Daniel J. Gargola, Noel Lenski and Richard J. A. Talbert. 2012. The Romans. From Village to Empire: A History of Rome from Earliest Times to the End of the Western Empire. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press. §REF§ and the period includes the Constantinian Dynasty (305-363 CE), Valentinian Dynasty (364-378 CE) and the early part of the Theodosian dynasty (379-457 CE). According to the historian David Baker, the 'Eastern Empire enjoyed an expansion phase c. 285-450'. §REF§ (Baker 2011, 245-46) David Baker. 2011. 'The Roman Dominate from the Perspective of Demographic-Structural Theory'. Cliodynamics 2 (2): 217-51. §REF§ The period ends after the reign of Theodosius, the last emperor to rule over both the Eastern and Western halves of the Empire. §REF§ (Morgan 2012) James F. Morgan. 2012. The Roman Empire: Fall of the West, Survival of the East. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse. §REF§ Near the end of the 3rd century, beginning at the end of the Severan Dynasty, the Principate nearly collapsed in the face of internal warfare and pressure from external foes, including the Sassanid Persian Empire and nomadic tribes from Germany and eastern Europe. Rome briefly lost control over parts of France, Britain, and southern Spain and suffered several significant losses in battle to the Sassanids. Under first the Emperor Aurelian (r. 270-275 CE) then Diocletian (r. 284-305), all territory was recovered and a series of administrative and economic reforms inaugurated a second phase of the Roman Empire, which we refer to as the Dominate (denoting the increasing centralization of authority and the development of a large bureaucratic apparatus). This period saw notably the increasing popularization of Christianity, culminating in its acceptance as the official state religion under the Emperor Theodosius at the end of the period. The late 3rd century also saw the Empire split into two distinct administrative halves: a Western half, with its capital at Rome, and an Eastern one, ruled first from Nicomedia in Anatolia and then from Byzantium (re-founded as Constantinople, modern-day Istanbul, by the Emperor Constantine I the Great in 330 CE). Each half was ruled by a different emperor along with a junior colleague, titled 'Caesar'. This arrangement is known as the Tetrarchy ('rule of four'), which lasted until Constantine I managed to once again rule both halves together. The Empire was divided a few more times, until Theodosius (r. 379-392 CE) united it for the final time. In 393, Theodosius once more divided the Empire, naming Arcadius Emperor in the East and Honorius Emperor in the West. This marks the end of the Dominate period, leading to a period of instability and, ultimately, the collapse of the Roman state in the west, yet recovery and the continuation of Roman rule in the east (which became known as the Byzantine Empire, after Constantinople's original name). Population and political organization During the Dominate period, the power centre of the Roman Empire shifted decisively away from Rome and Italy, beset by decades of crisis and civil infighting, to Anatolia; specifically, to the old Greek city of Byzantium that was re-founded and glorified by the Emperor Constantine I. Before this, Diocletian brought stability back to the Empire after the crises of the 3rd century CE by inaugurating a series of administrative and economic reforms. Although most offices and institutions of the preceding Principate period were retained, Diocletian increased the number of provinces, adding more governors and provincial officials who reported directly to the emperor, and further split the empire into two halves to aid in the administration of such a vast and diverse territory. §REF§ (Black 2008, 181) Jeremy Black. 2008. World History Atlas. London: Dorling Kindersley. §REF§ §REF§ (Cameron 1993) Averil Cameron. 1993. The Later Roman Empire, A.D. 284-430. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The early Dominate is known for the decline of autonomy, prestige, and power of Rome's provincial elite and the concomitant rapid increase in the power of the central bureaucracy. §REF§ (Loewenstein 1973, 238) Karl Loewenstein. 1973. The Governance of Rome. The Hague: Martin Nijhoff. §REF§ §REF§ (Eich 2005) Peter Eich. 2005. Zur Metamorphose des politischen Systems in der römischen Kaiserzeit: Die Entstehung einer "personalen Bürokratie" im langen dritten Jahrhundert. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. §REF§ §REF§ (Eich 2015) Peter Eich. 2015. 'The Common Denominator: Late Roman Imperial Bureaucracy from a Comparative Perspective', in State Power in Ancient China and Rome, edited by Walter Scheidel, 90-149. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ When Constantine I established Constantinople as the capital in 330 CE, he furnished the city with a palace, hippodrome, and a great imperial bureaucracy. In terms of personnel the administration in Constantinople reached its largest extent in the 4th century with 'somewhat over thirty thousand functionaries'. §REF§ (Lendon 1997, 3) J. E. Lendon. 1997. Empire of Honour: The Art of Government in the Roman World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Constantine was the first emperor to vigorously promote Christian religion and his patronage of the Christian church laid the foundations of a Christian empire. 'He built grand churches at the sacred loci of Christianity, including churches celebrating Christ's birth, baptism, and resurrection and Peter's death in Rome. ... Constantine's successors would continue this pattern. Many churches would become quite wealthy. Their clergy were exempt from taxation and other onerous obligations like labor.' §REF§ (Madigan 2015, 20) Kevin Madigan. 2015. Medieval Christianity: A New History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§ The Empire, creaking under its vast territory of 4.5 million square kilometres, supported a population of up to 70 million people. Rome had lost population from its peak under the Principate, probably supporting around 800,000 in 300 CE and around 500,000 by the beginning of the 5th century. Constantinople also had slightly under 500,000 inhabitants, though it developed rapidly under the patronage of Constantine I and his successors and became the new centre of literacy and culture in the Roman world - rivalling, if not surpassing, Rome herself. §REF§ (Lee 2013, 76) A. D. Lee. 2013. From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. §REF§

null

2023-10-23T16:18:53.388454Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

11

Konya Plain

Anatolia-Caucasus

32.521164

37.877845

Konya

TR

Turkey

Southwest Asia

43

Anatolia-Caucasus

Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

70

ItRomPr

-31

284

Roman Empire - Principate

it_roman_principate

LEGACY

The Roman Principate (31 BCE-284 CE) refers to the first period of the Roman Empire, when the de facto ruler was termed the princeps, or 'leading citizen'. The period begins with the victory of the first emperor, Augustus (then Octavian) over his rival Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE and ends with the accession of Diocletian after the 'crisis' of the 3rd century CE (235-284 CE). §REF§ (Boatwright et al. 2012) Mary T. Boatwright, Daniel J. Gargola, Noel Lenski and Richard J. A. Talbert. 2012. The Romans. From Village to Empire: A History of Rome from Earliest Times to the End of the Western Empire. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Retaining and solidifying many of the institutions, cultural forms, and economic base that had led to Rome's hegemonic position during the Republican period, the Empire became one of the largest, most long-lived, and most prosperous imperial states the world has ever known. Augustus established a dynasty lasting until the death of the Emperor Nero in 68 CE, after which followed a brief civil war between different potential successors. Despite repeated bouts of similar warfare during succession crises following the various dynasties that ruled the Principate, the Empire remained remarkably stable throughout this period. Rome was able to unite - and keep together - a huge swathe of territory encompassing all of western Europe, North Africa, Egypt, the eastern Mediterranean, most of Anatolia, and parts of the Near East. Integrating diverse regions into this single empire facilitated the spread of Roman institutions - notably its legal system, urban infrastructure, cultural forms, and political structure. It also promoted economic development by enabling the safe transport of goods and people to every corner of the empire. §REF§ (Bowman and Wilson 2009) Alan K. Bowman and Andrew Wilson. 2009. 'Quantifying the Roman Economy: Integration, Growth, Decline?', in Quantifying the Roman Economy: Methods and Problems, edited by Alan K. Bowman and Andrew Wilson, 3-86. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ It was during this period that Rome built some of its greatest structures: the Pantheon, the Coliseum, the imperial fora (market squares) in the heart of Rome, and many others. The Principate overall produced so much wealth and so many cultural achievements that the great 18th-century English historian Edward Gibbon proclaimed the Empire at its peak in the 2nd century CE to be 'the period in the history of the world, during which the condition of the human race was most happy and prosperous'. §REF§ (Gibbon [2003] 1869, 53) Edward Gibbon. [2003] 1869. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, edited by Hans-Friedrich Mueller. New York: Modern Library. §REF§ In the late 3rd century CE, beginning after the end of the Severan Dynasty, the Principate nearly collapsed in the face of internal warfare and pressure from external foes, including the Sassanid Persian Empire and nomadic tribes from Germany and eastern Europe. Rome briefly lost control over parts of France, Britain, and southern Spain and suffered several significant losses in battle to the Sassanids. Under first the Emperor Aurelian (r. 270-275 CE) then Diocletian (r. 284-305), however, all territory was recovered and a series of administrative and economic reforms inaugurated a second phase of the Roman Empire, which we refer to as the Dominate (denoting the increasing centralization of authority and the development of a large bureaucratic apparatus). Population and political organization Nominally, there was no change in political organization between the Republican period and the Principate. The first princeps, Augustus, kept all Republican institutions and offices, including the Senate, intact. There was clear practical change in the power structure, however, as Augustus, and all emperors after him, asserted personal control over almost the entire Roman army and were granted unprecedented legislative, religious, and judicial powers to shape politics and Roman society at large. Whereas a defining principle of Republican governance was that no individual should be able to hold multiple offices simultaneously, amassing power in several domains (military, legislative, religious, and so on), emperors broke this tradition and drew their authority from numerous offices, titles, and the authority they carried. §REF§ (Noreña 2010) Carlos Noreña. 2010. 'The Early Imperial Monarchy', in The Oxford Handbook of Roman Studies, edited by A. Barchiesi and W. Scheidel, 533-46. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The Roman emperor was also generally one of the wealthiest people in the Principate, controlling huge agriculturally productive estates throughout the Empire, particularly in North Africa and Egypt. §REF§ (Kehoe 2007) Dennis P. Kehoe. 2007. Law and the Rural Economy in the Roman Empire. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. §REF§ In this period, state revenues were split between the 'public' treasury (aerarium) and an imperial treasury (fiscus) under the direct control of the emperor. §REF§ (Adkins and Adkins 1998, 45) Lesley Adkins and Roy A. Adkins. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The Principate had a fairly limited reach, particularly outside of Italy, but the state did have some significant expenses which it met by collecting tax from the Empire's vast territory and large population, taking in rents from the imperial estates. In addition to paying the salaries of imperial officials - a relatively small expense as only limited central authority was exerted in the provinces (mainly the provincial governors and their retinue) - the emperor was responsible for financing a professional citizen army, the major state expense along with public works projects such as roads, aqueducts, and temples. The costs of these public works, though, were split between the personal fortune of the emperors who acted as patrons, particularly in Italy, and that of wealthy patrons in the provinces, who financed much of the urban growth in these regions. Further, beginning in the later Republican period and continuing throughout the Empire, the imperial state provided grain at reduced prices to citizens living in Rome; another considerable expense. §REF§ (Duncan-Jones 1994) Richard Duncan-Jones. 1994. Money and Government in the Roman Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Scheidel 2015) Walter Scheidel. 2015. 'State Revenue and Expenditure in the Han and Roman Empires', in State Power in Ancient China and Rome, edited by Walter Scheidel, 150-80. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Garnsey and Saller 1987) Peter Garnsey and Richard P. Saller. 1987. The Roman Empire: Economy, Society, and Culture. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ The Emperor was assisted by his directly appointed consilium (advisory council), which was often made up of freedmen (manumitted slaves) and personal slaves. §REF§ (Noreña 2010, 538) Carlos Noreña. 2010. 'The Early Imperial Monarchy', in The Oxford Handbook of Roman Studies, edited by A. Barchiesi and W. Scheidel, 533-46. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Harries 2010) Jill Harries. 2010. 'Law', in The Oxford Handbook of Roman Studies, edited by Alessandro Barchiesi and Walter Scheidel, 637-50. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The Senate, not the emperor, formally retained ultimate executive power and could override or critique the emperor's actions, but in practice this was quite rare and could be dangerous to the critic. §REF§ (Harris 2010) W. V. Harris. 2010. 'Power', in The Oxford Handbook of Roman Studies, edited by Alessandro Barchiesi and Walter Scheidel, 564-78. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ This centralized exercise of power by the Emperor, though, did not extend to the provinces, where the focus of imperial administration was squarely on securing revenue (cash and in-kind tax and rents on imperial properties) and maintaining peace, both internally and against potential external enemies, notably the powerful Persian Empires to the East. Roman provinces were governed by fairly autonomous officials (procurator, curator, praefectus, proconsul, etc.) and priests (flamen, etc.). §REF§ (Talbert 1996) Richard J. A. Talbert. 1996. 'The Senate and Senatorial and Equestrian Posts', in The Cambridge Ancient History, edited by Alan K. Bowman, Edward Champlin and Andrew Lintott, 324-43. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Ando 2013) Clifford Ando. 2013. Imperial Ideology and Provincial Loyalty in the Roman Empire. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Urbanization was also encouraged throughout the Empire; provincial cities were administered as 'mini-Rome's, with local urban equivalents of the Senate and most administrative, judicial, and religious magistracies. Roman cultural and infrastructural achievements were widely mimicked, with aqueducts, temples, theatres, bathhouses, and material culture (for example, particular ceramic forms, a culture of communal feasting, and the habit of publicizing achievements with inscribed stone tablets) adapted by numerous provincial towns and cities. §REF§ (Wilson 2011) Andrew Wilson. 2011. 'City Sizes and Urbanization in the Roman Empire', in Settlement, Urbanization, and Population, edited by Alan K. Bowman and Andrew Wilson, 161-95. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ This was true across the Empire, though particularly salient in the west, whereas Roman settlements in the East tended to retain many of their pre-Roman urban forms and cultural traditions. §REF§ (Boatwright 2000) Mary Taliaferro Boatwright. 2000. Hadrian and the Cities of the Roman Empire. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Ando 2013) Clifford Ando. 2013. Imperial Ideology and Provincial Loyalty in the Roman Empire. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ By the mid-2nd century CE, the city of Rome had reached over one million inhabitants, a significant feat for an ancient urban settlement. The population of the entire Empire is estimated at between 50 to over 60 million. §REF§ (Scheidel 2009) Walter Scheidel. 2009. 'Population and Demography', in A Companion to Ancient History, edited by A. Erskine, 234-45. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. §REF§ Estimating the number of state employees is an extremely difficult task, but one scholar has supposed that if the imperial government at its largest extent in the 4th century CE 'had somewhat over thirty thousand functionaries', then before this time a figure of 10,000-12,000 might be reasonable. §REF§ (Lendon 1997, 3) J. E. Lendon. 1997. Empire of Honour: The Art of Government in the Roman World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

1

Latium

Southern Europe

12.486948

41.890407

Rome

IT

Italy

Europe

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

181

ItRomRg

-716

-509

Roman Kingdom

it_roman_k

LEGACY

The Regal Period refers to the period at the end of the Iron Age during which Rome developed as a uncleared settlement in the heart of Latium (modern-day Lazio), ruled over by 'Etruscan kings'. Although there is archaeological evidence for the permanent occupation of Rome from the Iron Age 'centuries before' the city's mythic foundation date of 754 BCE, §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 80) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§ perhaps from as early as 1000 BCE, §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 72) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§ we have chosen to begin this polity in 716, with the traditional death date of the city's legendary founder Romulus. §REF§ (Martin 2012, 42) Thomas R. Martin. 2012. Ancient Rome: From Romulus to Justinian. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. §REF§ The city prospered during this time, which saw the development of many of the institutions - political administration, legal system, religious practices - characteristic of the later Roman Republic. The last king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (534-509 BCE), was expelled from Rome for his and his family's tyrannical excesses. In his place, the leading Roman elites established an aristocratic city-state, ushering in the Republican period. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 118, 120) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§ Population and political organization By end of the Regal Period, Rome was a well-developed city-state, boasting civic infrastructure (marsh drainage, roads), political institutions (assemblies, Senate), monuments (temples), and a powerful military. It held at least one third of the area of Latium vetus (Old Latium) §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 205) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§ and had a population of 20,000-50,000 people. According to legend, Rome became a city when the eponymous founder Romulus slew his twin brother Remus, both outcasts from a nearby Latium settlement, in a contest over where to found their new city. Numa Pompilius (r. 715-673 BCE), of Sabine origin, was the next king. Pompilius is traditionally credited with establishing 'all the major religious institutions of the state, including the calendar and the priesthoods'. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 120) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§ Starting with Tarquinius Priscus (r. 616-579 BCE), Rome was ruled by a series of kings of Etruscan descent, who could thus draw on the legacy of this powerful and complex culture from north-central Italy (around modern-day Etruria). The Roman king served as chief legislator, military commander, highest judge and chief priest. §REF§ (Adkins and Adkins 1998, 62) Lesley Adkins and Roy A. Adkins. 1998. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 252) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§ Archaeological remains found on the Palatine Hill dating to the late 8th century BCE suggest that the king lived in a palace from the earliest times. Rome's relationship with other settlements in Latium, particularly on military matters, were important. §REF§ (Armstrong 2016, 73) Jeremy Armstrong. 2016. War and Society in Early Rome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ The hereditary clan system (gens) formed the basis of the Roman nobility, §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 115) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§ likely serving first as the king's advisors, although administrative structures gradually became more institutionalized (for example, through the establishment of a formal senate and voting assemblies) throughout the late 8th and 7th centuries BCE. The city of Rome, with a population somewhere between 14,000 and 57,000 during this period, fared well in military and economic terms. Several kings claimed important victories over nearby settlements in Latium and Etruria, expanding Rome's sphere of influence and establishing economic connections throughout central Italy. The Via Salaria ('salt road') and the Sacra Via in Rome were in existence from the beginning of the Roman Kingdom §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 48, 96) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§ - although at this time the roads would not have been paved. A port known as Caere was situated 50 kilometres northwest of Rome. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 128) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§ The first bridge, thought to be the Pons Sublicius, may have been built in 642 BCE under Ancus Marcius. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 128) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§ Roman kings also reclaimed marshland and carried out drainage works. §REF§ (Cornell 1995, 164) Tim J. Cornell. 1995. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC). London: Routledge. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

1

Latium

Southern Europe

12.486948

41.890407

Rome

IT

Italy

Europe

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

189

ItPapEM

904

1,198

Rome - Republic of St Peter II

it_st_peter_rep_2

LEGACY

The term "Papal States" was not adopted until around 1200 CE §REF§ (Vauchez 2010, 356) André Vauchez ed. Roma Medievale. Rome: Editori Laterza, 2010 [2001]. §REF§ ; at this time the polity of the Papacy at Rome was called the Patrimony of St. Peter, Republic of St. Peter or Land of St. Peter. The population of Rome languished at a relative historical low of 35,000 people throughout this period, which was marked by a high degree of fragmentation and sub-regional autonomy. Various areas of the Patrimony of St. Peter were virtually independent of the Papacy or subject to central authority only in a very nominal way. §REF§ (Wickham 2009, 164) Chris Wickham. Early Medieval Italy. Central Power and Local Society, 400-1000. Ann Arbor, MA: University of Michigan, 2009 [1981]. §REF§ Through the 904-1198 CE period the polity, with its capital at Rome, was dominated by powerful families and a powerful foreign state. The Theophylacti, a noble family from Tusculanum, were the first of a number of aristocratic families who dominated the papacy. §REF§ (Marazzi 2001, 64) Federico Marazzi. "Aristocrazia e società (secoli VI-XI)," in Vauchez, ed., 41-69. §REF§ In the late eleventh and twelfth centuries, the papacy was frequently at war with the German emperors, which caused serious destabilization of political authority in the Patrimony. §REF§ (Partner 1972, 231) Peter Partner. 1972. The Lands of St. Peter: The Papal State in the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972. §REF§ The German Emperor Henry III, became the de facto guardian of the papacy and the Patrimony. §REF§ (Kreutz 1996, 151) Kreutz, Barbara M. Before the Normans. Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries. College Park, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996. §REF§ When Henry III granted the city of Benevento to Pope Leo IX this marked the furthest extent of (nominal) papal power until Pope Innocent III (r. 1198-1216 CE) began consolidating what would be called the Papal States. §REF§ (Kreutz 1996, 152) Kreutz, Barbara M. Before the Normans. Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries. College Park, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996. §REF§ It could be argued that the peak of the polity was under the Tusculan Reform Papacy c.1012-1036 CE because of internal and external stability and socioeconomic and (even if limited) demographic expansion.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

1

Latium

Southern Europe

12.486948

41.890407

Rome

IT

Italy

Europe

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

278

MnRourn

300

555

Rouran Khaganate

mn_rouran_khaganate

LEGACY

The Orkhon Valley lies either side of the Orkhon River, in north-central Mongolia. Between about 300 and 550 CE, it was under the control of the Rouran. Though these began as nomadic pastoralists like their predecessors the Xianbei and Xiongnu, there is evidence that by the sixth century CE they had transitioned to a settled, agricultural way of life, and from shamanism to Buddhism. §REF§ (Kyzlasov 1996, 317) §REF§ At their peak, they ruled over an empire comprising around 4,000,000 squared kilometers, §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 220-221) §REF§ with a population of no less than 500,000. §REF§ (Kradin 2005, 165) §REF§ This empire was divided into an eastern and a western wing, each ruled by a silifa, who were subordinate to the paramount ruler or khagan. §REF§ (Kradin 2005, 162) §REF§ For ease of organisation, both the population and the army were divided into groups of hundreds and thousands. §REF§ (Kradin 2005, 154-155) §REF§

null

2023-10-23T17:31:41.156401Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

24

Orkhon Valley

Mongolia

102.845486

47.200757

Karakorum

MN

Mongolia

Central Eurasia

9

Mongolia

Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

171

TrRum**

1,077

1,307

Rum Sultanate

tr_rum_sultanate

LEGACY

The Seljuk Sultanate of Rum (1077-1307 CE) was probably founded by Suleman Qotlomos after a Turkmen tribe in Syria asked him to lead them. §REF§ (Peacock 2010) Andrew Peacock 'Saljuqs iii. Saljuqs of Rum. <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii</a> §REF§ The early years of the Sultanate are, however, extremely murky as it is unlikely that any local Muslim chronicles were written. §REF§ (Peacock 2010) Andrew Peacock 'Saljuqs iii. Saljuqs of Rum. <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii</a> §REF§ It is likely that the government was a largely military arrangement. The regional apparatus was organised with military officials overseeing local tax collectors. The amirs were granted land by the Sultan in return for military service §REF§ (Fodor 2009, 197) Pal Fodor. “Ottoman Warfare, 1300-1453.” In The Cambridge History of Turkey, edited by Kate Fleet, Suraiya Faroqhi, and Reşat Kasaba, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ At his royal court a core of senior bureaucrats and scribes assisted with the central administration. §REF§ (Peacock 2010) Andrew Peacock 'Saljuqs iii. Saljuqs of Rum. <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii</a> §REF§ Land, and the right to collect revenue for it, was also distributed by the Sultan to senior officials. §REF§ (Peacock 2010) Andrew Peacock 'Saljuqs iii. Saljuqs of Rum. <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii</a> §REF§ These positions and the land grants often became hereditary. §REF§ (Peacock 2010) Andrew Peacock 'Saljuqs iii. Saljuqs of Rum. <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii</a> §REF§ The early 13th century was probably the high point of the Sultanate of Rum §REF§ (Peacock 2010) Andrew Peacock 'Saljuqs iii. Saljuqs of Rum. <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii</a> §REF§ before Anatolia came under the authority of invading Mongols in the 1240s CE. §REF§ (Peacock 2010) Andrew Peacock 'Saljuqs iii. Saljuqs of Rum. <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/saljuqs-iii</a> §REF§ Konya was the largest city of the polity with 30,000-40,000 inhabitants. Crusaders who reached there in 1190 reckoned it was “the size of Cologne". §REF§ (Cahen 2001, 121) Claude Cahen. 2001. The Formation of Turkey: The Seljukid Sultanate of Rūm: Eleventh to Fourteenth Century. Translated by P. M. Holt. A History of the Near East. Harlow, England: Longman. §REF§

null

2025-03-10T14:31:01.374229Z

{'id': 194, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

11

Konya Plain

Anatolia-Caucasus

32.521164

37.877845

Konya

TR

Turkey

Southwest Asia

43

Anatolia-Caucasus

Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

600

ru_romanov_dyn_1

1,614

1,775

Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty I

ru_romanov_dyn_1

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

16

Eastern Europe

Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

571

ru_romanov_dyn_2

1,776

1,917

Russian Empire, Romanov Dynasty II

ru_romanov_dyn_2

LEGACY

null

2024-05-30T13:02:18.914134Z

{'id': 51, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

null

16

Eastern Europe

Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

910

ru_russian_federation

1,992

2,024

Russian Federation

ru_russian_federation

OTHER_TAG

null

2024-10-17T08:30:41.948935Z

2024-10-17T08:30:41.948957Z

null

16

Eastern Europe

Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

293

UaRusPr

1,133

1,240

Russian Principate

ua_russian_principate

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

16

Eastern Europe

Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

432

MaSaadi

1,554

1,659

Saadi Sultanate

ma_saadi_sultanate

LEGACY

This polity represents the period in which Morocco was ruled by the Saadi dynasty. Although the dynasty itself was founded in 1511 CE, we date the beginning of the polity to 1554, when the Saadis took Fez from their dynastic rivals, the Wattasids, and united Morocco under their rule. As for the polity's end, it seems most appropriate to date it to 1659, the year the last Saadi monarch was assassinated. Between 1554 and 1591, the boundaries of the Saadi Sultanate coincided with those of modern-day Morocco. Between 1591 and 1618, the Saadi also ruled over the Niger Inland Delta, though their control over this area seems to have been nominal. After the death of Sultan Ahmad Al-Mansur in 1603, the polity entered a period of instability that ultimately led to the loss of their Niger colony. §REF§ (El Fasi 1992, 200-32) M. El Fasi. 1992. 'Morocco'. In General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries, edited by Bethwell Allan Ogot, 200-32. London: Heinemann. §REF§ Population and political organization In the 16th and 17th centuries CE, the Saadis ruled through an Ottoman-style hierarchical regime. §REF§ (García-Arenal 2009, 57-58) Mercedes García-Arenal. 2009. Ahmad Al-Mansur: The Beginnings of Modern Morocco. Oxford: OneWorld. §REF§ Atop this hierarchy stood the sultan, followed by the wazir or vizier, usually the crown prince. Then came the sultan's council, headed by the First Secretary, who fulfilled the roles of secretary of state, majordomo and treasurer. The vice-vizier was in charge of the army and the qadi al-qudat (chief religious judge) headed the judiciary and appointed regional qadis. The Saadi Sultanate is likely to have had a population of no more than 3 million at its peak. This is based on the earliest available population estimate for Morocco, which dates to the 20th century. According to García-Arenal, '[t]he figure can hardly have been higher in the late sixteenth century or during the seventeenth, given that the country was subject to regular and devastating epidemics of plague'. §REF§ (García-Arenal 2009, 41) Mercedes García-Arenal. 2009. Ahmad Al-Mansur: The Beginnings of Modern Morocco. Oxford: OneWorld. §REF§ However, it is worth noting that this estimate does not take into account the population of the Niger Inland Delta.

null

2024-11-13T15:48:41.358328Z

{'id': 106, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

6

Niger Inland Delta

Sahel

-3.041703

16.717549

Timbuctu

ML

Mali

Africa

3

Maghreb

From Morocco to Libya

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

538

YeSabaC

-800

-451

Sabaean Commonwealth

ye_sabaean_commonwealth

LEGACY

The Yemeni Coastal Plain or Plateau is the northwestern region of modern Yemen that lies between the Red Sea and the Yemeni Mountains. Beginning in the ninth and eighth centuries BCE, this region became part of a wider "Sabaean" culture region (from the name of the dominant kingdom, Saba), in which many relatively small kingdoms across south and western Arabia, as well as Ethiopia, shared the same alphabet, the same iconographic repertoire (e.g. widespread depiction of animals such as ibexes and oryxes, and use of symbols such as hands, crescents, and circles), and the same vocabulary and turns of phrases in inscriptions. §REF§ (Robin 2015: 94-96) Robin, Christian Julien. 2015. “Before Himyar: Epigraphic Evidence for the Kingdoms of South Arabia.” In Arabs and Empires before Islam, edited by Greg Fisher, 91-126. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZMFH42PE" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZMFH42PE</a>. §REF§ At this time, the largest town in the Yemeni Coastal Plain was Marib, which covered an area of 100 hectares, for a population of about 30,000-40,000. §REF§ (Edens and Wilkinson 1998: 96) Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HGK23ABQ" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HGK23ABQ</a>. §REF§ It is unclear, however, what the average population of a single kingdom would have been.

null

2023-05-15T14:37:17.518133Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

12

Yemeni Coastal Plain

Arabia

43.315739

14.850891

Sanaa

YE

Yemen

Southwest Asia

44

Arabia

Arabian Peninsula

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

374

IrSafvd

1,501

1,722

Safavid Empire

ir_safavid_emp

LEGACY

The Safavid period of rule in Persia (1501-1722 CE) was begun by Shah Ismail (1501-1524 CE) and is known as a 'gunpowder empire' due to the now widespread use of artillery and muskets on the battlefield. §REF§ (Haneda 1989, 62) Masashi Haneda. January 1, 1989. “The Evolution of the Safavid Royal Guard.” Iranian Studies 22, no. 2/3. §REF§ Shah Ismail, whose original power base was near the Caspian sea, began the conquest of Iran with the capture Tabriz from the Ak Koyunlu. He declared that the state religion was Shi'ia and the Safavids were decisive for the spread of Shi'ism in Iran. While initially the governing system was "largely a continuation of its Aq Qoyunlu counterpart and its Turco-Mongolian traditions" §REF§ (Mitchell 2009, 29) Mitchell, Colin P. 2009. Practice of Politics in Safavid Iran, The: Power, Religion and Rhetoric. I.B. Tauris. London. §REF§ it eventually became a "highly centralized and complex bureaucratic system" §REF§ (Lambton 2011) Lambton, Ann K S. 2011. CITIES iii. Administration and Social Organization. Encyclopedia Iranica. <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cities-iii</a> §REF§ based at the Safavid court in the capital city. The highest officials of the Safavid court included the Vazir-e-azam (chief minister), Amir al-omard (commander in chief of the army, later titled Sepdhsdldr-e koll-e lasgar-e Iran), the Sadr (judiciary and religious minister), and vice-regent. §REF§ (Mousavi 2008, 23-24) Mohammad A. Mousavi. January 1, 2008. “The Autonomous State in Iran: Mobility and Prosperity in the Reign of Shah ’Abbas the Great (1587-1629).” Iran & the Caucasus 12, no. 1 doi:10.2307/25597352. §REF§ As a defensive measure against Ottoman attacks Shah Tahmasp (1524-1576) moved the capital from Tabriz to Qazvin, but Shah Abbas I (1587-1629 CE) moved it again, further south, to a new monumental city at Isfahan. Under Shah Abbas Isfahan’s population grew to 200,000. §REF§ David Blow. 2009. Shah Abbas: The Ruthless King Who Became an Iranian Legend. London: I.B. Tauris, 2009, p.193. §REF§ The rule of Shah Abbas I (1587-1629 CE) is widely thought of as representing the peak Safavid achievement. Incredible wealth acquired from the state monopoly over the silk trade, was spent on large-scale building works. Abbas also made key reforms to improve the administration and the army. §REF§ (Matthee 2008) Rudi Matthee. 2008. ‘SAFAVID DYNASTY’. IranicaOnline. <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids</a> §REF§ §REF§ (Savory 1967, 75) R M Savory. 1967, “The Sherley Myth.” Iran 5 §REF§ §REF§ (Ward 2009, 49) Steven R. Ward. 2009. Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces (Washington, D.C: Georgetown University Press. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

9

Susiana

Levant-Mesopotamia

48.235564

32.382851

Susa (Shush)

IR

Iran

Southwest Asia

45

Iran

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

360

IrSaffr

861

1,003

Saffarid Caliphate

ir_saffarid_emp

LEGACY

The Saffarid dynasty was founded by Ya'qub bin Laith as-Saffar, a commoner from Sīstān, who first worked as a coppersmith, then became a warlord, before leading the conquest of (what is now) Iran and Afghanistan and becoming the dynasty’s first Emir. The empire was at its peak during Ya'qub’s rule and its territory stretched from “borders of Afghanistan and India in the east to Fārs, Ahvāz and the fringes of Iraq in the west, at one point invading Iraq and threatening Baghdad” with the centre of their power in their homelands of Sīstān§REF§”Saffarids.” https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZU3IU97Q.§REF§ After Ya'qub’s death the dynasty lasted only 124 years, during which time it slowly reduced in territory. The last amir of the Saffarid dynasty, Khalaf, was forced to abdicate in 1003 after a coup d’etat by the Sīstān military leaders who invited the Ghaznavids to invade. Khalaf was exiled to Gardīz where he spent two years before he died. In the meantime, Sīstān became a province of the Ghaznavid Empire.§REF§Frye 2007: 134-135. https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7XE9P8HB§REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

45

Iran

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

194

RuYakuE

1,400

1,632

Sakha - Early

ru_sakha_early

LEGACY

The Lena River Valley, also known as Sakha, is a territory in eastern Siberia over four times the size of Texas. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 1) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV</a>. §REF§ One of the coldest places on Earth, it has been home to the Sakha people since at least the 13th century CE. §REF§ (Gogolev 1992, 65) Gogolev, A. I. 1992. “Basic Stages of the Formation of the Yakut People.” Anthropology & Archeology of Eurasia 31 (2): 63-69. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F428XZIE" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F428XZIE</a>. §REF§ Cossacks first arrived in the 1620s, and after a long siege of a Sakha fortified settlement, the entire region was placed under tribute to the Russian czar in 1642. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 2) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV</a>. §REF§ The region remained under czarist control until the Russian Revolution, when it was one of the last Russian territories to be consolidated under the new regime. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 2) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV</a>. §REF§ Population and political organization Prior to Russian rule, the region was not politically centralized. Early Sakha communities were governed by lineage councils, clans, and elders rather than a bureaucratic state apparatus. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 7) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV</a>. §REF§ After the Russian occupation, the czarist administration imposed taxes and established an administrative infrastructure. §REF§ (Jochelson 1933, 220) Jochelson, Waldemar. 1933. The Yakut. Vol. 33. Anthropological Papers of the AMNH. New York: The American Museum of Natural History. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W</a>. §REF§ For most of the rest of its Russian history, the territory was controlled by governors under the umbrella of the czarist regime. §REF§ (Jochelson 1933, 224) Jochelson, Waldemar. 1933. The Yakut. Vol. 33. Anthropological Papers of the AMNH. New York: The American Museum of Natural History. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W</a>. §REF§ It is difficult to find population estimates for Sakha. It was very sparsely populated, and according to one account of a late 18th-century expedition to the region, the district of Gigansk (in the Lena River Valley) had 4834 'tributary natives' in 1784 but only 1938 by 1789. §REF§ (Sauer 1802, 112) Sauer, Martin. 1802. An Account of a Geographical and Astronomical Expedition to the Northern Parts of Russia. London: T. Cadell, Jun. and W. Davies, in the Strand. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WEZG6MTS" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WEZG6MTS</a>. §REF§ The account unfortunately does not provide figures for the entirety of the province.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

25

Lena River Valley

Siberia

129.379495

63.462822

Yakutsk

YAK

Russia

Central Eurasia

11

Siberia

Urals, West Siberia, Central Siberia, Yakutia

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

195

RuYakuL

1,632

1,900

Sakha - Late

ru_sakha_late

LEGACY

The Lena River Valley, also known as Sakha, is a territory in eastern Siberia over four times the size of Texas. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 1) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV</a>. §REF§ One of the coldest places on Earth, it has been home to the Sakha people since at least the 13th century CE. §REF§ (Gogolev 1992, 65) Gogolev, A. I. 1992. “Basic Stages of the Formation of the Yakut People.” Anthropology & Archeology of Eurasia 31 (2): 63-69. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F428XZIE" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/F428XZIE</a>. §REF§ Cossacks first arrived in the 1620s, and after a long siege of a Sakha fortified settlement, the entire region was placed under tribute to the Russian czar in 1642. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 2) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV</a>. §REF§ The region remained under czarist control until the Russian Revolution, when it was one of the last Russian territories to be consolidated under the new regime. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 2) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV</a>. §REF§ Population and political organization Prior to Russian rule, the region was not politically centralized. Early Sakha communities were governed by lineage councils, clans, and elders rather than a bureaucratic state apparatus. §REF§ (Balzer and Skoggard 1997, 7) Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam, and Ian Skoggard. 1997. “Culture Summary: Yakut.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=rv02-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GD78HCEV</a>. §REF§ After the Russian occupation, the czarist administration imposed taxes and established an administrative infrastructure. §REF§ (Jochelson 1933, 220) Jochelson, Waldemar. 1933. The Yakut. Vol. 33. Anthropological Papers of the AMNH. New York: The American Museum of Natural History. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W</a>. §REF§ For most of the rest of its Russian history, the territory was controlled by governors under the umbrella of the czarist regime. §REF§ (Jochelson 1933, 224) Jochelson, Waldemar. 1933. The Yakut. Vol. 33. Anthropological Papers of the AMNH. New York: The American Museum of Natural History. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/FTJS2I4W</a>. §REF§ It is difficult to find population estimates forSakha. It was very sparsely populated, and according to one account of a late 18th-century expedition to the region, the district of Gigansk (in the Lena River Valley) had 4834 'tributary natives' in 1784 but only 1938 by 1789. §REF§ (Sauer 1802, 112) Sauer, Martin. 1802. An Account of a Geographical and Astronomical Expedition to the Northern Parts of Russia. London: T. Cadell, Jun. and W. Davies, in the Strand. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WEZG6MTS" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/WEZG6MTS</a>. §REF§ The account unfortunately does not provide figures for the entirety of the province.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

25

Lena River Valley

Siberia

129.379495

63.462822

Yakutsk

YAK

Russia

Central Eurasia

11

Siberia

Urals, West Siberia, Central Siberia, Yakutia

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

287

UzSamnd

819

999

Samanid Empire

uz_samanid_emp

LEGACY

The Samanids were a Persian-Sassanid family who had converted to Islam after the Umayyad conquests. During the caliphate of the Abbasid ruler al-Ma'mun (813-833 CE) they were perceived to be loyal enough to be named hereditary governors of Samarqand, Farghana, and Herat §REF§ (Lapidus 2012, 99) Lapidus, Ira M. 2012. Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ where they were able to mint bronze coins in their own names, raise armies and campaign against neighbouring powers. §REF§ (Negmatov 1997, 84) Negmatov, N N. in Asimov, M S and Bosworth, C E eds. 1997. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume IV. Part I. UNESCO. §REF§ The structure of the Samanid state "was in reality a conglomeration of great urban complexes, each with its own local dynasty, traditional elite, and economic and cultural particularities" §REF§ (Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton. §REF§ but this should not disguise the importance of the strong central government institutions which grew in step with the increasing urbanization of the region. §REF§ (Frye 1975, 153) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ The Population of the largest cities, such as Nishapur, at this time may have exceeded 100,000 people. The Samanid system of government was modelled on the caliph's court in Baghdad with central and provincial divisions. §REF§ (Frye 1975, 143) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ The head of state, Amir, was assisted by a vizier and many heads of departments who included a vazir (Prime Minister, not to be confused with the vizier), treasurer, chiefs of police and justice, postmaster, among others. §REF§ (Frye 1975, 144) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ The "central bureaucracy was matched by a similar organization in the provincial capitals, but on a smaller scale" which reported to the central authorities. §REF§ (Frye 1975, 144) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ The Samanid Amir appointed local governors or maintained relations with local hereditary rulers. §REF§ (Frye 1975, 143) Frye, Richard Nelson. 1975. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

23

Sogdiana

Turkestan

66.93817

39.631284

Samarkand

UZ

Uzbekistan

Central Eurasia

13

Turkestan

Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

812

cz_samo_emp

623

658

Samo's Empire

cz_samo_emp

OTHER_TAG

null

id to be renamed to cz_samo_emp

2024-03-13T12:51:25.163567Z

2024-04-09T12:12:31.778187Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

15

Central Europe

Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

621

si_sape

1,400

1,550

Sape

si_sape

POL_AFR_WEST

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

7

West Africa

From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

462

TjSaraz

-3,500

-2,000

Sarazm

tj_sarasm

LEGACY

This polity is named after an ancient settlement site at Sarazm, located in modern Tajikistan. The period runs from its initial settlement around 3500 BCE to the site's abandonment c. 2000 BCE. §REF§ (Anthony 2010, 420) Anthony, David W. 2010. The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MNNVQRA" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7MNNVQRA</a>. §REF§ This period at Sarazm represents the first urban phase in Sogdiana and has yielded evidence of ceramic production, agriculture, irrigation and metallurgy. §REF§ (de la Vaissière 2011) Vaissière, É. de la. 2011. “Sogdiana III: History and Archeology.” Encyclopædia Iranica. <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9AS4QQVB" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9AS4QQVB</a>. §REF§ Ceramic evidence, along with the presence of seashells, suggests that contacts were maintained with different areas of Central Asia. §REF§ (Masson 1992, 232) Masson, V. M. 1992. “The Bronze Age In Khorasan and Transoxania.” In History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume I: The Dawn of Civilizations: Earliest Times to 700 B.C., edited by A. H. Dani and V. M. Masson, 225-46. Paris: UNESCO. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JZ5DSUEB/q/masson" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/JZ5DSUEB/q/masson</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Isakov 1994, 4-5) Isakov, A. 1994. “Sarazm: An Agricultural Center of Ancient Sogdiana.” Bulletin of the Asia Institute 8: 1-12. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NWVCFNW7" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NWVCFNW7</a>. §REF§ Population and political organization Due to the nature of the remaining evidence, the political organization of Sarazm is not known. While 100 hectares have been excavated at the site, the settlement area expanded and contracted throughout its existence, making a definite population estimate difficult for this period. §REF§ (de la Vaissière 2011) Vaissière, É. de la. 2011. “Sogdiana III: History and Archeology.” Encyclopædia Iranica. <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9AS4QQVB" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/9AS4QQVB</a>. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

23

Sogdiana

Turkestan

66.93817

39.631284

Samarkand

UZ

Uzbekistan

Central Eurasia

13

Turkestan

Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

128

IrSasn1

205

487

Sasanid Empire I

ir_sassanid_emp_1

LEGACY

The Sassanids came from the Parthian province of Persis near the Zagros mountains of western Iran. Ardashir I defeated the last Parthian ruler Ardawan (Artabanus IV) in 224 CE and claimed the title "King of Kings" in imitation of the ancient Archaemenids. The early Sassanid rulers claimed a divine descent until powerful Zoroastrian priests ended this by the 4th century. The long reign of Shapur II (309-379 CE) saw the peak of peace and security within the empire §REF§ (Daryaee 2009, 2-20, 200) Touraj Daryaee. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London. §REF§ that had a total population of perhaps 5 million people. In the early period royal cities were built and administered by shahrabs who ruled as petty kings. §REF§ (Chegini 1996, 45) N N Chegini. Political History, Economy and Society. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.40-58. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf §REF§ Centralization occurred in the later Sassanid period when the empire was split into four parts each ruled by a spahbad who had civil and military powers. §REF§ (Chegini 1996, 45) N N Chegini. Political History, Economy and Society. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.40-58. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf §REF§ The size of Persian court and bureaucracy notability increases between Ardashir I and Shapur I (240-270 CE). §REF§ (Daryaee 2009, 2-20) Touraj Daryaee. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London. §REF§ Institutions of administration continued to evolve from those present in the Parthian era §REF§ (Chegini 1996, 45) N N Chegini. Political History, Economy and Society. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.40-58. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf §REF§ a grand vizier now present at the central government in the capital Ctesiphon whose remit encompassed control of the diwans, diplomatic affairs as well as occasional stints as commander of the army. §REF§ (Wilcox 1986, 24) P Wilcox. 1986. Rome's Enemies (3): Parthians and Sassanid Persians. Osprey Publishing. §REF§ By the fifth century the centralized bureaucracy was sophisticated enough that "the death of a king would not bring the empire down." §REF§ (Daryaee 2012, 196) Daryaee, Touraj. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ Rise of Zoroastrian Church under Kerdir 274 CE had monumental impact on Persia with the persecution of religious minorities (Christians, Manichaeans, Mandeans, Jews and Buddhists) §REF§ (Daryaee 2012, 191) Touraj Daryaee. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ . The Zoroastrian priests had initially tolerated rival religious such as Manichaeism until Shapur I (240-270 CE) but Mani was eventually executed. §REF§ (Daryaee 2009, 2-20) Touraj Daryaee. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London. §REF§ By the time of Bahram II (274-293 CE) the Sasanian kings themselves had lost their own religious freedom as caretakers of the Anahid fire temple to a priest called Kerdir "who became the judge of the whole empire. ... from this point on, the priests acted as judges throughout the empire, and court cases were probably based on Zoroastrian law except when members of other religious minorities had disputes with each other." §REF§ (Daryaee 2012, 191) Touraj Daryaee. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§

null

2025-02-13T14:22:39.611260Z

{'id': 181, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

9

Susiana

Levant-Mesopotamia

48.235564

32.382851

Susa (Shush)

IR

Iran

Southwest Asia

45

Iran

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

130

IrSasn2

488

642

Sasanid Empire II

ir_sassanid_emp_2

LEGACY

In the final Sassanid period (488-642 CE), best known for the reign of Khusrau I, the Sassanid realm was managed through provincial governors called Shahr §REF§ (Daryaee 2009, 124-135) Touraj Daryaee. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London. §REF§ and vassal kings appointed by the Sassanid King of Kings. Its population peaked at about 22 million at around 600 CE a time when the Empire was disintegrating. The long reigns of Kavad I (499-531 CE) and Khusrau I (531-579 CE) saw many reforms, such as to the tax system and the military. Khusrau I is credited with wise leadership and is known as "Plato's philosopher king." §REF§ (Daryaee 2009, 27-37) Touraj Daryaee. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London. §REF§ Khusrau I (531-579 CE) promoted minor nobility to official positions and reduced the power of aristocrats, placing tax collection in the hands of officials directly under his own control. §REF§ (Chegini 1996, 47) N N Chegini. Political History, Economy and Society. in Litvinsky, B. A. ed. and Iskender-Mochiri, I. ed. 1996. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. pp.40-58. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001046/104612e.pdf §REF§ Khusrau I also made some important structural reforms to the military which removed the Commander-in-Chief (Eran-Spahbad) and divided the empire into four regions, each under the control of a regional field marshal (Spahbads). §REF§ (Farrokh 2005, 3-27) Kevah Farrokh. 2005. Sassanian Elite Cavalry AD 224-642. Osprey Publishing. §REF§ This change enabled the Sassanids to more quickly respond to the external threats of invasion. After the high point of Khusrau I internal instability became the norm and the ruling dynasty had almost wiped itself out by the time the Arabs conquered the last Sassanid stronghold at Persis in 650 CE. Hamizid IV (579-590 CE), who followed Khosrau I killed many of the nobility and was harsh to the priests. Hormizd IV was deposed 589-590 CE by his generals and the nobility who put on the throne his son, Khusrau II. §REF§ (Daryaee 2012, 199) Touraj Daryaee. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ Kushrau II was himself deposed by nobility and priests in 628 CE. §REF§ (Daryaee 2012, 200) Touraj Daryaee. The Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE). in Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ Kavad II (628-630 CE) conducted a fratricide, killing all the male heirs in the Sasanid family, and was assassinated. §REF§ (Daryaee 2009, 31) Touraj Daryaee. 2009. Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. I.B. Tauris. London. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

9

Susiana

Levant-Mesopotamia

48.235564

32.382851

Susa (Shush)

IR

Iran

Southwest Asia

45

Iran

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

89

InSataL

-100

200

Satavahana Empire

in_satavahana_emp

LEGACY

The Satavahanas were the first Deccan-based dynasty to rule over an empire encompassing both southern and northern India, stretching from the Deccan Plateau in the south to Madhya Pradesh in the north, and touching both the western and eastern coasts. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 25-26) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. A History of Karnataka. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ According to the most widely accepted hypothesis, based on numismatic, archaeological and textual evidence, this polity existed between the beginning of the 1st century BCE and the end of the 2nd century CE, though many scholars are reluctant to assign absolute dates to specific kings. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2001, 166) Carla Sinopoli. 2001. 'On the Edge of Empire: Form and Substance in the Satavahana Dynasty', in Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D'Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla Sinopoli, 155-78. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Notable rulers include Gautamiputra Satakarani, Vasistiputra, Pulamavi, and Yajnasri. Under their governance, Indian commerce with the Western world intensified and there was a florescence of the arts, particularly in the field of Buddhist iconography. §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 25-26) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. A History of Karnataka. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ However, records are scanty when it comes to the empire's middle century, which suggests that the Satavahana polity went through two phases of power and prosperity, with an intervening period of regionalization, and perhaps even collapse. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2001, 166) Carla Sinopoli. 2001. 'On the Edge of Empire: Form and Substance in the Satavahana Dynasty', in Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D'Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla Sinopoli, 155-78. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Population and political organization The Satavahana polity was ruled by an emperor. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 25) Suryanatha Kamath. 1980. A Concise History of Karnataka. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ He was aided, at court, by a number of officials, including attendants and advisors, the mahasenapati (army commander), the superintendent of stores, the treasurer, officials tasked with drafting and registering his documents, and officials tasked with supervising feudal lords. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 25) Suryanatha Kamath. 1980. A Concise History of Karnataka. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ §REF§ (Murthy and Ramakrishnan 1978, 32-33) H. V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan. 1978. A History of Karnataka. New Delhi: S. Chand. §REF§ The provinces were governed by feudal lords who were related by blood to the royal family, by lords who struck coins in their own name (perhaps indicating some degree of autonomy from the Satavahanas themselves), and by military commanders in charge of outlying centres. §REF§ (Kamath 1980, 25) Suryanatha Kamath. 1980. A Concise History of Karnataka. Bangalore: Archana Prakashana. §REF§ The fact that the empire likely suffered some sort of collapse in its middle period suggests that it may have been overly dependent on the abilities of individual rulers rather than a well-designed administrative structure. §REF§ (Sinopoli 2001, 166) Carla Sinopoli. 2001. 'On the Edge of Empire: Form and Substance in the Satavahana Dynasty', in Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History, edited by Susan Alcock, Terence D'Altroy, Kathleen D. Morrison and Carla Sinopoli, 155-78. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ No population estimates for this period could be found in the specialist literature.

null

2024-11-21T15:08:54.249088Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

15

Deccan

Central India

76.625407

15.386856

Kampli

DEC

India

South Asia

40

Southern India

Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana

{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}

755

at_austrian_rep_2

1,945

2,020

Second Austrian Republic

at_austrian_rep_2

OTHER_TAG

null

2024-03-12T10:04:23.123069Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

15

Central Europe

Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

480

IqIsin2

-1,153

-1,027

Second Dynasty of Isin

iq_isin_dynasty2

LEGACY

The peak date of this polity is considered to be around 1119 BCE-1098 BCE when the king Nebuchadnezzar I ruled, and the Elamite threat had been removed from the territories. §REF§ (Liverani 2014, 462) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani</a>. §REF§ There were four main settlement types during this period: the capital city of Babylon, secondary provincial cities, smaller towns, and villages. §REF§ (Liverani 2014, 364-370) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani</a>. §REF§ Although all settlements were joined under the king, political and economic crisis led to all major cities running their own affairs and so they held some level of autonomy. §REF§ (Liverani 2014, 462-463) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani</a>. §REF§ Temples acted as the centres of resources, policy and activity in each area and the sanga / shangum (chief priest) was an administrative as well as religious role. As a confederated state there were around twenty provinces that were ruled by a governor who had an administrative role in the more urban northern provinces. The smaller provinces along the border were more likely to be run by the military while the governor had a personal relationship with the king and their role was more honorary than administrative. §REF§ (McIntosh 2005: 206) McIntosh, J. 2005. Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD</a>. §REF§ Goods were transported by water and traded through exchange, with the main commodities being silver and grains. §REF§ (McIntosh 2005: 132) McIntosh, J. 2005. Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD</a>. §REF§ Written records, scripts, poems, religious texts and ‘scientific’ literature increased during this period. §REF§ (McIntosh 2005: 291) McIntosh, J. 2005. Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD</a>. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

8

Southern Mesopotamia

Levant-Mesopotamia

44.42

32.47

Babylon (Hillah)

IQ

Iraq

Southwest Asia

62

Mesopotamia

Iraq, Kuwait

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

440

MnTurk2

682

744

Second Turk Khaganate

mn_turk_khaganate_2

LEGACY

The Orkhon Valley lies either side of the Orkhon River, in north-central Mongolia. For just under a century, between about 550 and 630 CE, it had been under the control of a Turkic khaganate, §REF§ (Hosszú 2012, 285) §REF§ which had soon succumbed o a combination of internal rebellions and an invasion from Tang China, around 630 CE. §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 226) §REF§ In the 680s, the Turks managed to establish a new khaganate, and for decades they were able to extract tribute from China; by 744, however, this new khaganate also collapsed, following a decade of in-fighting resulting from the assassination of the khagan Bilgee. §REF§ (Rogers 2012, 226) §REF§ At its height, the khaganate Like many of their predecessors in the region, the Turks were nomads. Moreover, like the previous Turkic khaganate, this second one was characterised by a four-tiered administrative hierarchy. At the top of this hierarchy there were the khagan and his kinsmen, followed by the khagan's counsellors, who were responsible for military, administrative, diplomatic, and legal operations. Finally, like preceding nomadic empires in the region going as far back as the Xiongnu, this khaganate was divided into a western and an eastern portion, to facilitate both administrative and military organization. §REF§ (Klyashtorny 1996, 332) §REF§ No population estimates specific to this polity could be found in the literature, though, according to McEvedy and Jones, at that time Mongolia and Siberia together likely had a population of no more than 500,000. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978) McEvedy, Colin. Jones, Richard. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd. London. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

24

Orkhon Valley

Mongolia

102.845486

47.200757

Karakorum

MN

Mongolia

Central Eurasia

9

Mongolia

Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

433

MlSegou

1,650

1,712

Segou Kingdom

ml_segou_k

LEGACY

Almost nothing is known about the Segu (or Segou) Kingdom, the name we have chosen to use for the polity occupying the Niger Inland Delta from the mid-17th century CE to the foundation of the more well-known Bamana Kingdom in 1712. Neither oral traditions nor regional histories compiled in Timbuktu suggest the existence of a Bamana 'king' prior to the 17th century. However, in around 1650, a hunter and warrior called Kaladian Kulibali (or Coulibaly) drew on the indigenous male age-grade associations known as tòn to become the ruler of the first Bamana state, §REF§ (Bortolot 2003) Alexander Ives Bortolot. 2003. 'The Bamana Ségou State'. Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, <a class="external free" href="http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/bama_1/hd_bama_1.htm" rel="nofollow">http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/bama_1/hd_bama_1.htm</a>. Accessed 23 February 2017. §REF§ which briefly included Timbuktu. §REF§ (MacDonald 2014, 129) Kevin C. MacDonald. 2014. '"A chacun son Bambara", encore une fois: History, Archaeology and Bambara Origins'. In Ethnic Ambiguity and the African Past: Materiality, History, and the Shaping of Cultural Identities, edited by Francois G. Richard and Kevin C. MacDonald, 119-44. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press. §REF§ Population and Political Organization The Bamana before the mid-17th century were probably a 'stateless society' — specifically, they may have been divided into independent villages who only banded together in response to a threat. §REF§ (MacDonald 2014, 129) Kevin C. MacDonald. 2014. '"A Chacoun son Bambara, encore une fois": History, Archaeology and Bambara Origins' in "Ethnic Ambiguity and the African Past: Materiality, History, and the Shaping of Cultural Identities", edited by Francois G. Richard and Kevin C. MacDonald. Walnut Creek, California: Left Coast Press. §REF§ After a brief period of integration under Kaladian Kulibali, centralized power weakened after his death and an oligarchy of regional rulership by his sons and their successors held sway for some time. §REF§ (MacDonald 2014, 129) Kevin C. MacDonald. 2014. '"A Chacoun son Bambara, encore une fois": History, Archaeology and Bambara Origins' in "Ethnic Ambiguity and the African Past: Materiality, History, and the Shaping of Cultural Identities", edited by Francois G. Richard and Kevin C. MacDonald. Walnut Creek, California: Left Coast Press. §REF§ By the time Biton Kulibali rose against the status quo and founded his own Bamana Kingdom in 1712, it seems that the Bamana region was divided into small communities, each ruled by a gerontocracy. §REF§ (Izard and Ki-Zerbo 1992, 332-33) Michel Izard and Joseph Ki-Zerbo. 1992. 'From the Niger to the Volta', in General History of Africa, vol. 5: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries edited by Bethwell Allan Ogot, 327-67. London: Heinemann. §REF§ However, details are hazy, and mostly derived from oral traditions, so the relationship between Kaladian's successors' loose oligarchy and the gerontocracies of the early eighteenth century is not very clear. We are not certain, for example, whether the former gave way to the latter, or whether the latter existed within the context of the former. No population estimates for the Segu Kingdom could be found in the literature.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

6

Niger Inland Delta

Sahel

-3.041703

16.717549

Timbuctu

ML

Mali

Africa

7

West Africa

From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

108

IrSeleu

-312

-63

Seleucid Empire

ir_seleucid_emp

LEGACY

The Seleucid Empire arose in the years following the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE and the subsequent division of his empire. Alexander’s generals each ruled part of the empire, including Seleucus I who became leader of the Babylonian territory in 319 BCE as a reward for having helped Alexander eliminate the regent Perdiccas §REF§ (Sherwin-White and Kurht 1993, 10) S Sherwin-White. A Kurht. 1993. From Samarkhand to Sardis; A new approach to the Seleucid empire. London: Duckworth. §REF§ . This date does not however mark the start of the Seleucid Empire as Seleucus was ousted by the rival Antigonus in 315 BCE and did not return to power until 312 BCE, after which the Seleucid Empire truly began as Seleucus began to extent his domain to create an empire large enough to include territories in the Central Asian steppe to European Thrace §REF§ (Kosmin 2013, 678) P J Kosmin. 2013. Alexander the Great and the Seleucids in Iran. In, Potts, D. T (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.671-689. §REF§ . Seleucus’ territorial achievements were matched by only one of his successors, Antiochus III, whose rule began 60 years later. The last rulers of the empire could not match the charisma and drive of these earlier rulers, especially in the face of growing powers to the west and east of the empire (Rome and Parthia respectively). The empire declined in size and influence until it was taken over by Rome in 63 BCE. The Seleucid Empire continued to exert the Hellenistic influences of Alexander the Great’s empire, but like Alexander, the rulers of the Seleucid Empire generally allowed other religions and languages to continue and flourish (a notable exception being the persecution of the Jews by Antiochus IV) §REF§ (Kosmin 2013, 684-685) P J Kosmin. 2013. Alexander the Great and the Seleucids in Iran. In, Potts, D. T (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.671-689. §REF§ . Most written documents are in Greek and contain valuable information about the empire, the battles fought and the kings who ruled. The documents are however far from complete and many aspects of the empire are either inferred from other sources or remain unknown. Overall it can be surmised that the Seleucid Empire was ruled by one king at a time who held central authority, but who exerted that authority through his commanders, or satraps, in the various territories of the empire §REF§ (Kosmin 2013, 680) P J Kosmin. 2013. Alexander the Great and the Seleucids in Iran. In, Potts, D. T (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.671-689. §REF§ . This both gave the king a great amount of power but also made him vulnerable to the ambitions of his satraps, the most notable example being the betrayal of the general Achaios who in 220 BCE took the territories of Asia Minor for himself after conducting campaigns there on behalf of Antiochus III §REF§ (Ager 2012, 421) S L Ager. 2012. The Alleged Rapprochement between Achaios and Attalos I in 220 BCE. Historia. 61 (4), pp. 421-429. §REF§ .

null

2025-04-17T14:48:16.585485Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

8

Southern Mesopotamia

Levant-Mesopotamia

44.42

32.47

Babylon (Hillah)

IQ

Iraq

Southwest Asia

45

Iran

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

364

IrSeljq

1,037

1,157

Seljuk Sultanate

ir_seljuk_sultanate

LEGACY

The Seljuks were a Turkic dynasty from east of the Aral Sea §REF§ (Bosworth 2001) C. E. Bosworth, 'Turks, Seljuk and Ottoman' in The Oxford Companion to Military History eds. Richard Holmes, Charles Singleton, and Dr Spencer Jones (2001) (al-Rahim 2010) Ahmed H. al-Rahim, 'Seljuk Turks' in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages ed. Robert E. Bjork (2010) §REF§ who ruled a relatively decentralized empire across Central Asia, Persia and Mesopotamia - with perhaps the exception of the powerful viziership of Nizam al-Mulk. §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 48) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ . The Seljuk Empire (1037-1157 CE) did not have a single political center as it was divided into western and eastern halves §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 6) A C S Peacock. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ ; the east had "connotations of seniority in Turkic culture" §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 41) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ and Nizam al-Mulk himself started his career in the Seljuk bureaucracy in Balkh. §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 48) A C S Peacock. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ The western territories were known as the Sultanate of Iraq §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 7) A C S Peacock. 2015. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ and altogether there may have been 12 million under Seljuk rule in 1100 CE. Nizam al-Mulk "strove to suppress abuses, to introduce reforms, to initiate his still uncultured Saljuk masters into the arts of Perso-Islamic statecraft, and to provide competent and reliable theologians, judges, and secretaries for the state religion and administration." §REF§ (Bagley 1964, xxviii-xxix) F R C Bagley. trans. Huma'i, Jalal and Isaacs, H. D. eds. 1964. Ghazali's Book of Counsel for Kings (Nasihat Al-Muluk). Oxford University Press. London. §REF§ "Nizam al-Mulk was particularly concerned with the construction and maintenance of trade routes, caravanserais, and bridges; the appointment of trustworthy market inspectors and tax collectors; and the appointment of spies throughout the realm - policies crucial to rooting out corruption and fostering confidence in local and long-distance trade." §REF§ (Lindsay 2005, 20) James E Lindsay. 2005. Daily Life in The Medieval Islamic World. Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. Indianapolis. §REF§ Within the Seljuk system of rule the caliph was the ultimate religious authority §REF§ (al-Rahim 2012) Ahmed H. al-Rahim, 'Seljuk Turks' in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages ed. Robert E. Bjork (2010) §REF§ §REF§ (al-Rahim 2012) Ahmed H. al-Rahim, 'Seljuk Turks' in The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages ed. Robert E. Bjork (2010) §REF§ and the sultan was the head of secular power §REF§ Findley, Carter V., The Turks in World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), P.69. §REF§ supported by a vizier of the diwan-i a'la. §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 333) A C S Peacock. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ Seljuk maliks (princes) ruled provinces with an atabeg (supervisor) and a small court bureaucracy overseen by a vizier. §REF§ (Peacock 2015, 194-195) A C S Peacock. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press Ltd. Edinburgh. §REF§ As an independent state the Seljuk Empire came to an end when it was defeated by the Mongols and the Sultan had to pay them tribute.

null

2025-03-10T14:53:14.787066Z

{'id': 197, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

9

Susiana

Levant-Mesopotamia

48.235564

32.382851

Susa (Shush)

IR

Iran

Southwest Asia

45

Iran

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

793

bd_sena_dyn

1,095

1,245

Sena Dynasty

bd_sena_dyn

OTHER_TAG

null

2023-12-07T16:16:39.416547Z

2024-06-07T15:08:05.716382Z

{'id': 62, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

null

37

Eastern South Asia

Bangladesh + Indian states of West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and Sikkim

{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}

412

InSharq

1,394

1,479

Sharqi

in_sharqi_dyn

LEGACY

null

2025-04-08T15:48:51.781250Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

64

North India

Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal

{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}

301

UzShayb

1,500

1,598

Shaybanid Kingdom

uz_shaybanid_k

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

13

Turkestan

Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

439

MnShiwe

600

1,000

Shiwei

mn_shiwei

LEGACY

According to the earliest known references to the Shiwei in Chinese records dating to the fifth century CE, they occupied the Hulun Buir, Ergüne, Nonni, Middle Amur, and Zeya watersheds, they were divided into between five and twenty tribes, they lived on agriculture and pastoralism, and they traded sable skins. They may have been the ancestors to the Mongols. §REF§ (Atwood 2004, 502) §REF§ Population and political organization Sources do not provide clear descriptions of Shiwei political organization, but it is worth noting that the Wuluohou, one of the Shiwei peoples, was believed by Chinese record-keepers to have no supreme leader, only tribal chiefs. §REF§ (Xu 2005, 127) §REF§ Similarly, sources do not provide clear population estimates for the Shiwei.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

24

Orkhon Valley

Mongolia

102.845486

47.200757

Karakorum

MN

Mongolia

Central Eurasia

9

Mongolia

Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

643

et_showa_sultanate

1,108

1,285

Shoa Sultanate

et_showa_sultanate

POL_AFR_EAST

The Shoa Sultanate is the first and earliest known Muslim political kingdom known in the region of Ethiopia. Within the consulted literature, there is a discrepancy regarding the date of origin for this Sultanate. Some scholars refer to a local Arab historical chronicle that uses the date 897 CE for when the first Muhzumite leader founded the Sultanate. Other scholars such as, Taddesse Tamrat, argue that the sultanate was created later in the ninth or tenth centuries. As mentioned above, the Shoa Sultanate was the kingdom of the Muhzumite Dynasty, therefore its rulers were either Muhzumite sultans or princes. The territory of the sultanate remains unclear, but scholars consulted suggest that its region included the eastern part of the Shoan plateau and extended east along the Awash River. §REF§ (Tamrat 2008, 106- 107) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list</a> §REF§ Other scholars have reasoned that the Gulf of Aden port, Zeila was equally important for the Shoan Sultanate. §REF§ (Levtzion and Pouwels 2000, 228) Levtzion, Nehemia and Randall Pouwels. 2000. History of Islam in Africa. Athens: Ohio University Press. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R3XRWJBX/library">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R3XRWJBX/library</a> §REF§ The Sultanate seems to have been an important commercial kingdom which was well situated along vital trade routes from the sea to the interior of Ethiopia. With regard to population numbers, the consulted sources do not mention any figures on the topic. Tamrat has argued that during the twelfth century the Shoa Sultanate was actively expanding its Muslim territory within the interior of Ethiopia, therefore sparking the first conflicts with the Christian kingdoms of the region. Within the later part of the twelfth century the Shoa Sultanate became a loose confederation of Muslim principalities which were constantly at odds with one another. This continuous infighting also led to conflicts with other Muslim states, particularly the rulers of Ifat. War between the Ifat and the Shoan dynasties led to the complete annexation of Shoa by the newly formed Ifat Sultanate by ‘Umar Walasma in 1285. §REF§ (Tamrat 2008, 106; 140) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/search/Tamrat/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list</a> §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

2

East Africa

Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

196

EcJivaE

1,534

1,830

Shuar - Colonial

ec_shuar_1

LEGACY

The forested foothills of the Andes, near the border between Ecuador and Peru, have long been inhabited by the Shuar, subsistence horticulturalists living in autonomous residential hamlets. There are many Shuar groups, but here we focus specifically on the Ecuadorian group commonly known simply as 'Shuar'. Europeans - specifically, Spaniards - first encountered the Shuar in the 16th century and soon imposed tributes, which the Shuar paid, in increasing amounts, until they rebelled in 1599, driving the Spanish out of the region. Indeed, the Shuar were able to ward off outside interference up until 1930, just as they were able to avoid being subjugated by the Inca. In 1930, Catholic missionaries persuaded the Ecuadorian government to provide a reservation for the Shuar. §REF§ (Beierle 2006) Beierle, John. 2006. “Culture Summary: Jivaro.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP</a>. §REF§ Population and political organization Authority among the Shuar was mostly informal and local, and resided in men referred to as unyä ('big' or 'old' men) or kakaram ('powerful ones'). These were usually renowned warriors or shamans, but they in fact acquired their reputation by being old enough to have grandchildren, as well as through their friendliness, honesty and generosity in dealing with others. The unyä or kakaram were believed to be able to curse to death anyone who angered them. §REF§ (Beierle 2006) Beierle, John. 2006. “Culture Summary: Jivaro.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP</a>. §REF§ The scholarly literature does not provide population estimates, even for the more recent period. Indeed, writing in the 1920s, the ethnographer Fritz W. Up de Graff declared that obtaining accurate statistics relating to the Shuar was an 'impossible task' due to their migratory habits and commitment to concealing their true numbers from potential enemies. §REF§ (Up de Graff 1923, 192-93) Up de Graff, Fritz W. 1923. Head Hunters of the Amazon: Seven Years of Exploration and Adventure. London: H. Jenkins. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XD3S3HVP" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XD3S3HVP</a>. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

32

Lowland Andes

Amazonia

-77.67419

-2.895375

Logrono

EC

Ecuador

South America

31

Amazonia

Brazil, Guyanas, plus Amazonian parts of bordering states

{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}

197

EcJivaL

1,831

1,931

Shuar - Ecuadorian

ec_shuar_2

LEGACY

The forested foothills of the Andes, near the border between Ecuador and Peru, have long been inhabited by the Shuar, subsistence horticulturalists living in autonomous residential hamlets. There are many Shuar groups, but here we focus specifically on the Ecuadorian group commonly known simply as 'Shuar'. Europeans - specifically, Spaniards - first encountered the Shuar in the 16th century and soon imposed tributes, which the Shuar paid, in increasing amounts, until they rebelled in 1599, driving the Spanish out of the region. Indeed, the Shuar were able to ward off outside interference up until 1930, just as they were able to avoid being subjugated by the Inca. In 1930, Catholic missionaries persuaded the Ecuadorian government to provide a reservation for the Shuar. §REF§ (Beierle 2006) Beierle, John. 2006. “Culture Summary: Jivaro.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP</a>. §REF§ Population and political organization Authority among the Shuar was mostly informal and local, and resided in men referred to as unyä ('big' or 'old' men) or kakaram ('powerful ones'). These were usually renowned warriors or shamans, but they in fact acquired their reputation by being old enough to have grandchildren, as well as through their friendliness, honesty and generosity in dealing with others. The unyä or kakaram were believed to be able to curse to death anyone who angered them. §REF§ (Beierle 2006) Beierle, John. 2006. “Culture Summary: Jivaro.” eHRAF World Cultures. <a class="external free" href="http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000" rel="nofollow">http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/document?id=sd09-000</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/NDIQCQZP</a>. §REF§ The scholarly literature does not provide population estimates, even for the more recent period. Indeed, writing in the 1920s, the ethnographer Fritz W. Up de Graff declared that obtaining accurate statistics relating to the Shuar was an 'impossible task' due to their migratory habits and commitment to concealing their true numbers from potential enemies. §REF§ (Up de Graff 1923, 192-93) Up de Graff, Fritz W. 1923. Head Hunters of the Amazon: Seven Years of Exploration and Adventure. London: H. Jenkins. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XD3S3HVP" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/XD3S3HVP</a>. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

32

Lowland Andes

Amazonia

-77.67419

-2.895375

Logrono

EC

Ecuador

South America

31

Amazonia

Brazil, Guyanas, plus Amazonian parts of bordering states

{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}

300

RuSibir

1,490

1,598

Sibir Khanate

ru_sibir_khanate

LEGACY

null

2025-03-10T14:40:49.919249Z

{'id': 196, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

null

11

Siberia

Urals, West Siberia, Central Siberia, Yakutia

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

133

PkSind1

854

1,193

Sind - Abbasid-Fatimid Period

pk_sind_abbasid_fatimid

LEGACY

The Kachi Plain, in modern-day Pakistan, is hemmed in on two of its three sides by the mountains of Baluchistan, while its southeastern side opens up to the Indus Valley. §REF§ (Jarrige & Enault 1976, 29) Jean-Francois Jarrige and Jean-Francois Enault. 1976. Fouilles de Pirak. Arts Asiatiques 32: 29-70. §REF§ The region it is part of, Sindh (also known as Sind), was a vital tribute paying territory of the Arab empire, first under the Ummayad and then the Abbasid Caliphates. However, in 836 CE, the Abbasid Caliphate lost control of its western territories, and Sind plunged into a civil war. §REF§ (Panwhar 1983, 178-179) M.H. Panwhar. 1983. Chronological Dictionary of Sindh. Karachi: Institute of Sindology. §REF§ Here we consider the period going from the middle of the ninth century, when the Habari lineage became rulers of an independent Sind, to the middle of the thirteenth, when the Samma dynasty seized power. Throughout these centuries, Sind experienced a peaceful power transition from the Habari to the Soomra, in 1010, annexation to the Delhi Sultanate, and a long civil war caused by political instability resulting from Mongol invasions. §REF§ (Panwhar 1983, 19-33, 188, 293-294) M.H. Panwhar. 1983. Chronological Dictionary of Sindh. Karachi: Institute of Sindology. §REF§ Population and political organization Panwhar believes that the population of Sind at this time is unlikely to have exceeded one million. §REF§ (Panwhar 1983, 189) M.H. Panwhar. 1983. Chronological Dictionary of Sindh. Karachi: Institute of Sindology. §REF§ As for political organization, the polity was ruled by an emir, who delegated power over regions and districts to specially appointed governors, who were closely related to the emir himself. §REF§ (Panwhar 2003, 134) M.H. Panwhar. 2003. An illustrated Historical Atlas of Soomra Kingdom of the Sindh. Karachi: Sangam Publications. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

13

Kachi Plain

Indo-Gangetic Plain

67.628836

29.377664

Mehrgarh

PK

Pakistan

South Asia

38

Pakistan

{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}

136

PkSind2

1,335

1,521

Sind - Samma Dynasty

pk_samma_dyn

LEGACY

The Kachi Plain, in modern-day Pakistan, is hemmed in on two of its three sides by the mountains of Baluchistan, while its southeastern side opens up to the Indus Valley. §REF§ (Jarrige & Enault 1976, 29) Jean-Francois Jarrige and Jean-Francois Enault. 1976. Fouilles de Pirak. Arts Asiatiques 32: 29-70. §REF§ The region it is part of, Sindh (also known as Sind), was ruled, between the mid-fourteenth century and the 1520s, by the Samma dynasty. In the fourteenth century, the latter faced a precarious geopolitical position, courting friendship with the Mongols as a counterbalance of the more immediate threat presented by the Delhi Sultanate. After that, the Samma were able to rule over Sind somewhat uneventfully, until 1520, when Shah Begh Argun, followed swiftly by Babur, founder of Mughal dynasty, conquered the region. The Arguns continued to govern Sind up until 1591, when it was fully integrated into the Mughal empire. §REF§ (Lakho 2006, 3-5) Ghulam Muhammad Lakho. 2006. The Samma Kingdom of Sindh. Karachi: Institute of Sindhology §REF§ §REF§ (Asimov and Bosworth 1998, 300-302) M.S. Asimov and C.E. Bosworth. 1998. "History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol. IV, The Age of Achievement, AD 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century, Part One, The Historical, Social and Economic Setting, Multiple History Series." Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ Population and political organization Panwhar believes that the population of Sind at this time is unlikely to have exceeded one million §REF§ (Panwhar 1983, 189) M.H. Panwhar. 1983. Chronological Dictionary of Sindh. Karachi: Institute of Sindology. §REF§ , though Lakho provides an estimate of 2,200,000. §REF§ (Lakho 2006, 185-186) Ghulam Muhammad Lakho. 2006. The Samma Kingdom of Sindh. Karachi: Institute of Sindhology §REF§ As for political organization, the polity was ruled by a jam, who delegated power over regions and districts to specially appointed governors, who were closely related to the emir himself. §REF§ (Panwhar 2003, 134) M.H. Panwhar. 2003. An illustrated Historical Atlas of Soomra Kingdom of the Sindh. Karachi: Sangam Publications. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

13

Kachi Plain

Indo-Gangetic Plain

67.628836

29.377664

Mehrgarh

PK

Pakistan

South Asia

38

Pakistan

{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}

766

vt_vietnam_socialist_rep

1,975

2,020

Socialist Republic of Vietnam

vt_vietnam_socialist_rep

OTHER_TAG

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

41

Mainland Southeast Asia

Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam

{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}

468

UzSogdi

604

711

Sogdiana - City-States Period

uz_sogdiana_city_states

LEGACY

General description: The Sogdian City States Period, also referred to by the names of the principal cities of the age, Bukhara and Samarkand dates to between 604 and 711CE. The period ends with the conquest of the region by the Umayyad Dynasty.§REF§(Marshak 1996, 242) Marshak, B. I. 1996. ‘Sughd and Adjacent Regions’. In B. A. Litvinsky (ed.), Co-editors: Zhang Guang-da and R. Shabani Samghabadi. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. The Crossroads of Civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. Volume III. Paris: UNESCO. p.242<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/5AW7RCHD">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/5AW7RCHD</a> §REF§ A number of City States rose to prominence in the Zarafshan and surrounding valleys, they formed alliances and competed amongst each other for control of the region .§REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 167) De la Vaissière, E. 2005. Sogdian Traders: a History. Translated by James Ward. Leiden; Boston: Brill. p.167 <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D</a> §REF§ Chef amongst these City States was Samarkand, which in the seventh century extended across the plateau of Afrasiab.§REF§(Marshak 1996, 244) Marshak, B. I. 1996. ‘Sughd and Adjacent Regions’. In B. A. Litvinsky (ed.), Co-editors: Zhang Guang-da and R. Shabani Samghabadi. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. The Crossroads of Civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. Volume III. Paris: UNESCO. p.244<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/5AW7RCHD">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/5AW7RCHD</a> §REF§ The height of this period can be considered to have occurred in mid the 7th century CE when the city of Samarkand was at the peak of its economic and culture production, symbolized by the creation of the Afrasiab paintings. §REF§(Frumkin 1970, 124) Frumkin, G. 1970. Archaeology in Soviet Central Asia. Leiden;Koln. Brill. p.124 <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/48WCJTCC">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/48WCJTCC</a> §REF§ Although the City States had achieved de facto independence after the fall of the Western Kaghanate, they were nominally allied to the Chinese T’ang dynasty, however the dynasty did not meaningfully hinder the Arab incursions.§REF§(Marshak 1996, 242) Marshak, B. I. 1996. ‘Sughd and Adjacent Regions’. In B. A. Litvinsky (ed.), Co-editors: Zhang Guang-da and R. Shabani Samghabadi. History of Civilizations of Central Asia. The Crossroads of Civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. Volume III. Paris: UNESCO. p.242<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/5AW7RCHD">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/5AW7RCHD</a> §REF§ Population and political organization: Each city state was ruled by a king, conceived of as ‘first among equals’ who headed the administrative system which ran the state.§REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 167) De la Vaissière, E. 2005. Sogdian Traders: a History. Translated by James Ward. Leiden; Boston: Brill.p.167 <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D</a> §REF§ While there is clear evidence of a strong merchant class their relationship to the ruling elite remains unclear. §REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 168-169) De la Vaissière, E. 2005. Sogdian Traders: a History. Translated by James Ward. Leiden; Boston: Brill. pp.168-169 <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D</a> §REF§ Although there are no precise population figures the archaeological evidence indicates that the number of settlements, and thus population, in the region reached its height during this period.§REF§(De la Vaissière 2005, 103-4) De La Vaissiere, Etienne. 2005. Sogdian Traders: A History. [trans James Ward] Leiden: Brill.p.103-4 <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/collectionKey/IZCFUKJQ/itemKey/8P724M2D</a> §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

23

Sogdiana

Turkestan

66.93817

39.631284

Samarkand

UZ

Uzbekistan

Central Eurasia

13

Turkestan

Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

666

ni_sokoto_cal

1,804

1,904

Sokoto Caliphate

ni_sokoto_cal

POL_AFR_WEST

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

7

West Africa

From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

237

MlSong1

1,376

1,493

Songhai Empire

ml_songhai_1

LEGACY

null

2023-11-14T16:29:26.947854Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

5

Sahel

Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Chad (Arid)

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

242

MlSong2

1,493

1,591

Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty

ml_songhai_2

LEGACY

Third of the great West African empires, the Songhay Empire emerged from a small kingdom based in the Gao region, which was a tributary to the Mali Empire until it started to gain autonomy in the late 14th century CE. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 12) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ A Songhay leader named Sonyi Ali Beeri was responsible for transforming this polity into an expansionary empire from the late 15th century onwards. §REF§ (Conrad 2005, 13) David C. Conrad. 2005. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. New York: Facts On File. §REF§ The heyday of the Songhay Empire was under the Askiya (or Askia) dynasty, 1493‒1591. These kings consolidated Songhay power by building on the legacy of their Malinke predecessors and took control of more territories, extending their reach over the Niger Inland Delta, westward to the Atlantic ocean, northward to the salt pans of Taghaza, and eastward to the Tuareg kingdom of Agadez. §REF§ (Oliver and Atmore 2001, 68) Roland Anthony Oliver and Anthony Atmore. 2001. Medieval Africa, 1250-1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 66) David C. Conrad. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§ §REF§ (Diop 1987, 95) Cheikh Anta Diop. 1987. Precolonial Black Africa, translated by Harold Salemson. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books. §REF§ However, the empire was brought to an abrupt end in the late 16th century: after a succession crisis which sparked a civil war, the Sultan of Morocco invaded in 1591. §REF§ (Conrad 2010, 17) David C. Conrad. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. Revised Edition. New York: Chelsea House Publishers. §REF§ §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 196) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ Population and political organization Unlike the preceding Ghana and Mali Empires, Songhay operated as a centralized unitary state. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 196) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The king was a revered figure but his authority was tempered by the precepts of Islam from the 11th century, and this religion became increasingly prevalent under the Askiya dynasty. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 196) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The imperial council coordinated the activities of the central government, which was divided into ministries including those of agriculture, finance, the army and the naval fleet. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 197) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The two major provinces, Kurmina in the west and Dendi in the southeast, were ruled by princes who were responsible for their own armies. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 199) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ Thriving trading towns like Jenné, Timbuktu, Teghazza and Walata enjoyed a certain degree of autonomy due to the power of guilds and local chiefs, but had to report to a superintendent, tax inspectors, customs officials and other state appointees. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 199) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ Vassal and tributary countries also bowed before the power of the Askiya when disputes arose. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 199) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The Songhay empire is associated with the establishment of high centres of learning in Jenné, Dia, Gao and Timbuktu. The latter in particular was famed for its university, holy men, doctors and teachers, who contributed to the spread of Islamic humanism among the urban elite in the region from the 15th century. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 208) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ The rural Songhay continued to venerate a pantheon of divinities and local spirits until Islam penetrated the countryside via the peaceful incursions of traders and government-sponsored marabouts. §REF§ (Cissoko 1984, 207-08) Sékéné Mody Cissoko. 1984. 'The Songhay from the 12th to the 16th Century', in General History of Africa, Vol. 4: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century, edited by D. T. Niane, 187-210. Paris: UNESCO. §REF§ It is difficult to find substantiated population estimates for the Songhay Empire, but one scholar believes there could have been 70,000 people living in the city of Timbuktu by 1580 under Askiya Daoud. §REF§ (Niane 1975, 57) Djibril Tamsir Niane. 1975. Le Soudan Occidental au temps des grands empires XI-XVIe siècle. Paris: Présence africaine. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

6

Niger Inland Delta

Sahel

-3.041703

16.717549

Timbuctu

ML

Mali

Africa

7

West Africa

From Senegal to Gabon (Tropical)

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

472

IqSoNeo

-9,000

-5,501

Southern Mesopotamia Neolithic

iq_so_mesopotamia_nl

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

8

Southern Mesopotamia

Levant-Mesopotamia

44.42

32.47

Babylon (Hillah)

IQ

Iraq

Southwest Asia

62

Mesopotamia

Iraq, Kuwait

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

259

CnSouQi

479

502

Southern Qi State

cn_southern_qi_dyn

LEGACY

null

2024-05-01T06:35:27.585503Z

{'id': 36, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

null

59

South China

Yangtze Basin and South China

{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}

426

CnSSong

1,127

1,279

Southern Song

cn_southern_song_dyn

LEGACY

null

2024-01-04T15:59:53.066388Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

59

South China

Yangtze Basin and South China

{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}

601

ru_soviet_union

1,918

1,991

Soviet Union

ru_soviet_union

LEGACY

null

2023-12-12T15:11:33.853424Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

16

Eastern Europe

Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

84

EsHabsb

1,516

1,715

Spanish Empire I

es_spanish_emp_1

LEGACY

The Habsburg Dynasty came together as Ferdinand II united the Kingdoms of Aragon and Castile under his rule. When he died in 1516 CE, his grandson Charles I—son of the Aragon Queen Joanna and the Habsburg Philip, a Prince in the Holy Roman Empire—became the first crowned King of All Spain. The Spanish Habsburg empire held territory in northern Europe, Italy, the Mediterranean, the Americas, Africa, India, and the Orient. “Yet Spain itself was rather unpromising material for greatness; the land was barren, the economy backward and the peninsula was politically fragmented.” §REF§ (Darby 2014, preview). Darby, Graham. 2014. Spain in the seventeenth century. New York: Routledge. <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3XIHTNCH" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3XIHTNCH</a> §REF§ The Austrian Habsburg family inherited the Valois duchy of Burgundy (present day Holland, Belgium, Luxemburg, and part of Burgundy) and the crowns of Aragon (including Balearics, Sardinia, Naples, and Sicily) and Castile (including Navarre, and the Americas- Mexico and Peru). This territory was inherited by Charles Habsburg (Charles V, 1519-56). When Charles V abdicated in 1555-56 he spilt the territory between his brother and his son (Austrian and Spanish branches of the Habsburgs), thus expanding the Spanish Habsburg Empire even further by 1556. §REF§ (Darby 2014, preview). Darby, Graham. 2014. Spain in the seventeenth century. New York: Routledge. <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3XIHTNCH" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/3XIHTNCH</a> §REF§ Spain's territorial conquests brought in a wealth of gold and other resources from around the world. This boom led to a rapid growth in urbanization and marketization, as several Spanish cities became major hubs of production for manufactured goods (metal products and textiles especially). §REF§ Pocket World History in Figures §REF§ By 1550 the Habsburg Empire had a population of 29 million across the world, including 9 million native people in the lands they had colonised.

null

2024-03-14T12:32:06.256900Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

30

Cuzco

Andes

-72.067772

-13.47738

Cuzco

PE

Peru

South America

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

570

es_spanish_emp_2

1,716

1,814

Spanish Empire II

es_spanish_emp_2

LEGACY

null

2025-03-10T13:37:06.801778Z

{'id': 95, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

null

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

718

es_spanish_emp_3

1,815

1,931

Spanish Empire III

es_spanish_emp_3

OTHER_TAG

null

2023-10-30T17:31:47.109391Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

768

sl_sri_lanka

1,948

2,020

Sri Lanka

sl_sri_lanka

OTHER_TAG

null

2025-04-15T09:41:31.412053Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

63

Sri Lanka

{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}

377

IdSrivi

852

1,200

Srivijaya Empire

id_srivijaya_emp

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

42

Maritime Southeast Asia

Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines

{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}

330

PlTeuton

1,300

1,400

State of the Teutonic Order

pl_teutonic_order

LEGACY

The State of the Teutonic Order was a theocratic state which originated from the Teutonic Knights' efforts to Christianize the Baltic tribes, a mission that began in the early 13th century and continued aggressively throughout the 14th century. This period saw the Knights consolidating their control over Prussia and extending their influence into areas that are now part of modern-day Poland, Lithuania, and Latvia. The administrative center of the State of the Teutonic Order was Marienburg Castle, which served as the key political and military hub. The state was characterized by a highly militarized society, with the Knights forming the ruling class. They established a network of castles and fortified towns throughout their territories to secure their control and facilitate further expansion. §REF§Jürgen Sarnowsky, Der Deutsche Orden, 3., durchgesehene Auflage., C.H. Beck Wissen 2428 (München: C.H.Beck, 2022).<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QW4M9YTP" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: QW4M9YTP</a>§REF§ Conflicts with neighboring powers, particularly Poland and Lithuania, were frequent as the state expanded. The most significant of these conflicts was the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, where the Teutonic Order faced a major defeat against a Polish-Lithuanian coalition.§REF§Gerald Iselt and Rolf Fuhrmann, eds., Tannenberg 1410: die Niederlage des Deutschen Ritterordens ; die Belagerung der Marienburg 1410, Heere & Waffen 7 (Berlin: Zeughaus-Verl, 2008).<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HARPZFSE" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: HARPZFSE</a>§REF§ The state's eventual secularization in 1525 by Grand Master Albert of Brandenburg-Ansbach, transforming it into the Duchy of Prussia, marked the end of the Teutonic Knights' territorial rule and laid the groundwork for the emergence of the Prussian state.§REF§Jürgen Sarnowsky, Der Deutsche Orden, 3., durchgesehene Auflage., C.H. Beck Wissen 2428 (München: C.H.Beck, 2022).<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QW4M9YTP" target="_blank" class="fw-bolder"> Zotero link: QW4M9YTP</a>§REF§

null

2024-02-08T14:04:02.288518Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

15

Central Europe

Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

260

CnSui**

581

618

Sui Dynasty

cn_sui_dyn

LEGACY

China was reunified after the Northern and Southern dynasties period by the short-lived Sui dynasty (581-618 CE). The first Sui emperor Yang Jian dethroned the Northern Zhou emperor and conquered the southern Chen dynasty.§REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Sui Dynasty (581-618). Chinaknowledge.de. <a href="http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Tang/sui.html">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Tang/sui.html</a> Accessed June 15, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR73VWI9">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR73VWI9</a> §REF§ The Sui were able to unify China but did not create a stable, lasting imperial house.§REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Sui Dynasty (581-618). Chinaknowledge.de.<a href="http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Tang/sui.html">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Tang/sui.html</a> Accessed June 15, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR73VWI9">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR73VWI9</a> §REF§ The second Sui emperor Yangdi is villainized for his extravagant spending and endless military campaigns. Yangdi undertook massive infrastructure projects including the fortification of the Great Wall, and the construction of a third capital at Jiangdu, and the Grand Canal. He also conducted many military campaigns including multiple attempts to conquer the Korean Peninsula. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Sui Dynasty (581-618). Chinaknowledge.de. <a href="http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Tang/sui.html">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Tang/sui.html</a> Accessed June 15, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR73VWI9">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR73VWI9</a> §REF§ His overuse of conscripted corvee labor coupled with natural disasters led to famine, and the dynasty was overthrown by massive peasant rebellions and revolts by nobles after only 37 years of rule.§REF§ (Editorial Committee of Chinese Civilization 2007, 62) Editorial Committee of Chinese Civilization (eds.) 2007. China: Five Thousand Years of History and Civilization. Hong Kong: City University of Hong Kong Press. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V6V8BAE4">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V6V8BAE4</a> §REF§ Sui construction of infrastructure and government reforms paved the way for the lasting rule of the Tang.§REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Sui Dynasty (581-618). Chinaknowledge.de.<a href="http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Tang/sui.html">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Tang/sui.html</a> Accessed June 15, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR73VWI9">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR73VWI9</a> §REF§ The Sui territory encompassed 3 million square kilometers in 581.§REF§ (Chase-Dunn spreadsheet) §REF§ The 2,500 km (5,000 li) Grand Canal supplied the Sui capitals of Luoyang, Chang’an and Jiangdu with grain from the lower Yangtze area, running from the eastern capital of Luoyang to present-day Beijing and Hangzhou.§REF§ (Editorial Committee of Chinese Civilization 2007, 62) Editorial Committee of Chinese Civilization (eds.) 2007. China: Five Thousand Years of History and Civilization. Hong Kong: City University of Hong Kong Press. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V6V8BAE4">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/V6V8BAE4</a> §REF§ The Sui sphere of influence reached Chinese Turkestan, Champa, and Formosa.§REF§ (Tuan 2008, 94) Tuan, Yi-Fu. 2008. A Historical Geography of China. London: Aldine Transactions. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GTTWMMF5">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GTTWMMF5</a> §REF§ Population and political organization The Sui’s administrative reforms abolished all fiefdoms and set up a prefecture system. The examination and military system were reformed. §REF§ (Theobald 2000) Theobald, U. 2000. Sui Dynasty (581-618). Chinaknowledge.de. <a href="http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Tang/sui.html">http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Tang/sui.html</a> Accessed June 15, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR73VWI9">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GR73VWI9</a> §REF§ Yang Jian reestablished Han Confucian government rituals, and reformed Chinas’ penal code and administrative laws.§REF§ “Sui dynasty.” Encyclopedia Britannica. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sui-dynasty">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sui-dynasty</a> Accessed June 16, 2017. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RPPSPKUR">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/RPPSPKUR</a> §REF§ The Sui population was recorded as 46 million in a 609 CE census. However, some modern scholars believe that this number is too low.§REF§ (Tuan 2008, 94) Tuan, Yi-Fu. 2008. A Historical Geography of China. London: Aldine Transactions. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GTTWMMF5">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/GTTWMMF5</a> §REF§

null

2024-01-04T15:56:44.774181Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

20

Middle Yellow River Valley

North China

112.517587

34.701825

Luoyang

CN

China

East Asia

58

North China

North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang

{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}

380

ThSukho

1,238

1,419

Sukhotai

th_sukhotai

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

41

Mainland Southeast Asia

Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam

{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}

642

so_geledi_sultanate

1,750

1,911

Sultanate of Geledi

so_geledi_sultanate

POL_AFR_EAST

The Geledi Sultanate was part of the Gobroon Dynasty that was either established in the seventeenth or the first half of the eighteenth centuries. The capital of the Geledi Sultanate was the town of Afgoy, located on the lower Shebelle River, twenty km from Mogadishu. §REF§ (Luling 1971, 202) Luling, Virginia. 1971. The Social Structure of Southern Somali Tribes. (Thesis). University of London (University College London). Seshat URL:<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/5BTAQ3DM/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/5BTAQ3DM/collection</a> §REF§ According to Njoku, the apex of the Sultanate was from 1789 to 1848 under the rule of Sultan Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim. The Geledi Sultanate had a robust army which helped to quell regional dissent from various groups. In 1843, the Sultanate defeated the fundamentalist Baardheere Jamaaca jihadists who wanted to bring ultra-religious ideals into the region. The Geledi Sultanate also controlled valuable trade networks particularly at the port of Mogadishu. By the end of the nineteenth century, the Sultanate’s influence waned due to regional fighting and interference from European colonists. §REF§ (Njoku 2013, 41) Njoku, Raphael C. 2013. The History of Somalia. Santa Barbara: Greenwood Press. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U9FHBPZF/library">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U9FHBPZF/library</a> §REF§ In 1911, the territory of the Sultanate was annexed by Italy in their creation of Italian Somaliland. §REF§ (Luling 1971, 202) Luling, Virginia. 1971. The Social Structure of Southern Somali Tribes. (Thesis). University of London (University College London). Seshat URL:<a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/5BTAQ3DM/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/5BTAQ3DM/collection</a> §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

2

East Africa

Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

589

in_sur_emp

1,540

1,556

Sur Empire

in_sur_emp

LEGACY

null

2023-10-30T11:58:32.392416Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

64

North India

Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal

{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}

492

IrSusa1

-4,300

-3,800

Susa I

ir_susa_1

LEGACY

The 4300-3800 BCE period in the region of Susiana was the tale of two settlements, the fall of Chogha Mish and the rise of Susa. However, the basic mode of living at this time was in agricultural villages and herding camps so the urban aspect should not be exaggerated. The "Urban Revolution" was to come c3800-3000 BCE. §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 79) Mario Liverani. Soraia Tabatabai, trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§ This was a time when centers developed to a larger scale than before §REF§ (Peasnall 2002, 173) B N Peasnall. Iranian Chalcolithic. P Peregrine. M Ember. eds. 2002. Encyclopedia of Prehistory. Volume 8: South and Southwest Asia, pp. 160-195. New York: Springer. §REF§ , and increased - if still incipient - centralization with the emergence of elite houses, whilst the societies as a whole maintained a "strong egalitarian appearance". §REF§ (Peasnall 2002, 173) B N Peasnall. Iranian Chalcolithic. P Peregrine. M Ember. eds. 2002. Encyclopedia of Prehistory. Volume 8: South and Southwest Asia, pp. 160-195. New York: Springer. §REF§ Prior to the foundation of Susa part of the existing site of Choga Mish was burned and villages surrounding Susa were abandoned, but archaeologists have not yet settled on an explanation why this occurred. §REF§ (Potts 1999, 46) D T Potts. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ Susa, which replaced Choga Mish as the biggest settlement in the region, is noted for its comparatively great size compared to surrounding settlements with about 1000 people in the 15-18 hectare urban area, which consisted of non-contiguous groups of houses. §REF§ (Potts 2016, 48) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ Hole (1987) estimates there were 10,000 people in the region of Susiana. §REF§ (Hole 1987, 94) F Hole. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Settlement and Society from Prehistory to the Islamic Conquest. Washington DC. The Smithsonian Institution Press. §REF§ Despite the low population density Susa soon after its foundation became "distinguished by a number of architectural developments which would seem to exceed the scope of activities normally associated with village life". §REF§ (Potts 1999, 46) D T Potts. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ most notably a stepped platform. §REF§ (Potts 1999, 49-50) D T Potts. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ Many archaeologists are, however, reluctant to infer from the impressive temple constructions that Susa was a 'ceremonial centre' or to suggest it was politically organized as a chiefdom. §REF§ (Potts 1999, 49-50) D T Potts. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ Administrative conventions and writing are known to have developed in the later Uruk period. §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 79) Mario Liverani. Soraia Tabatabai, trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§ There is nevertheless obvious evidence of a central authority in terms of the organization and hoarding of goods. Excavations at Susa discovered may stamp seals and sealings from the Susa I period, some of which may have been used on locked doors. This implies an authority existed "to control the flow of goods in and out of one or more offices or centres of redistribution." §REF§ (Potts 1999, 49-50) D T Potts. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ Earliest and latest radiocarbon 14 dates for Susa are about 4400-3900 BCE and 3700-3500 BCE. §REF§ (Potts 1999, 46) D T Potts. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ Tepe Jaffarabad, which is analogue in terms of ceramics, has been radiocarbon dated 4100-3900 BCE and 3900-3700 BCE and "thus generally consistent with the Susa dates" §REF§ (Potts 1999, 46) D T Potts. 1999. The Archaeology of Elam. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ - at least for the period from 4100-3700 BCE.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

9

Susiana

Levant-Mesopotamia

48.235564

32.382851

Susa (Shush)

IR

Iran

Southwest Asia

45

Iran

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

493

IrSusa2

-3,800

-3,100

Susa II

ir_susa_2

LEGACY

§REF§ (Johnson 1987, 131) Johnson, Gregory A. in Hole, Frank ed. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, D.C. §REF§ Uruk (IrSusa1)"Sometime during the fourth millennium, in the urban center of Uruk (for which the archaeological period is named), southern Mesopotamia acquired a specifically Sumerian historical identity. With the introduction of a system of writing, a gradual development from an earlier accounting system, a radical change occurred in the social organization and in the very foundations of thought. ... Susa, in its earliest period (Susa I) attached to the world of the Iranian plateau, was now (in Susa II) integrated into the early Sumerian civilization of Mesopotamia, which it interpreted with originality. Precise stratigraphic excavations conducted in recent decades have allowed us to trace developments at Susa in the Uruk phase, notably of an accounting system that preceded the slightly later appearance of writing." §REF§ (Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 4) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art. §REF§ Chronology for Iran §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 513) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§ Uruk colonies Proto-Elamite period 3100-2700 BCE Awan 2350-2200 BCE (contemporaneous with Akkad in Lower Mesopotamia) Simash 2050-1950 BCE Sukkalmah 1900-1750 BCE Middle Elamite kingdom c1300-1100 BCE Neo-Elamite kingdom 750-650 BCE Media 650-550 BCE Susa - Tal-i Malyan (Anshan, Anzan) [450-550] KM2. Liverani 2014 chronology for Isin-Larsa period 2000-1750 BCE §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 192-193) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§ Elam §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 193) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§ 2000 BCE Shimashki dynasty, Kindattu c2000 BCE ... Indattu II c1925 BCE (last or last known) 1900 BCE Sukkalmah dynasty, Ebarat c1900 BCE ... Kuduzulush c1765 BCE (last or last known) "Susa ... began its political life around 6000 BC, first as a city-state, then as an empire rivaling Sumer in Mesopotamia, and subsequently as the capital of one of the oldest empires of antiquity, Elam, around 3000 BC." §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 21) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§ "Thus the earliest experience of state tradition and administrative functions on a massive scale in Iran began around 6000 BC." §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 21) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§ "The main instrument of public administration and governance under the long history of the federal state of Elam was the bureaucracy, which also played a powerful role under the Median and the Persian empires." §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 21) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§ "Unlike the small city-state of Sumer, the Elamite empire was formed and administered on a massive scale and governed a large territory comprising present Iran and a major part of the Near East, at times including Babylonia and Assyria, for over 2500 years." §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 21) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§ "Their bureaucratic contacts with the Assyrians and Babylonians gave them useful insights. However, being a rival to Sumer, Babylon, and Assyria, the Elamite federal government developed the first Iranian tradition of public administration on a massive scale, though that tradition originated much earlier in the great city-state of Susa." §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 21) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§ "development of an active intergovernmental management and federalism, perhaps the earliest in history." §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§ "In the cities, thriving activities reigned, where along with the villages, professions of all kinds flourished, showing clear evidence of variety and stratification of professional and, hence, social classes in ancient Elam." §REF§ (Farazmand 2009, 22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton. §REF§ "The development of centers on the Susiana plane, beginning with Middle Cha1colithic Chogha Mish and culminating in the rise of Susa during the Late Chalcolithic. suggests a trend towards regional control in some economic and administrative activities (Delougaz and Kantor 1996, Hole 1987b: 89-90). This trend towards centralization may also be suggested by the presence of possible elite or "Khan's" houses during this time at several sites (Hole 1987a: 41). In spite of these trends, Chalcolithic society throughout Khuzistan presents a strong egalitarian appearance. During the Middle and Late Chalcolithic, differential access to resources may have involved less archaeological1y visible items such as staples. access to water, and control over labor, as it appears to have done at this time in Mesopotamia (Stein 1994)." §REF§ (Peasnall in Peregrine and Ember 2002, 173) §REF§ The Middle Chalcolithic corresponds to 4800-3900 BCE and the Late Chalcolithic corresponds to 3900-3500 BCE in this book.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

9

Susiana

Levant-Mesopotamia

48.235564

32.382851

Susa (Shush)

IR

Iran

Southwest Asia

45

Iran

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

494

IrSusa3

-3,100

-2,675

Susa III

ir_susa_3

LEGACY

While no information could be found in the sources consulted regarding the polity's overall population, it is estimated that the largest settlement - Tall-i Malyan at Fars, Anshan region – may have had up to ten thousand inhabitants. §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 91) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§ However it is also believed that during this period there was a decrease in population following a rapid urbanisation of the mountain heartland, followed by a collapse and possible reversion to nomadism. §REF§ (Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 5) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art. §REF§ There were three tiers of settlement in the area: Susa, the centre and capital of the polity, the villages that surrounded Susa, and other small sites such as farmsteads or seasonal sheparding areas. §REF§ (Sumner 1988) Sumner, William. 1988. Frank Hole, (ed.) - 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran, Settlement and Society From Prehistory to the Islamic Conquest. Paleorient. Volume 14. Number 1. pp.177-179. §REF§ During the Susa III phase, Susa has been considered to have been the "centre of greatest economic activity in literate Iran", which led to it being annexed by Anshan. §REF§ (Potts 2016, 71) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. §REF§ During this time writing developed in response to the administrative requirements of urban societies during this period. §REF§ (Sumner 1988) Sumner, William. 1988. Frank Hole, (ed.) - 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran, Settlement and Society From Prehistory to the Islamic Conquest. Paleorient. Volume 14. Number 1. pp.177-179. §REF§ Administration was usually run through the temples in the urban centres, which would deal with anything from dealing with trade to accounting to government duties. §REF§ (Joseph 2011, 135) Joseph, George Gheverghese. The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition). Princeton University Press. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

9

Susiana

Levant-Mesopotamia

48.235564

32.382851

Susa (Shush)

IR

Iran

Southwest Asia

45

Iran

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

490

IrKhzM*

-5,100

-4,700

Susiana - Early Ubaid

ir_susiana_ubaid_1

LEGACY

"Chogha Mish became the largest site on the Susiana plan during the Middle Chalcolithic (Middle Susiana or Susiana b-d), during which time it extended over the whole site, an area of about 15 ha (Delougaz and Kantor 1996: 284). The settlement consisted primarily of domestic houses, most of which appear to have contained courtyards with associated pottery kilns (Delougaz and Kantor 1975: 95). As with the earlier settlement, a large monumental structure existed among the domestic houses during the end of the Middle Susiana phase (Kantor 1976: 27-28). This building had burned and, as a result, was particularly well~preserved. It contained buttressed exterior walls, whose thickness measured 2 m. The building covered an area of more than 12 x 15 m. The walls had been faced with plaster. The excavated portion of the building reveals an 'L' shaped hall and a number of small rooms (Kantor 1976: figure II). One room had been stacked full of painted pots. Ceramic was also found throughout the other rooms of the building. Another room contained a large number of flint nodules and blades, indicating its use as a lithic workshop. The remains of a large brick platform or terrace extended more than 15 m from the east side of the building." §REF§ (Peasnall in Peregrine and Ember 2002, 180) §REF§ Jaffarabad early settlement covered 2000 sq m. 16 sites have Jaffarabad type pottery in Susiana.Large dwelling rooms or halls associated with smaller storage facilities in a highly nucleated settlement. §REF§ (Hole 1987, 40) §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

9

Susiana

Levant-Mesopotamia

48.235564

32.382851

Susa (Shush)

IR

Iran

Southwest Asia

45

Iran

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

491

IrKhzL*

-4,700

-4,300

Susiana - Late Ubaid

ir_susiana_ubaid_2

LEGACY

This Late Ubaid phase of Susiana ran from 4700-4300 BCE. Eighty six sites have been recorded during the Choga Mish period §REF§ (Hole 1987, 42) §REF§ , showing that settlement hierarchies consisted of two levels: Choga Mish (the administrative or religious centre) and small villages. There was a degree of centralisation during this period through economic and administrative activities. §REF§ (Hole 1987, 40-41) §REF§ While no information could be found in the sources consulted regarding the polity's population, the population of Choga Mish is estimated to have had up to 3,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Hole 2006, 229) Hole, Frank in Carter, Robert A. Philip, Graham. eds. 2006. Beyond The Ubaid. Transformation and integration in the late prehistoric societies of the Middle East. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Illinois. §REF§ The beginning of this period saw an increase in agricultural processes which were made possible by the cattle-drawn plough and irrigation. §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 54) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

9

Susiana

Levant-Mesopotamia

48.235564

32.382851

Susa (Shush)

IR

Iran

Southwest Asia

45

Iran

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

487

IrArcha

-7,000

-6,000

Susiana - Muhammad Jaffar

ir_susiana_archaic

LEGACY

"The Archaic Susiana 0 Phase. The appearance of the Painted-Burnished variant of ware, a new class of painted pottery that provides antecedent for the entire Archaic Susiana ceramics, marks the transition to the Archaic period. Another site, Tappe Tuleʾi (named after an edible tuber), southwest of Andimesk in northwestern Ḵuzestān, is the only other site in ancient Kuzestan that was occupied during this phase (Hole, 1974; Idem, 1975). The fact that neither Tappe Tule'i nor Coga Bonut was located close to any detectable canal or source of water may be an indication of sufficient precipitation for dry farming. Faunal, floral, and phytolith (fossilized pollen) evidence from Coga Bonut indicated the presence of marshes in upper Susiana during this phase (Redding and Rosen in Alizadeh, pp. 129-49). Evidence of gazelle, onager, and domesticated sheep, goats, and dogs, as well as that of wheat and barley points to a mixed economy of farming, herding, and hunting in this phase. In addition to these species, the presence of bones of the giant Indian gerbil and bears at Čoḡā Bonut also indicates the wetter climate in this region during the initial phases of the Archaic period. The Painted-Burnished variant ware is fully represented at Tappe Tuleʾ'i, but is rare in the nearby Dehlorān (Deh Luran) plain to the north (FIGURE 5). Apart from this distinct class of early Neolithic Susiana pottery, the stone tools, chipped stone industry, and small objects such as T-shaped human figurines and animal figurines are almost indistinguishable among the two Susiana sites and Coga Safid and Alikos in Dehloran. The great similarity in the objects other than pottery suggests that while the stone industry and the manufacture of small clay and stone objects found at these sites may have had a shared origin, the Painted-Burnished variant ware was developed in Susiana proper. The architecture of the Archaic Susiana 0 phase at Coga Bonut consists of two separate buildings, but their complete plans cannot be restored (Alizadeh, fig. 10). A rather large rectangular structure is all that was left of one building that, based on its comparatively large size, must have been a hall or courtyard of a much larger structure. The three surviving walls are neatly made of long, cigar-shaped mud bricks laid as stretchers. Two platforms or buttresses, made of the same construction material, were built against the outer face of its southern wall. The western portion of this building, where the living quarters had been presumably located, was entirely destroyed, but the presence of two rows of headers, one slightly higher than the other, could have provided access to the rooms on this side. The other, smaller building was better preserved. The building material was the same as for the larger structure, but the neat division of space and the straightness of its walls indicate a certain degree of architectural sophistication, if not specialization, even in this early phase of architecture in Susiana. For reasons not known, sometime during the Archaic Susiana 0 phase, Coga Bonut was deserted and did not become reoccupied for at least a thousand years." §REF§ (Alizadeh 2009, Encyclopedia Iranica Online, <a class="external free" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coga-bonut-archaeological-site" rel="nofollow">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coga-bonut-archaeological-site</a>) §REF§ Four sites excavated: Choga Mish, Boneh Fazili, Chogha Bonut and Tula’i. §REF§ (Hole 1987, 39-40) §REF§ Tula’I is a herders’ camp, at the least a seasonal camp. 25 sites on the Susiana Plain that have ceramics of one or the other of the periods. No good information on agricultural settlement Choga Mish, Choga Bonut and Boneh Fazili have a large settlement.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

9

Susiana

Levant-Mesopotamia

48.235564

32.382851

Susa (Shush)

IR

Iran

Southwest Asia

45

Iran

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

488

IrKhzE*

-6,000

-5,700

Susiana A

ir_susiana_a

LEGACY

"Chogha Mish was already a sizable settlement by the Early Chalcolithic period (Early Susiana or Susiana a), covering an area of more than 3.5 ha (Delougaz and Kantor 1996: 280). Most other villages rarely exceeded I ha. Architecture consisted of large multiroom houses containing large living spaces and halls, and smaller storage rooms (Delougaz 1976). Houses appear to have been set close together, with some separated by narrow alleyways. A large brick platfonn measuring at least 6 x 8 m and containing at least six courses of brick was located among the domestic architecture (Delougaz and Kantor 1975: 94). Associated with this platform was a building of substantial size. Another large building was represented by the remains of a thick buttressed wall (Delougaz and Kantor 1975: 95)." §REF§ (Peasnall in Peregrine and Ember 2002, 180) §REF§

null

2024-11-29T22:47:33.607911Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

9

Susiana

Levant-Mesopotamia

48.235564

32.382851

Susa (Shush)

IR

Iran

Southwest Asia

45

Iran

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

489

IrKhzEM

-5,700

-5,100

Susiana B

ir_susiana_b

LEGACY

Susiana in sixth-fifth millennium: "In all respects, Susiana was large and rich enough to sustain a vigorous indigenous culture in parallel with, and separate from, that of Mesopotamia." §REF§ (Hole 2006, 228) Hole, Frank in Carter, Robert A. Philip, Graham. eds. 2006. Beyond The Ubaid. Transformation and integration in the late prehistoric societies of the Middle East. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Illinois. §REF§ Hajji Muhammad culture ca. 5800-5100 BCE - lower Mesopotamia and at least part of Susiana. Region "facilitated the irrigated cultivation of grains and cattle farming ... This was the initial phase of Ubaid culture, through which lower Mesopotamia would eventually take the lead in terms of technological and organisational development in the Near East. ... In terms of periodisation, the rise of Ubaid culture marks the end of the Neolithic and the beginning of the Chalcolithic period." §REF§ (Leverani 2014, 49) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London. §REF§ "Architecture and organization of space within a typical village is difficult to reconstruct. Most sites have been explored through limited exposures, and have not yielded coherent architectural plans (see Hole 1987a: 40). The only exception to this is the site of Jaffarabad located on the Susiana plane approximately 7 km north of Susa. During the Early Chalcolithic, this site consisted of an agglomeration of domestic mud brick structures made up of large long halls flanked by smaller rooms (Dollfus 1975: 18 and figures 6-7). One hall had an area of 11.5 x 3.15 m. Some of the domestic complexes had buttressed walls. Almost no open space existed between these structures. The artifacts recovered from the domestic complexes reflect normal domestic activities. The presence of kilns and wasters are the only evidence for craft production at the site (Dollfus 1975)." §REF§ (Peasnall in Peregrine and Ember 2002, 172) §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

9

Susiana

Levant-Mesopotamia

48.235564

32.382851

Susa (Shush)

IR

Iran

Southwest Asia

45

Iran

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

869

sv_swedish_emp

1,611

1,814

Swedish Empire

sv_swedish_emp

OTHER_TAG

null

Swedish Empire

null

2024-04-26T12:13:52.458442Z

2024-04-26T12:13:52.458457Z

null

17

Northern Europe

Iceland, Scandinavia, Finland, Baltics

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

855

ch_swiss_conf_3

1,799

1,848

Swiss Confederation - Napoleonic period

ch_swiss_conf_3

OTHER_TAG

null

Swiss Confederation

null

2024-04-10T10:16:56.765804Z

2024-04-10T10:16:56.765816Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

15

Central Europe

Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

854

ch_swiss_conf_2

1,516

1,798

Swiss Confederation - early modern period

ch_swiss_conf_2

OTHER_TAG

null

Swiss Confederation

null

2024-04-10T10:16:24.499810Z

2024-04-10T10:16:24.499822Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

15

Central Europe

Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

856

ch_swiss_conf_4

1,849

2,014

Swiss Confederation - modern period

ch_swiss_conf_4

OTHER_TAG

null

Swiss Confederation

null

2024-04-10T10:17:35.105963Z

2024-04-10T10:17:35.105978Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

15

Central Europe

Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

167

TrTabal

-900

-730

Tabal Kingdoms

tr_tabal_k

LEGACY

During the 900-730 BCE period the region of the Konya Plain was occupied by small independent states, that likely first evolved during the Neo-Hittite period. After the Assyrian invasion they became tribute-sending states to the Mesopotamian Empire but were otherwise "free to rule their states in whatever manner they wished, without interference from the Assyrian king". §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 243) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ Known as the kingdoms of 'Tabal', the term an Assyrian administrative designation rather than a political one §REF§ Competition, and Conflict in a Contested Periphery." in Richardson, Seth. ed. 2010. Rebellions and Peripheries in the Mesopotamian World. American Oriental Series 91. Eisenbrauns. Winona Lake. §REF§ §REF§ Competition, and Conflict in a Contested Periphery." in Richardson, Seth. ed. 2010. Rebellions and Peripheries in the Mesopotamian World. American Oriental Series 91. Eisenbrauns. Winona Lake. §REF§ , there were, according to Assyrian records, 24 of them in the mid-9th century BCE. This number had reduced by the middle of the 8th century, which suggests that the states conquered each other or had otherwise joined together to become larger kingdoms. §REF§ (Bryce 2002, 43) T Bryce. 2002. Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III in the mid-late 8th century listed five tributaries he possessed in Tabal: Tabal, Atuna, Tuhana, Ishtu(a)nda, and Hupishna. §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 141) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ Bryce (2012) adds a sixth kingdom to Tabal, Shinuhtu, which is "attested both in Luwian and Assyrian inscriptions dating to the reign of Sargon II. Shinuhtu's ruler at that time was a man called Kiyakiya (Assyrian Kiakki)." §REF§ (Bryce 2012, 141) T Bryce. 2012. The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History. Oxford University Press. Oxford. §REF§ The best-known Tabalean principality was Tuhana. Its capital was at the city later known as Tyana whose ruins lie in the modern Turkish village of Kemerhisar; here a stela of king Warpalawas was found in 1860. §REF§ (Radner 2013) Karen Radner. 2013. Tabal and Phrygia: problem neighbours in the West. Assyrian empire builders. University College London <a class="external free" href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sargon/essentials/countries/tabalandphrygia/" rel="nofollow">http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sargon/essentials/countries/tabalandphrygia/</a> §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

11

Konya Plain

Anatolia-Caucasus

32.521164

37.877845

Konya

TR

Turkey

Southwest Asia

43

Anatolia-Caucasus

Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}

217

DzTahrt

761

909

Tahert

dz_tahert

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

3

Maghreb

From Morocco to Libya

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

843

es_taifas

1,010

1,241

Taifas of Iberia

es_taifas

OTHER_TAG

null

Taifa of Albarracín, Taifa of Santa Maria do Algarve, Taifa of Algeciras, Taifa of Almería, Taifa of Alpuente, Taifa of Arcos, Taifa of Badajoz, Taifa of Carmona, Taifa of Ceuta, Taifa of Córdoba, Taifa of Dénia, Taifa of Granada, Taifa of Saltés and Huelva, Taifa of Murcia, Taifa of Morón, Taifa of

null

2024-04-10T08:31:37.688775Z

2024-04-10T08:31:37.688789Z

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

18

Southern Europe

Iberia, Italy

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

436

CoTairo

1,050

1,524

Tairona

co_tairona

LEGACY

The name Tairona is generally used in reference to the indigenous groups of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (a mountain range that stretches along Colombia's Caribbean coast) that came in contact with the Spanish in the sixteenth century, but it is also applied to the prehistoric societies that inhabited that same area, and which are mostly known through the artefacts they left behind. §REF§ (Bray 2003, 301) §REF§ Santiago Giraldo and Juana Saenz have recently estimated that the prehistoric Tairona phase started around 1050 and ended early in the sixteenth century, based on radiocarbon-dated goldwork and complete dated contexts. §REF§ (Giraldo 2015, personal communication) §REF§ Population and political organization At the time of the Spanish Conquest, the Tairona were organized into independent polities governed by a priestly class and a hierarchy of chiefs. §REF§ (Oyuela-Caycedo 2008, 423) §REF§ Most likely, this system began to emerge between the eleventh and the twelfth centuries, as suggested by the appearance of several new ceremonial buildings, new spaces dedicated to feasting activities, a general overhaul of the layout of settlements, and evidence for the expansion and intensification of agricultural activities. §REF§ (Giraldo 2010, 283) §REF§ The population of a typical Tairona polity likely numbered in the hundreds of thousands, with conservative estimates of as much as 500,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Langebaek 2005, 25-7) §REF§ §REF§ (Giraldo 2010, 57-58) §REF§ The largest settlements likely reached a population of a few hundred at the beginning of the Tairona phase, between a few hundred and 4,000 between the twelfth and the fourteenth centuries, and between 3,000 and 5,000 in the century immediately preceding the Spanish Conquest. §REF§ (Langebaek 2005, 25-7) §REF§ §REF§ (Giraldo 2010, 22-23, 110-111) §REF§ §REF§ (Giraldo 2014) §REF§ §REF§ (Oyuela-Caycedo 2008, 419-423) §REF§ §REF§ (Moore 2014, 395) §REF§ §REF§ (Giraldo 2009, 25) §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

31

North Colombia

Caribbean

-73.640388

10.780287

Santa Marta

CO

Colombia

South America

21

Caribbean

Caribbean islands, Panama, coastal Columbia-Venezuela

{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}

261

CnTangE

617

763

Tang Dynasty I

cn_tang_dyn_1

LEGACY

The Tang Dynasty is widely considered a cultural and political high point of imperial China. The dynasty was founded by Li Yuan, the Duke of Tang, when the threat of insurrection forced the previous Sui dynasty court to flee from Luoyang, the capital, to Yangzhou. Li Yuan marched to Luoyang and seized the abandoned capital in 618 CE. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 1) Charles Benn. 2002. China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ He became the first emperor of the Tang dynasty (r. 618-626 CE) and is posthumously known as Gaozu. Under the Early Tang Dynasty, the capital was moved from Chang'an to Luoyang. §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 37) Mark Edward Lewis. 2009. China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ We divide the Dynasty into an Early period (618-763 CE) and Late period (763-907 CE), separated by the decline in imperial authority and instability of experienced by the Tang in the 750s, culminating in the An Lushan rebellion to close out the Early period (755‒763 CE). Under Early Tang leadership, China's territory expanded considerably. Conquered territories included large areas of Central Asia and northern Korea (Koguryō). §REF§ (Benn 2002, 2) Charles Benn. 2002. China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ In later years, however, China pursued a defensive, non-expansionist policy towards groups on the steppe and frontier. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 8) Charles Benn. 2002. China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The dynasty, also known as the Tang (T'ang) Empire or Li Dynasty, is famous for its poetry, literature, increased trade and general cosmopolitanism. §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 1) Mark Edward Lewis. 2009. China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ In 660 CE, Empress Wu became the first woman to rule China, first governing as a regent to her young son and later ruling as empress dowager and regent until her death in 705 CE. §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 4-7) Mark Edward Lewis. 2009. China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Emperor Xuanzong's 44-year reign (712‒756 CE) ushered in a cultural and economic golden age, which declined as he aged and ended in rebellion and an overthrow of the dynasty. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 8-10) Charles Benn. 2002. China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Population and political organization Emperor Gaozu worked to restore control of the imperial government that had been established by the Sui Dynasty, and founded frontier garrisons controlled directly by the capital. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 3) Charles Benn. 2002. China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The Tang instituted the much discussed 'equal fields' system, in which land owned by the state was parcelled out in equal allotments to citizens in return for taxation. The Tang also minted many new coins in an attempt to stabilize the economy. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 3) Charles Benn. 2002. China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ The Early Tang imperial government was characterized by an emperor who theoretically had absolute power, but was often in practice overruled by ministers or regents. §REF§ (Rodzinski 1979, 118) Witold Rodzinski. 1979. A History of China, Volume 1. Oxford: Pergamon Press. §REF§ The central government was headed by three chief ministers who ran the Imperial Chancellery, Imperial Secretariat, and the Department for State Affairs. §REF§ (Rodzinski 1979, 118) Witold Rodzinski. 1979. A History of China, Volume 1. Oxford: Pergamon Press. §REF§ The government also included a large central and state bureaucracy, marked by the expanding use of merit examinations. §REF§ (Roberts 1996, 94) J. A. G. Roberts. 1996. A History of China, Volume 1: Prehistory to c. 1800. Phoenix Mill: Alan Sutton Publishing. §REF§ The population of the Early Tang Dynasty is estimated at 37 million in 700 CE and increased to almost 53 million by 754 CE. §REF§ (Rodzinski 1979, 129) Witold Rodzinski. 1979. A History of China, Volume 1. Oxford: Pergamon Press. §REF§ In the 8th century, there were an estimated 1 million people living in Chang'an. §REF§ (Roberts 1996, 106) J. A. G. Roberts. 1996. A History of China, Volume 1: Prehistory to c. 1800. Phoenix Mill: Alan Sutton Publishing. §REF§

null

JR: This was previously named "Early Tang". However, Ruth Mostern noted that our use of "Early Tang" for 617-763 CE and "Later Tang" for 763-907 was confusing because "Later Tang" is used by historians to refer to a short-lived regime 923-37.

null

2024-04-15T14:36:42.507728Z

{'id': 15, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

20

Middle Yellow River Valley

North China

112.517587

34.701825

Luoyang

CN

China

East Asia

58

North China

North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang

{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}

264

CnTangL

763

907

Tang Dynasty II

cn_tang_dyn_2

LEGACY

The Tang Dynasty is widely considered a cultural and political high point of imperial China. The dynasty was founded by Li Yuan, the Duke of Tang, when the threat of insurrection forced the previous Sui dynasty court to flee from Luoyang, the capital, to Yangzhou. Li Yuan marched to Luoyang and seized the abandoned capital in 618 CE. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 1) Charles Benn. 2002. China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ He became the first emperor of the Tang dynasty (r. 618-626 CE) and is posthumously known as Gaozu. Under the Early Tang Dynasty, the capital was moved from Chang'an to Luoyang. §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 37) Mark Edward Lewis. 2009. China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ We divide the Dynasty into an Early period (618-763 CE) and Late period (763-907 CE), separated by the decline in imperial authority and instability of experienced by the Tang in the 750s, culminating in the An Lushan rebellion to close out the Early period (755‒763 CE). The Tang Dynasty continued to rule China after the defeat of the An Lushan rebellion (755‒763 CE). §REF§ (Perkins 1999, 11) Dorothy Perkins. 1999. Encyclopedia of China. New York: Routledge. §REF§ However, the government never fully recovered from its impact. §REF§ (Perkins 1999, 11) Dorothy Perkins. 1999. Encyclopedia of China. New York: Routledge. §REF§ Tang border defences were devastated, leading to attacks from outsiders and pirates. The Tang government maintained an often-uneasy alliance with the Uighurs against the Tibetans. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 12) Charles Benn. 2002. Daily Life in Traditional China: The Tang Dynasty. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. §REF§ In 790, Tibetan forces occupied Chinese land in eastern Turkestan and ended Chinese rule in the region for almost a thousand years. §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 64) Mark Edward Lewis. 2009. China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ §REF§ (Benn 2002, 11) Charles Benn. 2002. Daily Life in Traditional China: The Tang Dynasty. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. §REF§ Late Tang China was marked by conflict, with the occasional brief period of peace. Emperor Xianzong's campaigns against rebel governors in the early 9th century restored almost all of China back to direct rule under the Tang government. §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 64) Mark Edward Lewis. 2009. China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ Xianzong was successful in restoring stability to the Tang Empire and his death was followed by 40 years of peace. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 16) Charles Benn. 2002. Daily Life in Traditional China: The Tang Dynasty. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. §REF§ Later, Emperor Wuzong persecuted Buddhists and adherents of other non-indigenous religions. His movement reached its height in 845 CE and most monasteries were destroyed, but his successors reversed his anti-Buddhist policies. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 16-17) Charles Benn. 2002. Daily Life in Traditional China: The Tang Dynasty. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. §REF§ The dynasty fell in 881 CE after a series of internal rebellions, leading to about a century characterized by the rise of powerful warlords in the south and political turmoil in the north §REF§ (Ebrey 1996, 136) Patricia Buckley Ebrey. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ before another period of Chinese efflorescence under the Northern Song Dynasty. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 18) Charles Benn. 2002. Daily Life in Traditional China: The Tang Dynasty. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. §REF§ Population and political organization The Late Tang Dynasty was marked by tensions between the central government and military garrisons. §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 60) Mark Edward Lewis. 2009. China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ In 763 CE, two-thirds of the provincial governors were military commanders. §REF§ (Benn 2002, 12) Charles Benn. 2002. Daily Life in Traditional China: The Tang Dynasty. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. §REF§ Tang emperors attempted to weaken the central bureaucracy by having military governors pay direct tribute instead of taxes. §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 63) Mark Edward Lewis. 2009. China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The Tang government implemented the two-tax system in 780 CE, which replaced the 'equal land' distribution system of the Early Tang. §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 65) Mark Edward Lewis. 2009. China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ This system of taxation represented an attempt to weaken military garrison governments and to divert taxation income to the central government. §REF§ (Lewis 2009, 65) Mark Edward Lewis. 2009. China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. §REF§ The Late Tang central government was marked by the rise of eunuchs. Eunuchs did not hold powerful positions in the Early Tang government, but in the later period the Department of the Inner Palace, staffed by eunuchs, became a powerful governmental authority ‒ more powerful than the emperor's chief ministers. §REF§ (Dalby 1979, 571-72) Michael T. Dalby. 1979. 'Court Politics in Late T'ang Times', in The Cambridge History of China, Volume 3: Sui and T'ang China, 589-906 AD, Part One, edited by D. C. Twitchett, 561-681. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Because the dynasty was marked by almost constant conflict, the population of Late Tang China is difficult to estimate. In 766 CE there were between 40 million and 55 million citizens, §REF§ (Rodzinski 1979, 130) Witold Rodzinski. 1979. A History of China, Volume 1. Oxford: Pergamon Press. §REF§ and in 900 CE there were between 60 million and 80 million. §REF§ (Lorge 2005, 182) Peter A. Lorge. 2005. War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China, 900‒1795. Abingdon: Routledge. §REF§

null

JR: This was previously named "Later Tang". However, Ruth Mostern noted that our use of "Early Tang" for 617-763 CE and "Later Tang" for 763-907 was confusing because "Later Tang" is used by historians to refer to a short-lived regime 923-37.

null

2024-04-15T14:33:24.590598Z

{'id': 12, 'text': 'a new_private_comment_text new approach for polity'}

20

Middle Yellow River Valley

North China

112.517587

34.701825

Luoyang

CN

China

East Asia

58

North China

North China without Tibet, Inner Mongolia, and Xinjiang

{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}

581

gt_tikal_terminal_classic

870

950

Terminal Classic Tikal

gt_tikal_terminal_classic

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

23

Mexico

{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}

11

MxFormT

-100

99

Terminal Formative Basin of Mexico

mx_basin_of_mexico_6

LEGACY

The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the phase of its prehistory known as the Terminal Formative period (c. 100 BCE-99 CE). The most notable aspect of this period is the emergence of Teotihuacan as the largest and most populous city in the New World: by 150 CE, it had a population ranging between 60,000 to 80,000 inhabitants distributed across an area of about 20 kilometers. §REF§ (Sugiyama 2005: 1) Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P56I2R2H" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/P56I2R2H</a> §REF§ Political power was inherently theocratic; §REF§ Barba de Piña Chán, Beatriz. (1980). Tlapacoya: Los Principios de la Teocracia en la Cuenca de Mexico. Biblioteca Enciclopedica del Estado de Mexico, p.13-42, 95-142. §REF§ §REF§ Plunket, Patricia and Gabriela Uruñuela. (2012). "Where East Meets West: The Formative in Mexico's Central Highlands." Journal of Archaeological 20(1): 1-51 §REF§ §REF§ Carballo, David M. (2016). Urbanization and Religion in Ancient Central Mexico. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p.73-215. §REF§ beyond that, the exact administrative mechanisms prevalent at the time remain unclear.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

27

Basin of Mexico

Mexico

-99.13

19.43

Ciudad de Mexico

MX

Mexico

North America

23

Mexico

{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}

761

th_reform_period_thailand

1,887

1,932

Thailand Reform Period

th_reform_period_thailand

OTHER_TAG

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

41

Mainland Southeast Asia

Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, south Vietnam

{'id': 10, 'name': 'Southeast Asia'}

699

in_thanjavur_maratha_k

1,675

1,799

Thanjavur Maratha Kingdom

in_thanjavur_maratha_k

POL_SA_SI

The Thanjavur Maratha Kingdom was established in 1675 CE when the Maratha general Ekoji Bhonsle took control of Thanjavur and crowned himself Raja of the Thanjavur Maratha Kingdom. The capital of the Thanjavur Maratha Kingdom was the city of Thanjavur. The Thanjavur Maratha kings were devout Shaivist Hindus and contributed greatly to literature and philosophic thought. §REF§ (Srinivasan 1984, 44) Srinivasan, C.R. 1984. ‘Some Interesting Aspects of the Maratha Rule as Gleaned from the Tamil Copper-Plates of the Thanjavur Marathas’. Journal of the Epigraphical Society of India. Vol. 11. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PXQ87WQH/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/PXQ87WQH/collection</a> §REF§ §REF§ (Appasamy 1980, 11) Appasamy, Jaya. 1980. Thanjavur Painting of the Maratha Period. Vol. 1. New Delhi. Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/35BU75NG/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/35BU75NG/collection</a> §REF§ The Thanjavur Maratha kings also patronized temple projects. §REF§ (Appasamy 1980, 9) Appasamy, Jaya. 1980. Thanjavur Painting of the Maratha Period. Vol. 1. New Delhi. Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/35BU75NG/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/35BU75NG/collection</a> §REF§ During certain periods of the Thanjavur Maratha rule there was political turmoil and regional fighting. By the end of the 18th century the Thanjavur Maratha kings were financially indebted to the British trading companies in the region. §REF§ (Cerulli 2020, 227) Cerulli, Anthony. ‘Allegory and History, Life and Embodiment’ In Body and Cosmos: Studies in Early Indian Medical and Astral Sciences in Honor of Kenneth G. Zysk. Edited by Jacob Schmidt-Madsen et al. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FTSCD638/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/FTSCD638/collection</a> §REF§ In 1799 CE the Thanjavur Maratha Kingdom came under the Madras Presidency under the British East India Company. §REF§ (Appasamy 1980, 21) Appasamy, Jaya. 1980. Thanjavur Painting of the Maratha Period. Vol. 1. New Delhi. Abhinav Publications. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/35BU75NG/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/7F5SEVNA/items/35BU75NG/collection</a> §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

40

Southern India

Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana

{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}

74

GrCrEmr

824

961

The Emirate of Crete

gr_crete_emirate

LEGACY

Between 824 and 962, Crete was ruled by Andalusian Arabs. The latter had taken the island from the Byzantines (who subsequently lost the control of the maritime trade routes in the Aegean specifically and the eastern Mediterranean generally), and made it into an emirate, with Khandax, i.e. modern-day Heraklion, as its capital. The surviving evidence for the organization of the emirate and the Cretan society of the period is, unfortunately, scanty, with almost no archaeology and few, contradictory written sources. The original Byzantine sources are biased against the Arabs, and quite a few modern scholars have taken these sources at face value, presenting the Arabs as uncivilized barbarians, overly concerned with piracy. In fact, based on what is known about Arabic civilization in the rest of the Mediterranean at this time, it is likely that the Emirate of Crete was similarly sophisticated in its culture and social organization, though to its prolonged animosity with the Byzantines, it almost certainly retained a strong militaristic character as well. In 962, the Byzantines regained control of the island. §REF§ (Christides 2011, 17) Vassilios Christides. 2011. 'The cycle of the Arab-Byzantine struggle in Crete (ca. 824/6-961 AD) in the illuminate manuscript of Skylitzes (Codex Martinensis Graecus Vitr. 26-2)'. Craeco-Arabica 9: 17. §REF§ §REF§ (Christides 1984) Vassilios Christides. 1984. The Conquest of Crete by Arabs (ca. 824). A Turning Point in the Struggle Between Byzantium and Islam. Athens: Akademia Athenon. §REF§ Population and political organization A rough estimate of the island's population at this time is of 250,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Papadopoulos 1948, 37) Ioannes B. Papadopoulos. 1948. Η Κρήτη υπό τους Σαρακηνούς (824-961). Athens: Byzantinisch-Neugriechischen Jahrbücher. §REF§ In terms of its political organization, Crete was divided into forty districts and was ruled by an emir who only nominally recognized the Caliph of Baghdad. §REF§ (Christides 1984) Vassilios Christides. 1984. The Conquest of Crete by Arabs (ca. 824). A Turning Point in the Struggle Between Byzantium and Islam. Athens: Akademia Athenon. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

4

Crete

Southeastern Europe

25.1442

35.3387

Heraklion

GR

Greece

Europe

19

Southeastern Europe

Frm. Yugoslavia, Romania-Moldova, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

271

UaSky3K

-429

-225

Third Scythian Kingdom

ua_skythian_k_3

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

16

Eastern Europe

Belarus, non-Steppe Ukraine and European Russia

{'id': 5, 'name': 'Europe'}

394

CnTibet

620

846

Tibet Kingdom

cn_tibet_k

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

12

Tibet

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

370

UzTimur

1,370

1,526

Timurid Empire

uz_timurid_emp

LEGACY

The Timurid Emirate was a polity begun by Timur who was initially an amir within the Chagatai Khanate. §REF§ (Wise Bauer 2013, 558) Wise Bauer, S. 2013. The History of the Renaissance World: From the Rediscovery of Aristotle to the Conquest of Constantinople. W. W. Norton & Company. §REF§ After taking power at Balkh in 1370 Timur maintained a nominal allegiance to the Chagatai khan while effectively ruling as an independent state. §REF§ (Khan 2003, 33) A Khan. 2003. A Historical Atlas of Uzbekistan. The Rosen Publishing Group. §REF§ Timur's brutal conquests over Persia and the sub-continent created a large empire covering about 5,500,000 square kilometers with a population of perhaps 49 million in 1400 CE. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978) Collin McEverdy. Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. Penguin Books Ltd. §REF§ In his desire to create a great empire, during his conquests Timur "rounded up craftspeople in all fields and sent them off to his capital at Samarkand. ... He assembled the most highly skilled manpower from many countries and traditions, an astonishingly rich assemblage of masters in virtually every field of the arts and crafts." §REF§ (Starr 2013) Frederick S. Starr. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton. §REF§ Timurid government was a complex Persian-model professional bureaucracy which functionally distinguished between civilian and military branches of government. §REF§ (Subtelny 2007, 68) Maria Subtelny. 2007. Timurids in Transition: Turko-Persian Politics and Acculturation in Medieval Iran. BRILL. §REF§ The ruler was assisted by a vizier §REF§ (Starr 2013) Frederick S. Starr. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton. §REF§ who often stayed in his post after the previous Timurid amir had died. §REF§ (Subtelny 2007, 69) Maria Subtelny. 2007. Timurids in Transition: Turko-Persian Politics and Acculturation in Medieval Iran. BRILL. §REF§ The non-sedentary origin and culture of the rulers might be reflected in the departments of the Timurid diwan which were "concerned primarily with financial and bureaucratic matters, including chancery correspondence." §REF§ (Subtelny 2007, 68) Maria Subtelny. 2007. Timurids in Transition: Turko-Persian Politics and Acculturation in Medieval Iran. BRILL. §REF§ In the regions "Timur was notably lax at establishing effective and loyal governments ... conquered lands had their own governing bodies ... he was content to leave them be." §REF§ (Starr 2013) Frederick S. Starr. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton. §REF§ However, (presumably closer to the center of the polity in Central Asia) there was governor or mayor called darugha §REF§ (Marozzi 2004, 141) J Marozzi. 2004. Tamerlane. HarperCollinsPublishers. London. §REF§ who owed his authority directly to the Timurid amir. §REF§ (Marozzi 2004, 205) J Marozzi. 2004. Tamerlane. HarperCollinsPublishers. London. §REF§ Timur's descendants divided some of the Timurid territories into provinces, including Samarkand and Bukhara. §REF§ (Khan 2003, 35) A Khan. 2003. A Historical Atlas of Uzbekistan. The Rosen Publishing Group. §REF§ Uzbek nomads eventually conquered the feuding provinces of the Timurid Empire. §REF§ (Khan 2003, 35) A Khan. 2003. A Historical Atlas of Uzbekistan. The Rosen Publishing Group. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

23

Sogdiana

Turkestan

66.93817

39.631284

Samarkand

UZ

Uzbekistan

Central Eurasia

13

Turkestan

Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakstan, Xinjiang

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

580

bo_titicaca_early_pacajes

1,150

1,450

Titicaca Basin - Early Pacajes phase

bo_titicaca_early_pacajes

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

32

Andes

From Ecuador to Chile

{'id': 6, 'name': 'South America and Caribbean'}

230

DzTlmcn

1,235

1,554

Tlemcen

dz_tlemcen

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

3

Maghreb

From Morocco to Libya

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

467

AfTochr

-129

29

Tocharians

af_tocharian

LEGACY

The period of Sogdian and Bactrian history between the disintegration of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom in the late 2nd century BCE and the rise of the Kushan Empire in the 1st century CE is poorly understood. The region was politically fragmented and the local settled populations were subjected to nomadic invasions, notably by a group of pastoralists and traders known to us by their Chinese name, Yuezhi. §REF§ (Benjamin 2006) Benjamin, Craig. 2006. "The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia." In Ēran Ud Anērān: Studies Presented to Boris Ilich Marshak on the Occasion of His 70th Birthday, edited by Matteo Compareti, Paola Raffeta, and Gianroberto Scarcia, Electronic version. Transoxiana Webfestschrift Series I. <a class="external free" href="http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/benjamin.html" rel="nofollow">http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/benjamin.html</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KEWTMPWX" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KEWTMPWX</a>. §REF§ §REF§ (Liu 2001, 264-65) Liu, Xinru. 2001. "Migration and Settlement of the Yuezhi-Kushan: Interaction and Interdependence of Nomadic and Sedentary Societies." Journal of World History 12 (2): 261-92. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QZA3GBJ7" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QZA3GBJ7</a>. §REF§ The Yuezhi are also sometimes referred to as 'Tochari' by scholars who believe they spoke a Tocharian language, part of an extinct Indo-European language group. §REF§ (Benjamin 2006) Benjamin, Craig. 2006. "The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia." In Ēran Ud Anērān: Studies Presented to Boris Ilich Marshak on the Occasion of His 70th Birthday, edited by Matteo Compareti, Paola Raffeta, and Gianroberto Scarcia, Electronic version. Transoxiana Webfestschrift Series I. <a class="external free" href="http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/benjamin.html" rel="nofollow">http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/benjamin.html</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KEWTMPWX" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KEWTMPWX</a>. §REF§ (Others argue that their original language was eastern Iranic or proto-Turkic.) §REF§ (Hill 2009, 312) Hill, John E. 2009. Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. An Annotated Translation of the Chronicle on the "Western Regions" from the Hou Hanshu. Charleston, SC: BookSurge Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/67NGJHIK" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/67NGJHIK</a>. §REF§ In the mid-1st millennium BCE and perhaps even earlier, the Yuezhi were living on the steppes to the north of China. §REF§ (Liu 2001, 264-65) Liu, Xinru. 2001. "Migration and Settlement of the Yuezhi-Kushan: Interaction and Interdependence of Nomadic and Sedentary Societies." Journal of World History 12 (2): 261-92. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QZA3GBJ7" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QZA3GBJ7</a>. §REF§ However, after coming into conflict with other nomadic groups, the Xiongnu and Wusun, they migrated towards Sogdiana. §REF§ (Benjamin 2006) Benjamin, Craig. 2006. "The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia." In Ēran Ud Anērān: Studies Presented to Boris Ilich Marshak on the Occasion of His 70th Birthday, edited by Matteo Compareti, Paola Raffeta, and Gianroberto Scarcia, Electronic version. Transoxiana Webfestschrift Series I. <a class="external free" href="http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/benjamin.html" rel="nofollow">http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/benjamin.html</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KEWTMPWX" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KEWTMPWX</a>. §REF§ By 129 BCE, when the Han Chinese diplomat Zhang Qian visited the Yuezhi court on the Oxus river, they were ruling over a region that included parts of the old Hellenistic Greco-Bactrian kingdom. §REF§ (Liu 2001, 264-65) Liu, Xinru. 2001. "Migration and Settlement of the Yuezhi-Kushan: Interaction and Interdependence of Nomadic and Sedentary Societies." Journal of World History 12 (2): 261-92. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QZA3GBJ7" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QZA3GBJ7</a>. §REF§ In the early 1st century CE, the first Kushan king, Kujula Kadphises, seized power and began ruling over south-eastern Sogdiana, marking the end of our Yuezhi period. §REF§ (Hill 2009, 345) Hill, John E. 2009. Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. An Annotated Translation of the Chronicle on the "Western Regions" from the Hou Hanshu. Charleston, SC: BookSurge Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/67NGJHIK" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/67NGJHIK</a>. §REF§ Kujula Kadphises was probably a member of one of five Yuezhi factions or subtribes, which he succeeded in unifying through military conquest, §REF§ (Hill 2009, 345) Hill, John E. 2009. Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. An Annotated Translation of the Chronicle on the "Western Regions" from the Hou Hanshu. Charleston, SC: BookSurge Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/67NGJHIK" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/67NGJHIK</a>. §REF§ but even this is disputed. Population and political organization The Yuezhi in Bactria and Sogdiana seem to have been organized into a federation of five tribes that competed for political supremacy in the new territory. §REF§ (Liu 2001, 272) Liu, Xinru. 2001. "Migration and Settlement of the Yuezhi-Kushan: Interaction and Interdependence of Nomadic and Sedentary Societies." Journal of World History 12 (2): 261-92. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QZA3GBJ7" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/QZA3GBJ7</a>. §REF§ There is no written or numismatic evidence of a centralized Yuezhi state with a single paramount ruler before the rise of Kujula Kadphises. §REF§ (Hill 2009, 345) Hill, John E. 2009. Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. An Annotated Translation of the Chronicle on the "Western Regions" from the Hou Hanshu. Charleston, SC: BookSurge Publishing. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/67NGJHIK" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/67NGJHIK</a>. §REF§ Historian Craig Benjamin has characterized Yuezhi control over the sedentary population of northern Bactria and Sogdia as that of a militarily superior ruling dynasty of nomads, 'pastoralist conquerors' whose 'nominal sovereignty' was acknowledged by the locals because they feared violence if they refused to submit. §REF§ (Benjamin 2006) Benjamin, Craig. 2006. "The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia." In Ēran Ud Anērān: Studies Presented to Boris Ilich Marshak on the Occasion of His 70th Birthday, edited by Matteo Compareti, Paola Raffeta, and Gianroberto Scarcia, Electronic version. Transoxiana Webfestschrift Series I. <a class="external free" href="http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/benjamin.html" rel="nofollow">http://www.transoxiana.org/Eran/Articles/benjamin.html</a>. Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KEWTMPWX" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KEWTMPWX</a>. §REF§ Secure estimates for the combined population of the ruling Yuezhi and the settled population under their control in this period are lacking.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

23

Sogdiana

Turkestan

66.93817

39.631284

Samarkand

UZ

Uzbekistan

Central Eurasia

8

Afghanistan

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

152

JpTokgw

1,603

1,868

Tokugawa Shogunate

jp_tokugawa_shogunate

LEGACY

The Tokugawa period, also known as the Edo period, ran from 1603 to 1868 CE. Sometimes the slightly earlier start date of 1600 is chosen in recognition of Tokugawa Ieyasu's decisive victory at the Battle of Sekigahara; however, we have selected the 1603 date, which marks his official appointment as shogun. Although the emperor remained the official head of state, the Tokugawa shoguns ruled Japan. The rise to power of the Tokugawa Shogunate marked an end to the internal strife and warfare that had characterized the preceding century. Tokugawa Ieyasu and his immediate successors set about limiting the power of their rivals and instituting new policies aimed at maintaining stability and centralizing Japan's government. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 54) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ The 'peak' of the Tokugawa period corresponds to the years between 1688 and 1704 CE, known as the Genroku period, which saw the development of a distinct urban culture and the proliferation of art, theatre and fiction. §REF§ (Totman 1993, 280) Conrad Totman. 1993. Early Modern Japan. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ During the early modern period the Japanese polity consisted of three major islands: Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku. §REF§ (Totman 1993, 3-4) Conrad Totman. 1993. Early Modern Japan. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§ Eventually, economic difficulties and the threat of Western encroachment helped to bring about the end of the Tokugawa Shogunate. The period came to an end with the resignation of the last Tokugawa shogun in 1867 and the imperial restoration in 1868. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 12) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Population and political organization The Tokugawa shogunate built on the work of the generals Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582 CE) and Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598 CE), who between 1568 and 1590 succeeded in uniting all the daimyō (local military lords) under the command of a military leader into a 'national confederation'. §REF§ (Hall 2008, 1) John Whitney Hall. 2008. 'Introduction', in The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 4: Early Modern Japan, edited by Kozo Yamamura, 1-39. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Theoretically, the daimyō maintained administrative authority in their own territories, but in practice they were expected to follow the guidance of the shogunate. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Tokugawa Ieyasu and his successors pursued a policy of 'orthodoxy and stability', §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ aimed at consolidating their own power and limiting the ability of their rivals to amass enough power or wealth to enable them to challenge the shogunate. The success of these policies enabled the Tokugawa family to preside over a period of peace and prosperity and rule Japan for the next 268 years. §REF§ (Hall 2008, 6) John Whitney Hall. 2008. 'Introduction', in The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 4: Early Modern Japan, edited by Kozo Yamamura, 1-39. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ As well as peace, political stability and the centralization of power by the shoguns, the Tokugawa period was characterized by economic prosperity, rising urbanization and the closings of Japan's borders to the wider world in the 1630s. §REF§ (Hall 2008, 1, 6) John Whitney Hall. 2008. 'Introduction', in The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 4: Early Modern Japan, edited by Kozo Yamamura, 1-39. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. §REF§ Theoretically, class was determined by birth and social mobility was prohibited. Influenced by Chinese models, the social order was formalized and essentially frozen in a hierarchy known as shi-nō-kō-shō, 'warrior-peasant-artisan-merchant'. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Despite the shogunate's concerted attempts to maintain a strict social orthodoxy, however, the stable and economically prosperous conditions led to a range of social changes, including increasing urbanization and the rise of the merchant class, who (although they were theoretically socially inferior) now held much of the country's wealth. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ Now that there was no need for the majority of those of samurai rank to be actively engaged in military activities, the warrior class became bureaucratized, a development that went hand-in-hand with a romanticization of the warrior ideal and the codification of proper rules of behaviour. §REF§ (Henshall 2012, 56) Kenneth Henshall. 2012. A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. §REF§ During the Tokugawa period, population censuses were carried out. However, they did not take all members of the population into account and various scholars have therefore used supplementary data to produce what they hope are more accurate estimates. §REF§ (Deal 2005, 63) William E. Deal. 2005. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. §REF§ Estimates for the beginning of the period (1600 CE) range from around 15 §REF§ (Farris 2006, 212) William Wayne Farris. 2006. Japan's Medieval Population: Famine, Fertility, and Warfare in a Transformative Age. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. §REF§ to 22 §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 181) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. London: Penguin Books. §REF§ million. The population rose to around 30 million by the end of the period. §REF§ (McEvedy and Jones 1978, 181) Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones. 1978. Atlas of World Population History. London: Penguin Books. §REF§ §REF§ (Totman 1993, 251) Conrad Totman. 1993. Early Modern Japan. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

21

Kansai

Northeast Asia

135.7622

35.02528

Kyoto

JP

Japan

East Asia

14

Northeast Asia

Korea, Japan, forest part of Manchuria, Russian Far East

{'id': 4, 'name': 'East Asia'}

14

MxToltc

900

1,199

Toltecs

mx_toltec

LEGACY

The Basin or Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly corresponding to modern-day Mexico City. Here, we are interested in the period when the Basin was under the control of a city known as Tula (c. 900-1199 CE). Some scholars have argued that Tula corresponded to Tollan, the capital of the Toltecs; according to the Aztecs as well as other Mesoamerican sources, the Toltecs were the Aztec's hegemonic predecessors in the region. §REF§ (Healan and Cobean 2012: 372) Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FZJZ92TE" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FZJZ92TE</a>. §REF§ Tula itself had up to 60,000 inhabitants. §REF§ (Carballo 2019: pers. comm. to E. Cioni and G. Nazzaro) §REF§ The Basin of Mexico experienced an increase in the number of settlements, and archaeological data suggest that the rural population had access to the same material goods and trading networks as Tula. §REF§ (Healan and Cobean 2012: 377) Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FZJZ92TE" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FZJZ92TE</a>. §REF§ There is no evidence that Tula was the capital of an empire, but it is clear that its influence extended beyond the confines of the Basin of Mexico, and that it extracted food and other revenue from its surrounding region. The city's many buildings with large halls and evidence for feasts and other types of large gatherings, as well as depictions of processions, suggest that, perhaps like Teotihuacan, it may have relied on an administrative system wherein power was distributed among different sectors of society. §REF§ (Healan and Cobean 2012: 380) Seshat URL: <a class="external free" href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FZJZ92TE" rel="nofollow">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FZJZ92TE</a>. §REF§

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

27

Basin of Mexico

Mexico

-99.13

19.43

Ciudad de Mexico

MX

Mexico

North America

23

Mexico

{'id': 7, 'name': 'North America'}

684

Toro

1,830

1,896

Toro

ug_toro_k

POL_AFR_EAST

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

2

East Africa

Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

625

zi_torwa_rozvi

1,494

1,850

Torwa-Rozvi

zi_torwa_rozvi

POL_AFR_SA

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

6

Southern Africa

Namibia, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique and south

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

623

zi_toutswe

700

1,250

Toutswe

zi_toutswe

POL_AFR_SA

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

6

Southern Africa

Namibia, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique and south

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

638

so_tunni_sultanate

800

1,200

Tunni Sultanate

so_tunni_sultanate

POL_AFR_EAST

The Tunni Sultanate was a Somalian Sultanate that originated sometime in the nineth century CE on the Benadir Coast. The Tunni Sultanate had established its capital at Qoryooley. §REF§ (Mukhtar 2003, 50) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2003. Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/J8WZB6VI/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/J8WZB6VI/collection</a> §REF§ The Tunni Sultanate was one of the first groups in Somalia to embrace Islam. The language spoken within the Sultanate was a local language called Af-Maay, while inscriptions from the twelfth century CE suggest that some within the Sultante knew the Arabic language. §REF§ (Mukhtar 2003, 50) Mukhtar, Mohamed H. 2003. Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/J8WZB6VI/collection">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/items/J8WZB6VI/collection</a> §REF§; §REF§ (Tamrat 2008, 137) Tamrat, Taddesse. 2008. ‘Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn’ In the Cambridge History of Africa: c. 1050 – c.1600 vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp 98-182. Seshat URL: <a href="https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/search/tam/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/collections/TWITJWK4/search/tam/titleCreatorYear/items/A68FCWWI/item-list</a> §REF§ The Sultanate ended sometime within the thirteenth century CE.

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

2

East Africa

Tanzania, Burundi, Uganda, So Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea

{'id': 2, 'name': 'Africa'}

276

CnTuyhn

300

663

Tuyuhun

cn_tuyuhun

LEGACY

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

9

Mongolia

Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, the steppe part of Manchuria

{'id': 3, 'name': 'Central and Northern Eurasia'}

782

BdBhuyans

1,538

1,612

Twelve Bhuyans

bd_twelve_bhuyans

OTHER_TAG

null

{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

null

37

Eastern South Asia

Bangladesh + Indian states of West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and Sikkim

{'id': 9, 'name': 'South Asia'}

473

IqUbaid

-5,500

-4,201

Ubaid

iq_ubaid

LEGACY

The name of 'Ubaid polity' derives from the archaeological site - Tell al-Ubaid located about six km west of Ur along the Euphrates River in Southern Iraq. This socio-cultural entity is characterized by homogeneous material culture, mainly pottery ('black-on-buff pottery'). However the Ubaid is defined and perceived in various ways, e.gas archaeological culture, chronological period, cultural phenomenon, pottery style, 'oikumene' or interaction sphere. Among other elements of material culture typical for the Ubaid, the researchers mention usually the usage of flanged disc ('labrets'), clay nails and bent clay mullers, 'ophidian' figurines, stone mace-heads, tripartite architecture, niches-and-butressed public building as well as communal cemeteries with standardized grave goods. This period is often perceived as a first stage of development through complex urban society and the processes such as gradually urbanization of the settlement, social stratification as well as appearance of simple specialized manufacturing (especially agricultural, pottery making, weaving and wool production). §REF§ Yamazaki 2010, 326 §REF§ . Nowadays most of the researchers accepted the hypothesis regarding existence of elite class from at least the Late Ubaid period. It is embedded on five main arguments: usage of seals (called sometimes 'administrative tools'), erection of public buildings such as temples, two-tiered settlement pattern, mass production of some type of vessels (e. g. crude bowls), and production of high class of painted pottery used as a luxury goods. They believed that the system of increasing power of some group was intentionally masked by elite, therefore the presence of prestige objects or luxury goods is rather infrequent. There is presumed that the Ubaid depended rather on staple finance instead of wealth finance. Hence, there are very little traces of use of prestige goods or luxury items. §REF§ Kennedy 2012, 130 §REF§ , §REF§ Özbal 2010b, 43-44 §REF§ , §REF§ Stein 1994 §REF§ , §REF§ Frangipane 2007, 151-176 §REF§ , §REF§ Stein 1994, 41 §REF§ However there are also some rare voices opting for egalitarian system of the Ubaid society, e. g. Akkermans, Forest, Hole. §REF§ Akkermans 1989, 339-367 §REF§ , §REF§ Hole 1983, 315-334 §REF§ , §REF§ Oates et al. 2007, 585-600. §REF§

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{'id': 1, 'text': 'NO_PRIVATE_COMMENTS'}

8

Southern Mesopotamia

Levant-Mesopotamia

44.42

32.47

Babylon (Hillah)

IQ

Iraq

Southwest Asia

62

Mesopotamia

Iraq, Kuwait

{'id': 11, 'name': 'Southwest Asia'}